UNIT-IV

BIOMASS, WAVE AND TIDAL ENERGY SYSTEMS

Introduction
What is Biomass?
Biomass is renewable organic material from plants or animals that can be used to produce
energy in the form of heat. Biomass materials include wood and wood processing wastes
(pellets, chips, sawdust, and residue from pulp and paper mills), along with agricultural crops
(corn, soybeans, sugarcane, switch-grass) and solid wastes from municipal recycling (paper,
cotton, yard clippings).

The energy produced from biomass is the result of releasing the stored chemical energy
produced by the photosynthesis of the plant. This energy can be released by direct
combustion of the material or can be converted to a refined liquid or gas fuel by additional
chemical processes. Combustion is the most common method for using the energy from
biomass. All biomass can be burned to generate electricity or to produce heat required for
industrial applications.

The two main processes of energy conversion are

1) Thermal biomass energy conversion

2) Biological biomass energy conversion

1) Thermal biomass energy conversion:

Thermal conversion can happen in three ways. They are

i) Combustion,

ii) Pyrolysis and,

iii) Gasification

i) Combustion of course means that biomass is burned, similar to coal and oil, to make
electricity. When mixing biomass with coal, this co-firing process is very efficient. Solid
municipal waste is also burned to generate electricity.
 ii) Pyrolysis is a chemical process of decomposition of biomass materials. It is a heating
process without the involvement of oxygen. The recycling of used vehicle tyres use
pyrolysis.

iii) Gasification involves processes that turn parts of solid biomass materials into gas.

2. Biological biomass energy conversion

Biological biomass energy conversion can happen through digestion and fermentation of
biodegradable wastes occurs in large digester power plants where bacteria convert waste
into gas. The produced gas drives turbines that generate electricity from these wastes.
The solids that are left behind may be used as fertilizer, depending on the biomass
materials used.

4.1 Combustion
Biomass combustion is a complex process that consists of consecutive heterogeneous and
homogeneous reactions. The main process steps are drying, de-volatilization, gasification,
char combustion, and gas-phase oxidation. The time used for each reaction depends on the
fuel size and properties, on temperature, and on combustion conditions.

Batch combustion of a small particle shows a distinct separation between a volatile and a
char combustion phase with time. For the design of combustion appliances, the high content
of volatiles (80% to 85%) needs to be respected. For large particles, the phases overlap to a
certain extent. Nevertheless, even for log wood furnaces, a certain separation of distinct
combustion regimes with time can be found. Since automatic combustion systems are
operated continuously, the consecutive reactions occur simultaneously at different places in
the furnace (e.g., in different sections on and above a grate). Hence the zones for different
process steps during combustion can be optimized by furnace design.

A distinct separation of different process steps can be advantageous with respect to pollutant
formation. The main combustion parameter is the excess air ratio that describes the ratio
between the locally available and the stoichiometric amount of combustion air. For typical
biomass, the combustion reaction can then be described by the following equation if fuel
constituents such as N, K, Cl, etc., are neglected:
 4.3 Gasification
The process to convert biomass solid raw material into fuel gas or chemical feedstock gas
(synthesis gas (H2 and CO)) is called gasification or thermochemical gasification.

Gasification agent:

In order to convert solid biomass into inflammable gas, a substance to promote the chemical
reaction is necessary. This substance is called the gasification agent, and mainly air (N2, O2),
oxygen (O2), H2O, or CO2 are applied as an appropriate mixture. Air (only O2 reacts) and O2
heat by oxidation, and increased O2 decreases the effective amount of inflammable gas.

Fundamental phenomenon of biomass gasification:

Fundamental gasification processes are as follows:

(a) Evaporation of surface moisture

Surface moisture evaporates from the raw material at the water boiling point (depends on
pressure). Inner moisture remains when the raw material is large.

(b) Evaporation of inherent moisture

Following surface moisture evaporation, inherent moisture evaporates at 110-120°C.

(c) Volatilization

Thermal decomposition of biomass begins at 200-300°C, and CO, CO2, H2 and H2O are
vaporized as gas. Thermal decomposition is a heat generating reaction, which is a
characteristic phenomenon of biomass (CnHmOp).

(d) Volatilization and gasification reaction

The temperature is raised further during volatilization, and the volatile matter of the
lightweight hydrocarbons (CxHy: where x and y are integers of at least 1; a low value of x
indicates lightness and a high value of x indicates heaviness) is transformed into heavy
CxHy with a high boiling point. Subsequently, the CxHy reacts with the gasifying agent for
conversion to lightweight molecule clean gas, although tar and soot can form when diffusion
of the gasifying agent is slow and the CxHy condenses.

(e) Char gasification

Following volatilization of the volatile content in the raw material biomass, the fixed carbon
and ash become char, and the char is heated to the surrounding temperature. The subsequent
reaction with the gasifying agent transforms the carbon into CO and CO2. However, in cases
where the gasifying agent contains excess steam and the surrounding temperature is over
750°C, a wet gas reaction occurs (C+H2O, (CO+H2)) producing gas composed mainly of CO,
CO2 and H2.

(f) Char residue

The reaction rate of the wet gas reaction is slow, and char residue can easily form. The
formation of tar, soot and char tends to reduce efficiency, as well causing equipment trouble.

The most commonly built gasifiers are classified as:

Up draft gasifiers (fig. 1)

Down draft gasifiers (fig. 2)

Cross draft gasifiers (fig. 3)

 4.4 Anaerobic Digestion
The treatment of any slurry or sludge (mud)containing a large amount of organic matter
utilizing bacteria and other organisms under anaerobic condition is commonly referred as
anaerobic digestion. Anaerobic digestion consists of the following three stages: (i) the
enzymatic hydrolysis, (ii) acid formation and (iii) methane formation.

i) Enzymatic hydrolysis: In this stage, a group of facultative microorganisms acts upon the
organic matter and convert insoluble, complex, high molecular compounds of biomass into
simple, soluble, low molecular compounds. The organic substances such as polysaccharide,
protein and lipid (wax or oil) are converted into mono-saccharide, peptide, amino acids, and
fatty acids. Then they are further converted into acetate, propionate and butyrate.

ii) Acid formation: The micro-organisms of facultative and anaerobic group collectively called
as acid formers, hydrolyze and ferment the productions of first phase i.e., water soluble
substances into volatile acid. The major component of the volatile acid is the acetic acid. In
addition to acetate or hydrogen and carbon dioxide, some other acids like butyric acid and
propionic acid are also produced.

iii) Methane formation: Finally, acetate or hydrogen plus carbon dioxide are converted into
gas mixture of methane (CH4) and CO2 by the bacteria, which are strictly anaerobes. These
bacteria are called methane fermentators. For efficient digestion, these acid formers and
methane fermentators must remain in a state of dynamic equilibrium. The remaining
indigestible matter is referred as “slurry”.

4.5 Pyrolysis

Principles of Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is one of the most common methods in thermal conversion technology of biomass.
o
In pyrolysis, biomass is heated to moderate temperatures, 400-600 C. In the absence of
stoichiometric oxygen to produce oil that can be used as a feedstock in existing petroleum
refineries. This is a high throughput process that has a potential for requiring relatively low
o
capital investment. In gasification, biomass is heated to high temperatures, >700 C, to
produce a synthesis gas (H2 and CO), which can be converted in a catalytic step to liquid
transportation fuels.

This technology builds upon decades of experience with gasification of coal. Both approaches
have the potential advantages of being relatively insensitive to feedstock type, both suffer
from production of unwanted byproducts. In pyrolysis, oxygen-containing compounds
(aldehydes, ketones, phenolics and organic acids) make the oil too unstable and acidic for
introduction into existing pipelines, tankers and refineries.

Biomass Pyrolysis Techniques

Depending on the operating conditions, the pyrolysis process can be divided into three sub
classes. Conventional slow pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis and flash pyrolysis. The range of
important operating parameters for pyrolysis processes is given in the following table. At
present, the preferred technology is fast or flash pyrolysis at high temperature with very
short residence time.

Main operating parameters for pyrolysis process

Pyrolysis Processes

i) Slow pyrolysis:

Slow pyrolysis is a conventional pyrolysis process whereby the heating rate is kept slow
o
(approximately 0.1-1 C/s). This slow heating rate leads to higher char yield than the liquid
and gaseous products. Slow pyrolysis has been utilized for thousands of years primarily for
o
the production of charcoal. In slow wood pyrolysis, biomass is heated to ~500 C. The
vapour, residence time in the reactor, gas-phase products have ample opportunities to
continue to react with other products to form char.

ii) Fast Pyrolysis:

o
Fast pyrolysis uses much faster heating rates (about 10-200 C/s) and is considered as a
better process than slow pyrolysis for producing liquid or gases. In fast pyrolysis the liquid
product yield is higher since the fast heating rates allow the conversion of thermally unstable
biomass compounds to a liquid product before they form undesired coke. Typically, fast
pyrolysis processes produce 60-75 % wt of liquid bio oil, 15-20% wt of solid char and 10-20 %
wt of non- condensable gases depending on the feed stock used. Fast pyrolysis occurs on the
timescale of a few seconds or less. Therefore, chemical reaction kinetics, heat and mass
transfer processes and phase transition phenomena play important role in product
distributions.

iii) Flash pyrolysis:

Flash pyrolysis is an improved version of fast pyrolysis, whereby the heating rates are very
o
high, >1000 C/s, with reaction times of few to several seconds. Entrained flow or fluidized
bed reactors are considered the best reactors for this purpose. Due to the rapid heating rates
and short reaction times, for better yields, this process requires smaller particle size compared
to the other processes.

4.6 Biomass Cogeneration

Cogeneration is a combined production of heat and electricity, suitable for fossil fuel or
biofuel (biomass) combustion systems.

Steam Cycle

High temperature, high pressure steam is generated in the boiler and then enters the steam
turbine. In the steam turbine, the thermal energy of the steam is converted into mechanical
work. The low-pressure steam leaving the turbine enters the condenser housing and
condenses on the condenser tubes. The condensate is transported by the water supply system
to the boiler, where it is reused in a new cycle.

The process of producing electricity and heat from steam includes the following components:
a biomass combustion system (combustion chamber), a steam system (boiler plus
distribution systems), a steam turbine, an electricity generator and the heat distribution
system for heating from the condenser. At present, electricity and heat generation in biomass
power plants with a steam cycle remains the most developed technology, adapted to high
temperatures and high power; however, this technology is not suitable for cogeneration
systems with a power of less than 100 kW compared to its low electrical efficiency and high
investment costs.

Biomass cogeneration plants generally use grid combustion systems with a thermal
combustion capacity of 20 to 30 MW. In the case where chemically untreated wood biomass
is used, the steam temperature reaches 540 ̊ C. The achievable annual electrical efficiency
depends on the steam parameters (temperature and pressure) and the temperature level
required for the heating process. Annual electricity efficiencies generally range from 18% to
30% for biomass cogeneration plants and generate electricity between 2 and 25 MW. Below
are the advantages of the use of steam cycle:

 The use of water as a heat transfer fluid has great advantages, such as its high availability,
non-toxic, non-flammable, chemical stability, low viscosity (less friction losses);

 Thermal efficiency greater than 30%;

 Low pump consumption.

Major pollutant (chemical) produced from burning biomass is most dangerous: particle
pollution, known as soot.

4.7 Performance analysis and Testing

Biogas offers a sustainable and cost-effective source of energy along with several
environmental benefits. Socio-economic factors play an imperative role in adopting biogas
plants. On one hand, the number of animals, number of meals and distance from the city are
positively influencing households to adopt biogas technology. The number of animals played
a significant role in adopting biogas technology. Higher the chances of adopting biogas plants
due to abundance of animal manure. Reduction in burns is another key factor towards
adoption decision of biogas users, as due to this technology, firewood has been replaced with
gas stoves, which are safer, and provide an efficient source of energy. Moreover, this
technology has provided a convenient way of life particularly for rural women and saved a lot
of time that was being consumed in collecting firewood for preparing meals. Women get
more benefits from this technology as compared to men.
3 3
Biogas plants are of many different sizes starting from 4m to 10m and are being operated
3
in different villages at household levels. A biogas plant size of 10m size was found to be
the most economical biogas plant with the highest benefits. It is obvious from the result
that overall, the average performance efficiency of biogas plant is 82 percent. Thus, there
is stillroom for improvement to increase efficiency by 18 percent (100 percent) efficient level
can be attained. Even with the huge potential and several advantages of renewable energy,
the role of biogas technology still lags behind ambitious claims made because of initially
higher investment, lack of research in bioenergy field, inefficient practices of government
organisations and poor economic arrangements.
Biomass Testing Methods
Laboratory technicians test biomass samples to determine energy output, combustion
qualities, moisture levels, elemental components and more. The main elemental components
of biomass are carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen.
We offer the following testing methods from our accredited laboratories:

Proximate analysis: Proximate analysis tests a sample’s percentage of moisture, volatile

matter, fixed carbons and ash.

Ultimate analysis: Ultimate analysis quantifies a biomass sample’s elemental composition by

determining levels of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur.

Calorific value determination: Determining a sample’s calorific value specifies the amount of
heat it can produce.

Particle size analysis: Particle size analysis is the process of measuring the size of the
particles that make up the biomass sample. This assessment provides insight into combustion
efficiency, application-specific suitability and handling properties.

4.8 Case studies of Biomass systems for thermal applications and

Power generation
Introduction to Biomass Systems

 Biomass systems utilize organic materials like agricultural residues, wood chips,
animal waste, and dedicated energy crops to generate energy.
 They are employed for thermal applications (e.g., heating and steam generation) and
power generation through combustion, gasification, or anaerobic digestion.
 Benefits include carbon neutrality, waste management, and rural development.

Case Studies of Biomass Systems for Thermal Applications

1. Industrial Heat Generation

 Location: Denmark
 System: Wood chip-fired boiler system.
 Details:
o Used in a district heating system to supply heat to residential and industrial
 areas.
o High-efficiency boilers convert wood chips into hot water for central heating.
o CO₂ emissions reduced by 80% compared to fossil fuel systems.
 Outcome:
o Achieved significant energy cost savings and reduced dependency on fossil
fuels.

2. Agro-residue-based Boilers

 Location: India
 System: Rice husk-fired boiler for a rice mill.
 Details:
o Utilized rice husk, a by-product of rice milling, to generate steam for process
heating.
o The system replaced diesel-fired boilers, reducing operational costs and
emissions.
 Outcome:
o Enhanced energy efficiency by 25%.
o Demonstrated the economic viability of using agro-waste for thermal
applications.

3. Community Cooking Solutions

 Location: Kenya
 System: Biomass pellet stoves.
 Details:
o Introduced in rural communities to replace traditional open-fire cooking.
o Pellets made from agricultural waste provided clean, efficient combustion.
 Outcome:
o Reduced indoor air pollution and respiratory issues.
o Cut down wood fuel consumption by 50%.

Case Studies of Biomass Systems for Power Generation

1. Biogas Power Plant

 Location: Germany
 System: Anaerobic digestion plant using animal manure and food waste.
 Details:
o Produced biogas (methane) used in a combined heat and power (CHP) engine.
o Generated 2 MW of electricity for the local grid and heat for nearby facilities.
  Outcome:
o Avoided methane emissions from open manure storage.
o Enhanced sustainability of the local agricultural sector.

2. Sugar Mill Cogeneration

 Location: Brazil
 System: Bagasse-fired power plant.
 Details:
o Bagasse (sugarcane residue) was used to generate steam and electricity in a
cogeneration system.
o Supplied surplus electricity to the national grid.
 Outcome:
o Improved energy efficiency by integrating heat and power production.
o Provided renewable energy for 20,000 homes annually.

3. Gasification-Based Power Plant

 Location: Thailand
 System: Rice husk gasification.
 Details:
o Gasifier converted rice husk into syngas, used to run an internal combustion
engine.
o Generated 500 kW of electricity for a local community.
 Outcome:
o Reduced dependency on diesel generators.
o Created additional income streams for rice farmers by utilizing waste.

Key Lessons from Case Studies

1. Economic Viability:
o Biomass systems can lower operational costs when utilizing locally available
feedstock.
o High upfront costs are offset by long-term savings and subsidies.
2. Environmental Benefits:
o Significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuels.
o Efficient waste management minimizes environmental pollution.
3. Challenges:
o Feedstock supply chain management is critical for consistent operation.
o Technological and financial barriers need to be addressed, especially in
 developing countries.
4. Scalability and Community Impact:
o Systems tailored to local needs and resources can achieve high acceptance.
o Positive social impact includes job creation and improved health outcomes.
5. Policy Support:
o Incentives, subsidies, and supportive regulations are crucial for widespread
adoption.

4.9 Principles of Tidal Power Generation

Define Tide?

The periodic rise and fall of the water level of sea, which is carried by the action of sun
and moon on water of the earth is called the tide.

Ocean energy: There are two types of energy that can be produced by the ocean: thermal
energy from the sun’s heat and mechanical energy from the motion of tides and waves.
Ocean thermal energy can be converted into electricity using a few different systems that
rely on warm surface water temperatures. “Ocean mechanical energy” harnesses the ebbs
(receding tides) and flows of tides caused by the rotation of the earth and the gravitational
influence of the moon. Energy from wind-driven waves can also be converted and used to
help reduce one’s electricity costs. There are also lesser-developed technologies that leverage
ocean currents, ocean winds and salinity gradients as sources of power conversion. Cold
ocean water from deep below the surface can be used to cool buildings (with desalinated
(purified) water often produced as a by-product), and seaside communities can employ the
methods to tap natural ocean energy described above to supplement municipal power and
energy needs. Ocean energy is an evolving source of alternative energy production, and with
more than 70 percent of the surface of our planet covered by ocean, its future looks
promising, depending on geographies and regulatory guidelines.

Tidal Energy Generator

The energy obtained from the rise and fall of tides is called tidal energy.

Tidal barrages or dams are constructed across a narrow opening to the sea. Water rushes
into the dam when the sea level rises. This moves the blades of the turbines, which are
attached at the opening of the dam. This results in the generation of electricity.

Working principle of Tidal power plants

Tide is periodic rise and fall of water level of the sea. Tides occur due to the attraction of
seawater by the moon. Tides contain large amount of potential energy, which is used for
power generation. When the water is above the mean sea level, it is called flood tide. When
the water level is below the mean level it is called ebb tide.

Working

The arrangement of this system is shown in figure. The ocean tides rise and fall and water
can be stored during the rise period and it can be discharged during fall. A dam is constructed
separating the tidal basin from the sea and a difference in water level is obtained between
the basin and sea.

During high tide period, water flows from the sea into the tidal basin through the water
turbine. The height of tide is above that of tidal basin. Hence the turbine unit operates and
generates power, as it is directly coupled to a generator.

During low tide period, water flows from tidal basin to sea, as the water level in the basin is
more than that of the tide in the sea. During this period also, the flowing water rotates the
turbine and generator power.

The generation of power stops only when the sea level and the tidal basin level are equal. For
the generation of power economically using this source of energy requires some minimum
tide height and suitable site. Kislaya power plant of 250 MW capacity in Russia and Rance
power plant in France are the only examples of this type of power plant.
 4.10 Principles of Wave Power Generation

What is Wave Energy?

Wave energy is a form of renewable energy that can be harnessed from the motion of the
waves. There are several methods of harnessing wave energy that involve placing electricity
generators on the surface of the ocean.

Wave Energy Uses the Power of the Waves.

Ocean wave energy, or just simply Wave Energy, is another type of ocean based renewable
energy source that uses the power of the waves to generate electricity. Unlike tidal energy,
which uses the ebb and flow of the tides, wave energy uses the vertical movement of the
surface water that produce waves.

Wave power converts the periodic up-and-down movement of the oceans waves into
electricity by placing equipment on the surface of the oceans that captures the energy
produced by the wave movement and converts this mechanical energy into electrical power.

Wave energy is actually a concentrated form of solar power generated by the action of the
wind blowing across the oceans surface. As the suns rays strike the Earth’s atmosphere, they
warm it up. Differences in the temperature of the air masses around the globe causes the air
to move from the hotter regions to the cooler regions, resulting in winds.

Wave Energy Advantages

 Wave energy is an abundant and clean energy resource as the waves are generated by the
wind.

 Pollution free as wave energy generates little or no pollution to the environment compared
to other green energies.

 Reduces dependency on fossil fuels as wave energy consumes no fossil fuels during
operation.
 Wave energy is relatively consistent and predictable as waves can be accurately forecast
several days in advance.

 Wave energy devices are modular and easily sited with additional wave energy devices
added as needed.

 Dissipates the waves’ energy protecting the shoreline from coastal erosion.

 Presents no barriers or difficulty to migrating fish and aquatic animals.

Wave Energy Disadvantages

1. Visual impact of wave energy conversion devices on the shoreline and offshore floating
buoys or platforms.

2. Wave energy conversion devices are location dependent requiring suitable sites were the
waves are consistently strong.

3. Intermittent power generation as the waves come in intervals and does not generate power
during calm periods.

4. Offshore wave energy devices can be a threat to navigation that cannot see or detect them
by radar.

5. High power distribution costs to send the generated power from offshore devices to the
land using long underwater cables.

6. They must be able to withstand forces of nature resulting in high capital, construction and
maintenance costs.

4.11 Difference between tidal and wave power generations

The main difference between wave and tidal energy lies in their source. Wave energy is
derived from the wind's interaction with the ocean surface, while tidal energy is a result of
gravitational forces. Additionally, the technologies used to harness each type of energy differ.

The difference between Tidal Energy and Wave Energy are as follows:

Tidal Energy Wave Energy

 1. It is harnessed from the rise and fall of sea 1. It is harnessed from waves moving along the
levels. surface of the ocean.

2. It occurs due to the gravitational pull of

2. It occurs due to wind.
the moon and sun on the Earth.

3. Its intensity is affected by the location

3. Its intensity is affected by wind strength.
and position of the Earth.

4. It includes two types of energy- 4. It includes only one types of energy- kinetic
kinetic energy and potential energy. energy.

5. It is harnessed by using barrages, dams, 5. It is harnessed using offshore and onshore

tidal fences and tidal turbines. systems.

6. It is not a continuous source of energy as

it is generated for about 6-12 hours at a 6. It is a continuous source of energy.
time.

7. It is less reliable since it is based on the effect

7. It is more reliable since it is based on the
of the strength of the wind on the surface of the
gravitational pull of the moon and sun.
water.

8. Its start-up cost is very high, due to its design

8. Its construction cost is high, but the
and development, which is required for the
maintenance cost is low.
technology.

4.12 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION (OTEC)

POWER PLANTS
The ocean and seas constitute about 70% of the earth’s surface area and hence they
represent a large storage reservoir of the solar energy. In tropical waters, the surface water
temperature is about 27°C and at 1 km directly below, the temperature is about 4°C. The
reservoir of surface water may be considered a heat source and the reservoir of cold water (1
km below) is considered a heat sink. The concept of ocean thermal energy conversion is
based on the utilization of temperature difference between the heat source and the sink in a
heat engine to generate power.

The temperature gradient present in the ocean is utilized in a heat engine to generate
power. This is called OTEC. Since the temperature gradient is very small, even in the tropical
region, OTEC systems have very low efficiencies and very high capital costs. There are two
basic designs for OTEC systems.

i) Open cycle or Claude cycle.

ii) Closed cycle or Anderson cycle.

i) Open cycle or Claude cycle

In this cycle, the seawater plays a multiple role of a heat source, working fluid, coolant and
heat sink. Warm surface water enters an evaporator where the water is flash evaporated to
steam under particle vacuum. Low pressure is maintained in the evaporator by a vacuum
pump. The low pressure so maintained removes the non- condensable gases from the
evaporator. The steam and water mixture from evaporator then enters a turbine, driving it
thus generating electricity. The exhaust from the turbine is mixed with cold water from deep
Ocean in a direct contact condenser and is discharged to the ocean. The cycle is then repeated.
Since the condensate is discharged to the ocean, the cycle is called open cycle.
Flash evaporation

In the evaporator the pressure is maintained at a value (0.0317 bar) slightly lower than the
saturation pressure of warm surface water at 27°C (0.0356 bar). Hence, when the surface
water enters the evaporator, it gets ‘superheated’. This super heated water undergoes volume
boiling, causing the water to partially flash to steam.

ii) Closed OTEC cycle

Here, a separate working fluid such as ammonia, propane or Freon is used in addition to water.
The warm surface water is pumped to a boiler by a pump. This warm water gives up its heat
to the secondary working fluid thereby losing its energy and is discharged back to the surface
of the ocean. The vapours of the secondary working fluid generated in the boiler, drive a
turbine generating power. The exhaust from the turbine is cooled in a surface condenser by
using cold deep seawater, and is then circulated back to the boiler by a pump.
Advantages of OTEC

1. Ocean is an infinite heat reservoir, which receives solar incidence throughout the year.

2. Energy is freely available.

Disadvantage of OTEC

1. Efficiency is very low, about 2.5%, as compared to 30-40% efficiency for conventional
power plants.

2. Capital cost is very high.

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