A satellite’s service is present at a particular location on the earth station and sometimes it is

not present. That means, a satellite may have different service stations of its own located at
different places on the earth. They send carrier signal for the satellite.
In this situation, we do multiple access to enable satellite to take or give signals from
different stations at time without any interference between them. Following are the three
types of multiple access techniques.

 FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

 TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
FDMA
 In this type of multiple access, we assign each signal a different type of frequency
band (range). So, any two signals should not have same type of frequency range.
Hence, there won’t be any interference between them, even if we send those signals in
one channel.
 One perfect example of this type of access is our radio channels. We can see that each
station has been given a different frequency band in order to operate.

 Let’s take three stations A, B and C. We want to access them through FDMA
technique. So we assigned them different frequency bands.
 As shown in the figure, satellite station A has been kept under the frequency range of
0 to 20 HZ. Similarly, stations B and C have been assigned the frequency range of 30-
60 Hz and 70-90 Hz respectively. There is no interference between them.
 The main disadvantage of this type of system is that it is very burst. This type of
multiple access is not recommended for the channels, which are of dynamic and
uneven. Because, it will make their data as inflexible and inefficient.

TDMA
 As the name suggests, TDMA is a time based access. Here, we give certain time
frame to each channel. Within that time frame, the channel can access the entire
spectrum bandwidth
 Each station got a fixed length or slot. The slots, which are unused will remain in idle
stage.

 Suppose, we want to send five packets of data to a particular channel in TDMA

technique. So, we should assign them certain time slots or time frame within which it
can access the entire bandwidth.
 In above figure, packets 1, 3 and 4 are active, which transmits data. Whereas, packets
2 and 5 are idle because of their non-participation. This format gets repeated every
time we assign bandwidth to that particular channel.
 Although, we have assigned certain time slots to a particular channel but it can also be
changed depending upon the load bearing capacity. That means, if a channel is
transmitting heavier loads, then it can be assigned a bigger time slot than the channel
which is transmitting lighter loads. This is the biggest advantage of TDMA over
FDMA. Another advantage of TDMA is that the power consumption will be very low.
 Note − In some applications, we use the combination of both TDMA and
FDMA techniques. In this case, each channel will be operated in a particular
frequency band for a particular time frame. In this case, the frequency selection is
more robust and it has greater capacity over time compression.

CDMA
 In CDMA technique, a unique code has been assigned to each channel to distinguish
from each other. A perfect example of this type of multiple access is our cellular
system. We can see that no two persons’ mobile number match with each other
although they are same X or Y mobile service providing company’s customers using
the same bandwidth.
 In CDMA process, we do the decoding of inner product of the encoded signal and
chipping sequence.
Therefore, mathematically it can be written as

Encodedsignal = Orginaldata × chippingsequence

 The basic advantage of this type of multiple access is that it allows all users to
coexist and use the entire bandwidth at the same time. Since each user has different
code, there won’t be any interference.
 In this technique, a number of stations can have number of channels unlike FDMA
and TDMA. The best part of this technique is that each station can use the entire
spectrum at all time.
Orbital Equations
In this section, let us discuss about the equations which are related to orbital motion.
Forces acting on Satellite
A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, it undergoes a pulling force from the earth due
to earth’s gravitational force. This force is known as Centripetal force (F1) because this force
tends the satellite towards it.
Mathematically, the Centripetal force (F1) acting on satellite due to earth can be written as
F1=GMm/R 2

 G is universal gravitational constant and it is equal to 6.673 x 10-11 N∙m2/kg2.

 M is mass of the earth and it is equal to 5.98 x 1024 Kg.
 m is mass of the satellite.
 R is the distance from satellite to center of the Earth.
A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, it undergoes a pulling force from the sun and
the moon due to their gravitational forces. This force is known as Centrifugal force (F2)
because this force tends the satellite away from earth.
Mathematically, the Centrifugal force (F2) acting on satellite can be written as
F2=mv /R 2

Where, v is the orbital velocity of satellite.

Orbital Velocity
Orbital velocity of satellite is the velocity at which, the satellite revolves around earth.
Satellite doesn’t deviate from its orbit and moves with certain velocity in that orbit, when
both Centripetal and Centrifugal forces are balance each other.
So, equate Centripetal force (F1) and Centrifugal force (F2).
GMm/R =mv /R
2 2

=>GM/R=v 2

=>v=√GM/R
Therefore, the orbital velocity of satellite is
v=√GM/R
Where,
 G is gravitational constant and it is equal to 6.673 x 10-11 N∙m2/kg2.
 M is mass of the earth and it is equal to 5.98 x 1024 Kg.
 R is the distance from satellite to center of the Earth.
So, the orbital velocity mainly depends on the distance from satellite to center of the Earth
(R), since G & M are constants.
 Satellite Communication - Link Budget
In satellite communication systems, there are two types of power calculations. Those are
transmitting power and receiving power calculations. In general, these calculations are called
as Link budget calculations. The unit of power is decibel.
First, let us discuss the basic terminology used in Link Budget and then we will move onto
explain Link Budget calculations.

Basic Terminology
An isotropic radiator (antenna) radiates equally in all directions. But, it doesn’t exist
practically. It is just a theoretical antenna. We can compare the performance of all real
(practical) antennas with respect to this antenna.
Power flux density
Assume an isotropic radiator is situated at the center of the sphere having radius, r. We know
that power flux density is the ratio of power flow and unit area.
Power flux density,Ψi of an isotropic radiator is
Ψi=ps/4πr 2

Where, Ps is the power flow. In general, the power flux density of a practical antenna varies
with direction. But, it’s maximum value will be in one particular direction only.
Antenna Gain
The gain of practical antenna is defined as the ratio of maximum power flux density of
practical antenna and power flux density of isotropic antenna.
Therefore, the Gain of Antenna or Antenna gain, G is
G=Ψm / Ψi
Where, Ψm is the maximum power flux density of practical antenna. And, Ψi is the power
flux density of isotropic radiator (antenna).

Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power

Equivalent isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is the main parameter that is used in
measurement of link budget. Mathematically, it can be written as
EIRP=GPs
We can represent EIRP in decibels as
[EIRP]=[G]+[Ps] dBW
Where, G is the Gain of Transmitting antenna and Ps is the power of transmitter.
Transmission Losses
The difference between the power sent at one end and received at the receiving station is
known as Transmission losses. The losses can be categorized into 2 types.

 Constant losses
 Variable losses
The losses which are constant such as feeder losses are known as constant losses. No matter
what precautions we might have taken, still these losses are bound to occur.
Another type of loses are variable loss. The sky and weather condition is an example of this
type of loss. Means if the sky is not clear signal will not reach effectively to the satellite or
vice versa.
Therefore, our procedure includes the calculation of losses due to clear weather or clear sky
condition as 1st because these losses are constant. They will not change with time. Then in
2nd step, we can calculate the losses due to foul weather condition.

Link budget calculations

There are two types of link budget calculations since there are two links
namely, uplink and downlink.
Earth Station Uplink
It is the process in which earth is transmitting the signal to the satellite and satellite is
receiving it. Its mathematical equation can be written as
(C/N0)U=[EIRP]U+(G/T)U−[LOSSES]U−K
Where,

 [C/N0]is the carrier to noise density ratio

 [G/T] is the satellite receiver G/T ratio and units are dB/K
Here, Losses represent the satellite receiver feeder losses. The losses which depend upon the
frequency are all taken into the consideration.
The EIRP value should be as low as possible for effective UPLINK. And this is possible
when we get a clear sky condition.
Here we have used the (subscript) notation “U”, which represents the uplink phenomena.
Satellite Downlink
In this process, satellite sends the signal and the earth station receives it. The equation is same
as the satellite uplink with a difference that we use the abbreviation “D” everywhere instead
of “U” to denote the downlink phenomena.
Its mathematical equation can be written as;
[C/N0]D=[EIRP]D+[G/T]D−[LOSSES]D−K
Where,

 [C/N0] is the carrier to noise density ratio

 [G/T] is the earth station receiver G/T ratio and units are dB/K
Here, all the losses that are present around earth stations.
In the above equation we have not included the signal bandwidth B. However, if we include
that the equation will be modified as follows.
[C/N0]D=[EIRP]D+[G/T]D−[LOSSES]D−K−B
Link Budget
If we are taking ground satellite in to consideration, then the free space spreading loss (FSP)
should also be taken into consideration.
If antenna is not aligned properly then losses can occur. so we take AML (Antenna
misalignment losses) into account. Similarly, when signal comes from the satellite towards
earth it collides with earth surface and some of them get absorbed. These are taken care by
atmospheric absorption loss given by “AA” and measured in db.
Now, we can write the loss equation for free sky as
Losses=FSL+RFL+AML+AA+PL
Where,
 RFL stands for received feeder loss and units are db.
 PL stands for polarization mismatch loss.
Now the decibel equation for received power can be written as
PR=EIRP+GR+Losses
Where,

 PR stands for the received power, which is measured in dBW.

 Gr is the receiver antenna gain.
The designing of down link is more critical than the designing of uplink. Because of
limitations in power required for transmitting and gain of the antenna.