Unit-II

Solar Energy
2.1Definition

What is solar energy?

Solar energy is the radiation from the sun capable of producing heat, causing chemical
reactions, or generating electricity.
2.2 Energy available from Sun
Sun is the ultimate source of energy for the earth. The sun is the source of life on our planet
earth and directly (or) indirectly is the fuel for most renewable systems. The radiant energy
emitted by the sun is called solar energy and it is a renewable energy source.
Energy that the earth receives from the sun is in the form of heat and light.
Deep in the core of the sun, hydrogen atoms react by thermos- nuclear fusion, then they
produce large amount of energy. This energy travels 93 million miles and reaches the earth in
8 minutes.
The different forms of energy on the earth originate from the sun. The solar energy can be
converted into different forms of energies as follows:
 Plants convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy (food) by the process of
photosynthesis. Animals including human needs plants for food and oxygen they
produce. Vitamin-D is produced in human bodies by absorbing sunrays.
 Heat energy from the sun causes changing weather pastures, that produces wind and
wind turbines then convert wind power into electric energy.
 The heat energy from the sun can be converted into electric energy in
hydroelectricity process.
 The fossil fuels such as coal, oil, natural gas can be created from fossilized living
matter (animals and plants) through the photosynthesis process.
 Sunlight can be used to produce electricity from solar photovoltaic cells. So, sun is
one of the most sources of energy.
Solar Radiation:
Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun from a nuclear fusion that converts
electromagnetic energy. It is also known as short wave radiation. Solar radiation comes in
many forms such a visible light, radio waves, heat (infrared), x-rays and ultraviolet rays.
The spectrum of solar radiation is close to that of a black body with a temperature of about
5800k.
Above half of the radiation is in the visible short wave part of the electro-magnetic
spectrum.
The other half is mostly in the near infrared part, with some in the ultraviolet part of the
system.
The sun radiates energy as electromagnetic waves of which 99% have wavelengths in the
range of 0.2 to 4.0 micrometer (1 micrometer = 10-6 meter). Solar energy reaching the top
of the earth’s atmosphere consists of about

 8% ultra violet radiation [short wave length >0.39 micrometer]

 46% visible light [0.39 to 0.78 micrometer]

 46 % infrared [0.78 micro meter above]

The total radiation from the sun is 5762 degrees K.

26
The luminosity of the Sun is about 3.86 x 10 watts. This is the total power radiated out
into space by the Sun. Most of this radiation is in the visible and infrared part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, with less than 1 % emitted in the radio, UV and X-ray spectral
bands. The sun’s energy is radiated uniformly in all directions. The power of the sun at the
earth, per square meter is called the solar constant and is approximately 1370 watts per
2
square meter (W /m ).

As the solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, it gets absorbed, scattered, reflected, or
transmitted.

The following main losses should be noted:

absorbed by particles and molecules in the atmosphere - 10-30%

reflected and scattered back to space - 2-11%

scattered to earth (direct radiation becomes diffuse) - 5-26%

As a result, the direct radiation reaching the earth surface (or a device installed on the earth
surface) never exceeds 83% of the original extraterrestrial energy flux. This radiation that
comes directly from the solar disk is defined as beam radiation.

The scattered and reflected radiation that is sent to the earth surface from all directions
(reflected from other bodies, molecules, particles, droplets, etc.) is defined as diffuse
radiation. The sum of the beam and diffuse components is defined as total (or global)
radiation. The beam radiation can be concentrated, while the diffuse radiation, in many cases,
cannot be concentrated.

Short-wave radiation, in the wavelength range from 0.3 to 3 μm, comes directly from the
sun. It includes both beam and diffuse components.

Long-wave radiation, with wavelength 3 μm or longer, originates from the sources at near-
ambient temperatures - atmosphere, earth surface, light collectors, other bodies.

Two atmospheric processes can significantly affect the incident irradiation: scattering and
absorption. Scattering is caused by interaction of the radiation with molecules, water and
dust particles in the air. Absorption occurs upon interaction of the radiation with certain
molecules, such as ozone (absorption of short-wave radiation - ultraviolet), water vapour,
and carbon dioxide (absorption of long- wave radiation - infrared).

Due to these processes, out of the whole spectrum of solar radiation, only a small portion
reaches the earth surface.
2
The unit to measure solar radiation is watt/m . The different form of solar radiation is
represented in the below table:
Solar radiation= Thermal radiation + electromagnetic radiation.
Solar radiation that can’t be absorbed (or) catered and reaches the ground directly from sun
is called direct radiation (or) beam radiation. Solar radiation received from the sun after its
direction is changed by reflection and scattering by atmosphere is called diffuse radiation.
The sum of direct and diffuse radiation is called total (or) global solar radiation. One of the
main cause of climate changes due to solar radiation.
The sum of direct and diffuse radiation gives the total solar radiation received at any point
on the earth surface.
The solar energy can be reached the earth by the following processes:
1. Reflection: 30% of incoming solar radiation is reflected back to space.
2. Absorption: 19% of solar radiation is absorbed by atmosphere.
3. Absorption by the earth surface: 51% of the solar energy at the top of the atmosphere
reaches earth surface and it heats land and oceans.

2.3 Solar radiation data

Solar radiation data provide information on how much of the sun's energy strikes a
surface at a location on earth during a particular time period. The data give values of
energy per unit of area.

By showing naturally occurring changes in the amount of solar radiation over the
course of days, months, and years, these data determine the amount of solar radiation
for a location. The units of measurement are expressed as kilowatt-hours per square
2
meter (kWh / m ).

The more accurately we know the solar resource, the better we can optimize the
system. Therefore, accurate solar radiation data is the important factor for solar
system design.

The earth receives a vast amount of energy from the sun in the form of solar
radiation. If we converted to usable energy just 0.2% of the solar radiation that falls
on our nation, we would meet the energy demand of the entire United States. A
variety of solar energy technologies are being developed to harness the sun's energy
including:

• Solar electric (photovoltaic) for converting sunlight directly into electricity;

•Solar heat (thermal) for heating water for industrial and household uses;

• Solar thermal electric for producing steam to run turbines that generate electricity;

• Solar fuel technologies for converting biomass (plants, crops, and trees) into fuels
and by-products;

• Passive solar for lighting and heating buildings; and

• Solar detoxification for destroying hazardous waste with concentrated sunlight.

 Irradiance: The amount of solar power received from the Sun per unit area is known
as irradiance.
2
Sun’s energy reaches the earth’s atmosphere at a peak value of 1.367kW/m ; this is
recognized as the solar constant.

2.4 Solar energy conversion into heat

Solar energy can be transformed into thermal energy through various methods, with the most
common being the use of solar thermal collectors. Here's a basic overview of how this
conversion process works:

1. Solar thermal collectors: Solar thermal collectors are devices that absorb sunlight
and convert it into heat. These collectors are typically flat panels made of materials
that can efficiently absorb solar radiation, such as glass or metal. The most
common types of solar thermal collectors are flat-plate collectors and evacuated
tube collectors.
2. Absorption of sunlight: When sunlight hits the surface of a solar thermal collector,
the material absorbs the solar radiation and converts it into heat. This process is
known as the photo-thermal effect.
3. Heat transfer: The absorbed heat is transferred to a fluid circulating within the solar
thermal collector. This fluid is often a heat transfer fluid such as water or special
heat transfer oil. As the fluid absorbs heat, its temperature increases.
4. Heat storage or immediate use: The heated fluid can be stored in a thermal storage
tank for later use or used immediately to provide hot water, space heating, or to
drive a turbine for electricity generation.
5. Distribution of thermal energy: The stored or immediate thermal energy can be
used in various applications such as heating buildings, producing hot water for
domestic use, or generating electricity through steam turbines.
Overall, the process of transforming solar energy into thermal energy involves capturing
sunlight with solar thermal collectors, converting it into heat, transferring this heat to a fluid,
and then utilizing the heated fluid for various applications.
2.5 Flat plate and Concentrating collectors
Solar Energy Collectors: Solar energy collectors are the device used for collecting the
solar radiations and focus the solar radiations at particular location to transfer the heat
energy into the solar ponds or fluid. Generally, two types of collectors are used first is non-
concentrating or flat plate type solar collector which is used for low temperature cycle and
second one is concentrating or focusing type solar collector which are used for medium and
high temperature applications. Flat plate collectors are very simple; the collecting area is
equal to absorbing area where as focusing type collector has several arrangements of mirrors
and lenses for proper concentration of sunlight. Due to this by using focus type collectors we
can capture 100 times solar radiation as compared to flat plate collector keeping the area
same. By using focusing type collector we can directly generate medium pressure steam.
Solar collectors are classified as
1. Non - Concentrating type:
i) Flat-Plate Collectors
ii) Evacuated-Tube Collector
2. Concentrating type:
i) Parabolic trough collector
ii) Power tower receiver
iii) Parabolic dish collector
iv) Fresnel lens collector.

2.5.1 Non-Concentrating type

i) Flat-Plate Collectors
Flat-plate solar collectors are the most common ones. They consist of an absorber, a
transparent cover and insulation. The main use of the technology is usually in residential
buildings where the demand for hot water is big and affects bills. Commercial application of
flat-plate collectors is usually seen in car washes, military laundry facilities or restaurants.
The parts of flat plate collectors are:
Black surface - absorbent of the incident solar energy
Glazing cover - a transparent layer that transmits radiation to the absorber, but prevents
radiative and convective heat loss from the surface
Tubes containing heating fluid to transfer the heat from the collector
Support structure to protect the components and hold them in place
Insulation covering sides and bottom of the collector to reduce heat losses. Flat-plate solar
collectors show a good price-performance ratio and also give a lot of mounting options.

ii) Evacuated-Tube Collector

Evacuated tube collector is a simple device, which collects the solar energy and
converts it into useful applicable forms. Evacuated-tube collectors are efficient at high
temperatures. The influencing applications of evacuated tube collector are found to be
water heating, air heating and desalination. The compatibility of heat pipes with flat
plate collector makes it more potential technology in terms of higher outlet
temperature and higher efficiencies. This is a type of a vacuum collector. The
collectors are usually made of parallel rows of transparent glass tubes. Each tube
contains a glass outer tube and metal absorber tube attached to a fin. The fin is
covered with a coating that absorbs solar energy well, but which inhibits radiative
heat loss. Air is removed, or evacuated, from the space between the two glass tubes
to form a vacuum, which eliminates conductive and convective heat loss.

Heat-pipe: these collectors can be equipped with a heat-pipe system for the recovery
of heat from the absorber. Inside each tube, made of glass, there is an additional pipe
made of copper, filled with an alcoholic solution able to evaporate at low temperatures.

The technology is very reliable as it has an estimated life span of 25 years. The
vacuum that surrounds the outside of the tubes greatly reduces the risk of heat loss;
therefore efficiency is greater than it is with flat-plate collectors.
 2.5.2 Concentrating type

i) Parabolic Trough Collector

It is a line focusing type collector. In this type of collector, the solar radiations falling on the
area of the parabolic reflector are concentrated at the focus of the parabola.

 When the reflector is manufactured in the form of a trough with the parabolic cross-section,
the solar radiations get focused along a line. An absorber pipe is placed along this line and a
working fluid (usually synthetic oil or water) flows through it.

 When the focused solar radiations fall on the absorber pipe, it heats the fluid to a high
temperature. Then the heat absorbed by the working fluid is transferred to water for
producing steam.

 The focus of solar radiations changes with the change in sun’s elevation. In order to focus
the solar radiations on the absorber pipe, either the trough or the collector pipe is rotated
continuously about the axis of the absorber pipe.
 ii) Power Tower Receiver
In this collector, the receiver is located at the top of the tower. It has a large number of
independently-moving flat mirrors (heliostats) spread over a large area of ground to focus the
reflected solar radiations on the receiver. The heliostats are installed all around the central
tower. Each heliostat is rotated into two directions so as to track the sun. The solar
radiations reflected from heliostats are absorbed by the receiver mounted on a tower of about
500 m height. The tower supports a bundle of vertical tubes containing the working fluid.
The working fluid in the absorber receiver is converted into the high-temperature steam of
o o
about 600 C – 700 C. This steam is supplied to a conventional steam power plant coupled to
an electric generator to generate electric power.

iii) Parabolic Dish Collector

 In these collectors, the receiver is placed at the focal point of the concentrator. The solar
beam radiations are focused at a point where the receiver (absorber) is placed. The solar
radiations are collected in the receiver.
 A small volume of fluid is heated in the receiver to a high temperature. This heat is used
to run a prime mover coupled with a generator.
 A typical parabolic dish collector has a dish of 6 m diameter. This collector requires two-
0
axis tracking. It can yield temperatures up to 3000 C.
 Due to the limitations of size and the small quantity of fluid, dish type solar collectors are
suitable for only small power generation (up to few kW).

iv) Fresnel lens Concentrating Collector

 In this collector, a Fresnel lens, which consists of fine, linear grooves on the surface of
refracting material of optical quality on one side and flat on the other side is used.
 The angle of each groove is so designed that the optical behaviour of the Fresnel lens is
similar to that of a common lens.
 The solar radiations, which fall normally to the lens are refracted by the lens and are
focused on a line where the absorber tube (receiver) is placed to absorb solar radiations.

2.6 Principle of Natural and Forced Convection

2.6.1 Free and Forced convection: Convection is the transfer of heat to or from a moving
fluid, which may be liquid or gas. Since the movement continually brings unheated fluid to
the source, or sink, of heat, convection produces more rapid heat transfer than conduction
through the stationary fluid.

In free convection (sometimes called natural convection) the movement is caused by the
heat flow itself. Consider the fluid in contact with the hot surfaces of Figure 3.3; for example,
water against the inside surfaces of a boiler or a solar collector. Initially the fluid absorbs
energy by conduction from the hot surface, and so the fluid density decreases by volume
expansion. The heated portion then rises through the unheated fluid, thereby transporting
heat physically upwards, but down the temperature gradient.
In forced convection the fluid is moved across a surface by an external agency such as a
pump (e.g. water in a solar collector to a storage tank below) or wind (e.g. heat loss from
the outside surfaces of a solar collector). The movement occurs independently of the heat
transfer (i.e. is not a function of the local temperature gradients). Obviously convection is
usually partly forced and partly free, yet usually one process dominates.
2.7 Energy Storage Systems
Thermal Energy storage system with Phase change materials
Phase change materials (PCMs) are materials that undergo the solid to liquid phase
transformation. As a material changes phase from a solid to a liquid, it absorbs energy from
its surroundings while remaining at a constant or nearly constant temperature. The energy
that is absorbed by the material acts to increase the energy of the constituent atoms or
molecules, increasing their vibrational state. At the melt temperature the atomic bonds loosen
and the materials transitions from a solid to a liquid.
Solidification is the reverse of this process, during which the material transfers energy to its
surroundings and the molecules lose energy and order themselves into their solid phase. This
can be seen in Fig. 16.a. The energy that is either absorbed or released during the melting to
solidification cycle is known as the latent heat of fusion. Latent heat is unique in that it is
heat that is absorbed into a material without the material itself increasing in temperature.

It is easy to picture this process by considering the melting of an ice cube. You can heat the
ice cube by exposing it to ambient room temperature conditions, by heating it with a hair
dryer, or by blasting it with a blowtorch, but no matter how much heat flux is supplied to it,
that ice cube will not increase in temperature until the melting process is complete. The
latent heat absorbed during the melting process is referred to as the latent heat of fusion, in
order to distinguish it from the other form of latent heat, the latent heat of vaporization,
which characterizes the change in phase from a liquid to a gas. In contrast to latent heat,
which does not increase the temperature of a material, sensible heat is that heat which does
result in a change in temperature within the material.

A standard continuous heating process may begin with a sub-cooled solid, which is heated to
the melting point through sensible heating. As the heating process continues the solid
transitions to a liquid through the latent of heat fusion, and sensible heat then increases its
temperature to the boiling point. Once the boiling point is reached, the liquid transitions to a
vapour through the latent heat of vaporization until the phase change process is complete.
Any additional heating is now in the form of sensible heat, which acts to superheat the
vapour. It can be seen in Fig. 16.b that the latent heat of vaporization is a higher energy
process than the latent heat of fusion.

It is true that in general that the boiling/condensation process absorbs/and releases more
energy, but the density change from a liquid to a vapour is large, and working with boilers
and condensers often requires a significant amount of support equipment which is not always
convenient. There are of course many applications for boiling heat transfer, but here we will
concentrate on the applications for which a solid- liquid phase change process is most
advantageous. The amount of energy absorption or release during the melting-solidification
cycle is governed by the value of that material‘s latent heat of fusion. The latent heat of
fusion is commonly expressed in units of J/g or kJ/kg. Thus the process is a mass-based
process. The amount of energy absorbed by the material during melting depends solely on the
mass of material present in the design.

2.8 Case studies of solar thermal systems for residential water heating
Solar water heater:

The solar water heating systems come with a solar collector of 25 sq. m area for solar
tank of 100 litre capacity. It occupies an area of 35 sq. ft. on the roof- top. The
water is loaded in the daytime and is stored in the storage tank for a period of 48
hours. This system can be connected to bathrooms and kitchen. Generally, the life of
the system is about 15 years and it requires no maintenance.

The collector is having 20 gauge G.I.(Galvanised Iron) corrugated (uneven) sheet as

absorber with 12 mm. G.I. pipes as heat exchanger laid in the corrugations of the
sheet in serpent fashion. The absorber and the pipes are painted black and embedded
in a wooden box insulated at the bottom and sides. The ends of the pipe are
connected to the insulated storage drum, which is kept just above the collector. The
collector is kept on an angle iron stand such that the flat plate is at 11° slope facing
south. Hot water temperature is 55 - 63° C on a typical sunny day and heat loss due
to overnight storage is about 4 to 8°C.
Fig : solar water heater

1. Insulated water tank 2. Water inlet 3. Water outlet 4. Tank support 5. Frame 6.
Liquid pipe 7. Absorber 8. Water line
 2.9 Photo Voltaic Cell

Photovoltaic Effect:
The photovoltaic effect is a process that generates voltage or electric current in a
photovoltaic cell when it is exposed to sunlight. These solar cells are composed of two
different types of semiconductors—a p-type and an n-type that are joined together to create
a p-n junction. By joining these two types of semiconductors, an electric field is formed in
the region of the junction as electrons move to the positive p- side and holes move to the
negative n-side. This field causes negatively charged particles to move in one direction and
positively charged particles in the other direction.

Light is composed of photons, which are simply small bundles of electromagnetic radiation
or energy. When light of a suitable wavelength is incident on these cells, energy from the
photon is transferred to an electron of the semiconducting material, causing it to jump to a
higher energy state known as the conduction band. In their excited state in the conduction
band, these electrons are free to move through the material, and it is this motion of the
electron that creates an electric current in the cell.

Cell: A photovoltaic cell is the most basic unit of a solar PV system - solar cells can be either
mono-crystalline or polycrystalline, and their key characteristic is that they produce a
voltage output when exposed to light. It is important to note that although they are
normally called "solar cells", they can respond to any type of light. Each cell produces
approximately 1/2 a volt and a solar module can have any number of solar cells.

Module: A photovoltaic module consists of multiple PV cells connected in series to

provide a higher voltage output. PV modules are manufactured in standard sizes. A
solar module designed for charging a 12 volt battery will typically have 36 solar cells
while the typical residential grid connected system uses solar modules with 60 solar
cells. For large commercial and utility scale solar systems, solar modules will have
typically 72 solar cells. By increasing the number of solar cells the module voltage and
wattage increases. The term solar panel is sometimes used interchangeably with solar
module.

Array: A photovoltaic array is a system composed of multiple PV modules. They can

be connected in one or more series circuits, which are connected to a combiner box
to provide a single direct- current output. This output can be used to charge batteries,
power DC loads, or fed to an inverter to provide an AC voltage for home appliances or
 exporting to the electric grid.

Operation of PV Systems: Solar cells produce direct current (DC), therefore they are only
used for DC equipment. If alternating current (AC) is needed for AC equipment or backup
energy is needed, solar photovoltaic systems require other components in addition to solar
modules. These components are specially designed to integrate into solar PV system. The
components of solar photovoltaic system are shown in the figure.

Solar or Photovoltaic Module is the essential component of any solar PV system that
converts sunlight directly into DC electricity.

Solar Charge Controller regulates voltage and current from solar arrays, charges the battery,
prevents battery from overcharging and also performs controlled over discharges.
Battery stores the energy produced from solar arrays for using when sunlight is not visible,
nighttime or other purposes.

Inverter is a critical component of any solar PV system that converts DC power output of
solar arrays into AC for AC appliances.

Lightning protection prevents electrical equipment from damages caused by lightning or

induction of high voltage surge. It is required for the large size and critical solar PV systems,
which include efficient grounding.
Series and parallel connections
Depending on the equipment that the system uses and the size of the system, your solar
installer may decide to wire your solar panels in series, in parallel, or in a combination of the
two. Here are the fundamental differences between wiring solar panels in series vs. in parallel:

Wiring solar panels in series: When a solar installer wires your solar panels in a
series, each panel is connected to the next in a “string”. The total voltage of each
solar panel is summed together, but the amps of electrical current stay the same.

Wiring solar panels in parallel: When an installer wires your solar panels in parallel,
each panel‘s wires are connected to a centralized wire leading from the roof. The
amps of electrical current for each solar panel are summed together, but the system
voltage stays the same.

2.10 Industrial heating and power generation

Solar-thermal power can replace fossil fuels in a wide variety of industrial
applications, including petroleum refining, chemical production, iron and steel, cement,
and the food and beverage industries. Heat is vital to the production of almost
everything we use on a daily basis: from cosmetics and textiles to steel and computer
chips.
This can be done either through concentrating solar-thermal power (CSP) technologies
or by using resistive heaters or heat pumps powered by photovoltaic panels. When
concentrating solar-thermal energy is used for industrial processes, mirrors are used to
concentrate sunlight onto a receiver, which can readily reach very high temperatures,
compared to electric heaters.

When CSP is used for industrial processes, the concentrated sunlight heats a heat
transfer fluid, which can be used to deliver heat for storage or provide the heat needed
for industrial applications, known as industrial heat. Industrial heat refers to heat that
is used to transform materials into useful products. Converting energy from sunlight
directly to thermal energy reduces energy losses, making its application in industrial
processes highly efficient and cost effective. In some cases, the focused sunlight can
be delivered directly to the thermal process and at the required temperatures,
alleviating the need for intermediary materials and processes.

Because CSP is capable of reaching a wide range of temperatures, it is well suited for
many industrial applications, from relatively low-temperature food-production
processes to chemical processes that require very high temperatures.

2.10 Maximum Power Point Tracking

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is an algorithm that is included in charge

controllers used for extracting maximum available power from PV module under
certain conditions. The voltage at which PV module can produce maximum power is
called maximum power point voltage (or peak power voltage). Maximum power
varies with solar radiation, ambient temperature and solar cell temperature.

Typical PV module produces power with maximum power voltage of around 17 V

when measured at a cell temperature of 25°C, it can drop to around 15 V on a very hot
day and it can also rise to 18 V on a very cold day.

The major principle of MPPT is to extract the maximum available power from PV
module by making them operate at the most efficient voltage (maximum power
point). MPPT checks output of PV module, compares it to battery voltage then fixes
what is the best power that PV module can produce to charge the battery and
converts it to the best voltage to get maximum current into battery. It can also
supply power to a DC load, which is connected directly to the battery.

MPPT is most effective under these conditions:

 Cold weather, cloudy or hazy (foggy) days: Normally, PV module works better at
cold temperatures and MPPT is utilized to extract maximum power available from
them.

 When battery is deeply discharged: MPPT can extract more current and charge the
battery if the state of charge in the battery is lowers.
 2.11 Battery characteristics
The following battery characteristics must be taken into consideration when selecting a
battery:

 Type
 Voltage
 Discharge curve
 Capacity
 Energy density
 Specific energy density
 Power density
 Temperature dependence
 Service life
 Physical requirements
 Charge/discharge cycle
 Cycle life
 Cost
 Ability to deep discharge
 Application requirements
 1. Types

Battery types for solar power

Batteries are classified according to the type of manufacturing technology as

well as the electrolytes used.
The types of solar batteries most used in photovoltaic installations are lead-acid
batteries due to the price ratio for available energy. Its efficiency is 85-95%,
while Ni-Cad is 65%.

Undoubtedly the best batteries would be lithium-ion batteries, the ones used in
mobiles. However, the lithium battery is not economically viable for this
application.

Lead acid batteries for solar applications

Lead acid batteries are the oldest rechargeable batteries. These batteries can
deliver high currents; therefore, their cells have a high power density.

This characteristic and their low price make them suitable for many applications,
particularly solar energy, solar kits, and motor vehicles. After all, they can
deliver the high intensity that starters need.

Because they are cheaper than any other type of battery, lead-acid batteries are
widely used.

However, these batteries have a low energy density in terms of volume and
weight.

So if you want to accumulate large amounts of energy, the size of the battery
will have to be very large. For this reason, it would not be the best choice for
applications that require an offset—typically used in large spaces.

All lead acid batteries fail prematurely when not fully recharged after each cycle.

If a lead-acid battery is left discharged (for days) at any time, it will cause a
permanent loss of capacity.
Liquid batteries - liquid electrolyte

Liquid batteries store energy using a rechargeable fuel made of electrodes or

nanoparticles. This fuel is in a liquid state.

There are two types of liquid batteries:

 Open, with lids that allow the water to change.

 In a sealed way, closed but with valves that enable possible gases to escape
during excessive loads.

AGM Batteries - Absortion Glass Mat Battery

They are the most modern batteries, and the acid is fixed in fiberglass that
absorbs it. In these types of batteries, the acid is absorbed better and faster by
the battery's lead plates.

Almost all AGM batteries are valve regulated: VRLA (valve regulated lead acid)

There is an increasing trend toward lead AGM batteries, which have their best
life/price ratio.

The liquid battery may be the best option for someone who can secure the
necessary care.

2. Voltage

The theoretical standard cell voltage can be determined from the electrochemical
series using Eo values:

Eo (cathodic) – Eo (anodic) = Eo (cell)

This is the standard theoretical voltage.

The actual voltage produce will always be lower than the theoretical voltage due to
polarisation and the resistance losses (IR drop) of the battery and is dependent upon the load
current and the internal impedance of the cell.

Typical values of voltage range from 1.2 V for a Ni/Cd battery to 3.7 V for a Li/ion battery.
3) Discharge Curve

The discharge curve is a plot of voltage against percentage of capacity discharged. A flat
discharge curve is desirable as this means that the voltage remains constant as the battery is
used up.

4) Capacity

The theoretical capacity of a battery is the quantity of electricity involved in the electro-
chemical reaction. It is denoted Q and is given by:

𝑄 =𝑥 𝑛 𝐹

where x = number of moles of reaction, n = number of electrons transferred per mole of

reaction and F = Faraday's constant

The capacity is usually given in terms of mass, not the number of moles:

𝑄 =𝑛 𝐹 𝑀 𝑟

where Mr = Molecular Mass. This gives the capacity in units of Ampere-hours per gram
(Ah/g).

5) Energy density

The energy density is the energy that can be derived per unit volume of the weight of the cell.

6) Specific energy density

The specific energy density is the energy that can be derived per unit weight of the cell It
is the product of the specific capacity and the operating voltage in one full discharge cycle.

7) Power density

The power density is the power that can be derived per unit weight of the cell (W/kg).

8) Temperature dependence

The rate of the reaction in the cell will be temperature dependent according to theories of
kinetics. The internal resistance also varies with temperature; low temperatures give higher
internal resistance. At very low temperatures the electrolyte may freeze giving a lower
voltage as ion movement is impeded (blocked). At very high temperatures the chemicals may
decompose, or there may be enough energy available to activate unwanted, reversible
reactions, reducing the capacity.
The rate of decrease of voltage with increasing discharge will also be higher at lower
temperatures, as will the capacity- this is illustrated by the following graph:

9) Service life

The battery cycle life for a rechargeable battery is defined as the number of charge/recharge
cycles a secondary battery can perform before its capacity falls to 80% of what it originally
was. This is typically between 500 and 1200 cycles.

The battery shelf life is the time a battery can be stored inactive before its capacity falls to
80%. The reduction in capacity with time is caused by the depletion of the active materials
by undesired reactions within the cell.

Batteries can also be subjected to premature death by:

 Over-charging
 Over-discharging
 Short circuiting
 Drawing more current than it was designed to produce
 Subjecting to extreme temperatures
 Subjecting to physical shock or vibrations

10) Physical requirements

This includes the geometry of the cell, its size, weight and shape and the location of the
terminals.

11) Charge/Discharge cycle

There are many aspects of the cycle that need consideration, such as:

 Voltage necessary to charge

 Time necessary to charge
 Availability of charging source
 Potential safety hazards during charge/discharge

12) Cycle life

The cycle life of a rechargeable battery is the number of discharge/charge cycles it can
undergo before its capacity falls to 80%.

13) Cost

14) Application requirements

The battery must be sufficient for the intended application. This means that it must be able
to produce the right current with the right voltage. It must have sufficient capacity, energy
and power. It should also not exceed the requirements of the application by too much, since
this is likely to result in unnecessary cost; it must give sufficient performance for the lowest
possible price.

2.12 DC Power Conditioning Converters

Power conditioning:
Power conditioning refers to devices that serve to deliver a desired voltage to an electrical
load. Examples include: DC-DC converters; maximum power point tracking (MPPT) devices;
inverters that enable alternating current (AC) loads to be supplied; as well as drive controllers
for motors. In a PV-membrane system, the electric motor, which drives the pump, is the key
load. Electric motors operate most effectively within a certain voltage and current ranges;
however, the power output of a PV panel varies throughout the day with the availability of
solar irradiance. Therefore, in order to optimize the power coupling between the PV panels
and the pump motor, power conditioning devices are required.
DC-DC converter
A DC-DC converter is a device that converts the DC input voltage to a desired output voltage.
A DC-DC converter can either achieve an increase or decrease in the output voltage via “boost”
or “buck” operation, respectively. Both of these circuits require the combination of a switch
and an inductor, in conjunction with capacitors to smooth and reduce the ripple in the
converted DC output.
2.12.1 Drive controller: A drive controller is required to meet the particular current
requirements of the pump motor, particularly for positive displacement pumps. The motors
for such pumps requires a high start-up current – around 6–10 times the normal operating
current of the motor for a period of seconds – followed by a constant current to provide a
given torque, which is proportional to the pumping pressure.
2.12.2 DC-AC inverters
Inverters are required to convert the DC output from a PV module when powering an AC
load. The main functions of an inverter include inverting the DC voltage of a PV array output
into AC output, wave shaping the AC voltage output, and regulating the effective value of
the voltage output. Often, capacitors are required to smooth the power output at varying
levels of current and MPPT circuitry is integrated within the inverter.
2.12.3 Recommendations

Power conditioning devices play an important role in optimizing the power coupling
between the PV panels and pump motor and the following recommendations are given:
 A DC-DC converter is required to match the PV output with required voltage for the
pump motor with a design lifetime of 20 years;
 MPPTs must be included to assure the PV modules are operated at the MPP, thus
extracting the highest power from the system at all times of the day;
 A drive controller is required to supply the necessary current to the pump motor,
especially for starting positive displacement pumps, with a reported lifetime of
15 years;

 DC-AC inverters are not recommended due to the additional risk of one more
components failing, especially considering the good availability and high performance
of DC-powered pumps.
 2.14 Testing of PV systems
Testing PV Modules:

Basic Photovoltaic (PV) Module Testing:

The best, quickest, and easiest way to test a solar module is to check both the open circuit
voltage (Voc) and short circuit current (Isc).

Depending on the reason for testing; the test can be done:

 at the charge controller

 at the combiner box (if present)
 at the solar module
 can also be done on a string (2 or more modules wired in series)

The test needs to be performed with the module(s) isolated from the rest of the system,
and is best done in full sunlight conditions. For this reason, having an array disconnect for
maintenance and troubleshooting purposes can be advantageous, otherwise the array wires
will need to be disconnected from the system.

Getting Started
The first thing we’ll need before we get started is the manufacturer’s data sheet for the
module we’d like to test and a multimeter capable of reading DC Voltage and Current. This
information is important, as it will give us the electrical specifications that we’ll be using to
validate whether the module is working properly or not.

Specifically, we’re looking for the values for Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc) and Short-Circuit
Current (Isc) for the specific rating of module. The purpose of our test is to determine
whether the module is working or not and if it’s performing to factory specifications.
Therefore, values from either the Standard Test Conditions (STC) table, or Nominal Operating
Cell Temperature (NOCT) table should work.
Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc) Test
To perform the Voc Test, simply measure the voltage between the positive and negative
terminals. This voltage should be within ~10% of the rating on the data sheet under most
sunlight conditions.

TESTING AT CONTROLLER
• Reverse polarity
• Wiring open/short circuit
• incorrect array wiring

TESTING AT COMBINER BOX

• Reverse polarity
• Wiring open/short circuit
• incorrect array wiring

TESTING AT MODULE
• Failed bypass diode
• Incorrect/Loose wiring
• Failed module

Testing Voc at Controller or Combiner Box (if present)

Reverse Polarity
Sign: A negative voltage number would indicate a reverse polarity of the wiring.

Cause: Positive and Negative wiring leads are reversed between Module, Controller, or
Combiner Box (if present).

Solution: Reverse plus and minus on wiring between each connection point for correct
polarity reading. Re-test to confirm correct polarity after changing.

Wiring Open/Short Circuit

Sign: A voltage number near zero would indicate either an open circuit in the wiring or a
short circuit in the wiring.

Cause: Bad or loose connections within module junction box, or between module, combiner
box (if present), or charge controller.

Solution: Trace wires to find open or short circuit.

Correct problem (tighten or repairing wire) between bad connection points.

Incorrect Array Wiring

Sign: A voltage number that is higher or lower than expected.

Cause: Too many modules wired together in series will result in a Voc number that is too high.
Too few modules wired in series will result in a Voc number that is too low. Remember to
add the Voc values together for as many modules as you have wired in series (see ohm’s
power law)!

Solution: Check system design and voltage drop calculations to verify enough voltage is
passing through from the array to the controller or combiner box and that the voltage
matches expected values.

Testing Voc at Module

1. Failed Bypass Diode

Sign: A voltage number that is half the expected value.

Cause: Incorrect diode orientation, diode damage, or diode failure is most likely. Also check
any wiring, if present, to make sure it’s actually the diodes that are the issue.

Solution: Confirm diode orientation or replace diode in module. If accessible, you will need to
remove the Junction Box cover on the back of the solar module.

Incorrect / Loose Wiring

Sign: A voltage number that is lower than the expected value.

Cause: Check any wiring, if present, to make sure there are no wiring mistakes or bad
connections. Tighten all screws and gently pull wires to make sure they’re secured. Check for
corrosion on wires if in a humid environment.
Solution: Fix wiring mistake or loose/bad connection issues. Confirm connection to the
correct terminals in the module junction box (confirm with voltmeter).

Failed Module
Sign: A voltage number that is lower than the expected value.

Cause: Check any wiring, if present, to make sure there are no wiring mistakes or bad
connections. Tighten all screws and gently pull wires to make sure they’re secured. Check for
corrosion on wires if in a humid environment. If all of this is ruled out, then the module may
be failing.

Solution: Fix wiring mistake or loose/bad connection issues. If you are still experiencing a
lower voltage number than expected, you may need to replace the solar module by contacting
the module manufacturer.

Short-Circuit Current (Isc) Test

Caution: when performing the Isc test confirm the maximum current being measured is less
than maximum meter rating. An arc is very common when breaking the connection;
therefore it should be done quickly.

The Isc test should be done on the module or string level, as the currents should be kept
to 10A or less.

The test should be done on a sunny day, and the measured value should be linear with the
sunlight conditions available. An insolation or solar radiation meter can be very helpful in
determining the sunlight conditions.

To perform the test using an inline ammeter, place the positive lead on the positive module
terminal and the negative lead on the module negative terminal.

The measured value should be within 20% of the module rating adjusted for sunlight
conditions. E.g. on a partly sunny day if the sunlight conditions are about half, then the Isc
current will be about half.

No Current
Sign: No current is measured.

Cause: Open circuit in the wiring, a bad or loose connection, incorrect wiring, or an internal
problem with the solar module. It’s possible the connection point is sufficient enough for full
voltage reading, but limited current.

Solution: Fix wiring mistake or loose/bad connection issues.

Less than expected current

Sign: Measured Short-Circuit Current (Isc) value is less than expected.

Cause: Solar modules degrade by approximately 1% per year; however, if the measured
current is less than 20% of the expected value after adjusting for sunlight conditions then the
module maybe failing.

Solution: Determine whether current loss is appropriate with age of module. If it’s not, then
the module may be prematurely failing. Consult power performance warranty from module
manufacture.

The application of solar energy is

 Heating and cooling of residential buildings

 Solar water heating

 Solar drying of agricultural and chemical products.

 Salt production by evaporation of sea water

 Solar cookers
 Solar engines for water pumping

 Food refrigeration

 Bio conversion and wind energy and which are indirect source of solar energy

 Solar furnaces

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