CHAPTER

Introduction to Writing and Types of

Writing

Writing skills can only be perfected through extensive reading and actual practice. It
important to do this because written communication is a major component of all studyis
and work situations. In order to be able to handle a writing task well, you will have to
to use the norms and conventions characteristic of different genres learn
of writing. Thus, the
conventions followed for writing stories, essays that describe, narrate, explain and discuss,
reviews, business letters, official reports and project proposals are different.
Each ofthese forms has its own recommended language expressions and style that you will
have to use in your writing, It is also important to understand the purpose behind awriting
task you take on. Is it meant to inform, describe, recount an experience, persuade others to
accept a particular viewpoint, debate an issue or give your observations and recommendations
on something? Thereare techniques you will need to learn to use in order to make what you
write suitable for different purposes.

DESCRIPTIVE WRITING
The purpose of descriptive writing is to describe aperson, place, object, experience, emotion
or situation in such a way that a picture is formed in the reader's mind. When writing a
descriptive passage, your goal is to evoke a strong sense of familiarity and appreciation in
the reader by painting an image that is vivid and moving. This is done by using imaginative
anguage, interesting comparisons, and images that appeal to the senses.
Learning to write descriptively will improve your writing by making it more interesting
dengaging toread. It might also help you clarify your understanding of a subject, and will
encourage you to expand your vocabulary by using new or different [Link]

General Guidelines
by what
The first thing to keep in mind is to be original. Try not to be too influenced
you may have read or heard about the subject you are writing on; instead, express as
CAdeiy as possible what you yourself sense, think or feel.
" Learn to be more observant: good descriptive writing depends heavily on observing
and recollecting vivid moments.
20 GENERIC ENGLISH II

. Think about or observe the subject of the description, and write

down words
describe what it looks like, its parts and features, and how it works (or, if describ
a process, how a change takes place through a series of stages).
Structure of a Descriptive Piece
1. Introduction
Provide the general, identifying features of the subject in the opening paragraph.

2. Body
Focus on specific details in the following paragraphs.
Try to involve all five senses when describing something. What do you see (s
colours, lights)? What can you hear (sounds, noises, voices, music)? What can
smell(pleasant and unpleasant odours or aromas)? What do you taste (sweet, bita
eSalty, sour, spicy)? How does something feel to the touch (temperature, textures
Add as many such details as necessary to convey a full picture to the reader.
" In addition to such sensory details, talk about your thoughts and emotions. Conie
your mood to the reader. How does the person/place/object/experience you z
describing make you feel? Does it evoke happiness, sadness, pity, fear, ang
excitement, indifference?
Describing your emotions may help you connect with your reader who may ha
felt the same in similar situations.
" Concentrate on what happens not only to you but also around you. Note careful

otio what is happening in the scene you are describing. Talk about who, what, Wic
where, how and why.
ChoO
"Use adjectives and adverbs to enliven your writing and make it more vivid. sens
un clear, precise words that convey the exact meaning intended, not a generalchoie
For example, to describe atidal wave, the word gigantic Would be a better
b than merely big.
. For mechanisms and processes, you could use the passive voice (for example, 1
machine is connected to...' or Next, the gas is passed into a chamber...). 0
metaphors

You could also use figurative language such as similes and warrio'
a
help create a striking image in the reader's mind. For example,

associations:

strength and ferocity can be conveyed through the following

She fought like a tigress. (simile) She was a tigress in battle. (metaphor)

3. Conclusion paragraph

concluding
" Sum up or comment in a general way onthe subject in the
 21
SEMESTER III: Chapter 3 Introduction to Writing and Types of Writing

4. Editonib

It is important to read and edit what has already been written.

.Have I described the topic, object, feeling thoroughly?
Oe Have I sufficiently completed the description?
Have Ielaborated on my description usingappropriate vocabulary?
possible?
. Have Imade sure my writing is as error-free as
writing looks like:
Here is a sample of what a short piece of descriptive
table, I shivered. It was late--the moon had long since slipped below the indistinct
As I sat at my must have been clouds in the sky. The
charcoal. There
horizon, black melting into indigo into a trance. The
refused to twinkle and sparkle. Cicadas insistently droned, lulling me into
stars
redolent of wet earth and green growing things. It caressed my ankles, nipped
wind blew cool, work to do. No time to sit and
sway to
my tapping fingers. I had
across my nose and chilled play with the zephyr that enticed me into
cicadas. No time to
the clacking fan and shrilling distracted by the fragrance of coffee wafting from some other
the rainynight. No time to be must work.
night owl's lighted square. Work. I

NARRATIVE WRITING
writing is to narrate or report
an event. The
the aim of narrative
narration must
As the name itself suggests, order in which the events occurred. The
follows the writing
arrangement of the piece
which satisfies the reader's curiosity. The piece of
be carriedto a natural
conclusion
someone's biography; an
event such as an
history, legend, or accident.
may narrate episodes from or an incident such as a miraculous escape or a train
match;
election or a basketball

General Guidelines
imagined one.
may relate a real life situation or an present
" Narrative writing
tense (but sometimes also uses the
mostly uses the past
This type of writing
tense). place). This is usually provided at the
background (time and tiny
Mentionthe setting or a blistering summer afternoon in a
for example, 'On
beginning of the narration;
village in Patiala..." ideally have a beginning, a middle, and a
the narrative should such
Ihe actionor events of preferable when you are just beginning to write
particularly
car ending. This is
essays.
" Decide on and stick to asingle point of view. order of their occurrence in time.
in the
" The sequencing of events is usually done ending or in the middle of a narrative for
sometimnes begin at the
However, you could
dramatic effect.
22 GENERIC ENGLISH II s iL naTes

Spoken communication may be presented within your essay in

speech or in a mixture of both. If the narrative includes either direct
or
by each person, enclosed in quotation marks, is treated dialogues, the Words indireg
as a separate spoker
" Do not forget to use a variety of sentence types and paragraph.
" Make sure that there is a point to your story. If you vocabulary to avoid
some monotony
intend to convey
through your narration, ensure that all the facts are information
readers or make them laugh, check what you have present. If you wish to thrill your
achieve that purpose. written to see if the events
describe.
. Revise what you have written. Trim all that
is inessential l to the
For example, do not describe things just for point you wish to make
the sake of adding
phrase or sentence you write should contribute to
way.
the narration in some descriptions--ever
meaningtul
Unlike other writing styles, a narrative
most important point to remember is topiece can be structured in many different ways. The
theend (except, of course, if it is a satisfy the readers' curiosity as to what
mystery or meant to be a cliffhanger!). happens in
Here is a sample piece of narrative
writing:
Yesterday, Professor Bose got up at7o'cdock. He
ran into the bathroom. As he was late! Hurriedly, he
switched on the geyser, the lights went out,got out of bed and
cold wash. After a quick brealkfast, during so he settled for a
which
Professor Bose got dressed. Because he was in such ahe burnt his tongue drinking very hot
coffe,
laces, and as he was hurrying out of the front great hurry, he forgot to tie his shoe
himself up and ran to the bus stop only to see thedoor, he tripped and fell. He quickly picked
Grumbling, he waved to a taxi and got in. Arts back of the bus disappearing in the distance.
College! he roared to the taxi driver, and
in double-quick time. Ihave a class in ten
minutes from now.' The cabbie drove fast, anu
Professor Bose arrived at the college just in time for his
there was no noise, nothing. It was a lecture. But there were no students
Sunday!

REFLECTIVE WRITING
Many aspects of our everyday life as well as work life calls for some reflection at SOme point
where we pause to think through them in order to make sense of things around us and reach
a meaningful goal. Such thinking practices are the
precursors to retlective
Reflective writing is asubjective style of writing where you critically wtand document
analyse:
your responses to experiences and events happening in and around your life. It makes you
reflect deeply on these occurrences and arrive at a new knowledge. This new knowledge

gives you clarity about such experiences and oflite.

improves your general understanding
Reflective writing is form of writing where you may employa
combinatiot

of the following methodsan toexploratory

make it as effective as possible:
 SEMESTER III: Chapter 3 Introduction to
Writing and Types of Writing 23

Personal: Reflective writing is

deeply
hings around you. It is therefore almostpersonal
always
as you write about your perception of
riter to focus on his/her perception of written in first person. This helps the
events and experiences rather than simply
giving a description of it.
Analytical: Reflective writing can also be marked by a thorough analysis
experience being written about. The analytical tonewould predominate anyof the event/
of writing if using this technique. The writer would try to other style
like how and 'why the event/experience impacted his/her find life.
answers to questions
. Descriptive: Even though reflective writing is not just description alone, there is a
to introduce and outlinethe subject being written about. The writer can try to need
the questions what', when' and 'wh¡ in order to introduce the subject. answer
Expressive: Reflective writing is a way through which the author gives voice to his/her
ruminations on a particular subject, hence expressions such as I feel', Iunderstand',
I think, Ilearned, 'I realised', etc., are often [Link] 5odvi osr
"Hypothetical: Reflective writing allows the exploration of many possibilities, speculations
and hypothesis while analysing an event or experience. The writer can try to answer
the question what if in order to explore the [Link] t
General Guidelines
Reflective writing is always preceded by reflective thinking, where you ponder on the subject
at hand and gather your thoughts, before putting them on paper. The following steps may
be beneficial while undertaking a reflective writing exercise.
" It is always a good idea to understand the final outcome of the writing. This will help
you decide the form (whether it should be only text, or have tables, figures, photos, or
diagrams to support the text). If you are planning to submit the write-up, it will also
help you understand any stylistic or formatting guidelines required for submission in
a particular journal/newspaper/blog, etc.
Mind mapping is an effective technique to connect and structure your thoughts into
a coherent and cohesive narrative.
Put the topic in the centre and draw branches around it.
against a branch.
Wnen you get a new idea, note it down as a keyword/key phrase
You may use some prompt questions like What', When', 'How, Where', Why',
"What if to get ideas flowing.
phrase
As ideas flow in, note down related thoughts/ideas for each keyword/key
against the concerned branch.
or by
ap the connections between the ideas or key points by using colour-codes
drawing connecting lines.
from
Vocabulary Bank: It is helpful to have a vocabulary bank handy, to prevent you
searching for appropriate words and disturbing the flow of writing. Personal expressions
24 GENERIC ENGLISH II SatRA
like for me', 'I found', 'I felt', I understood', I believe' and So
reflective writing as it helps the author focus on analysing ratheron are very useful for
than just
a topic. describing
Structure of a Reflective
Pieceeoaltitofa aivi
1. Introduce the topic akerinieslacdasltinuiadist
This is a brief outline or description of
to answer the questions what', the topic/subject in hand. The writer
when' and 'who' in can try
order to introduce the subiect
2. Analysis of the topic
This section is a thorough
should try to find answersexamination and interpretation of the subject.
to questions like "how and The writer
impacted his/her life. why the event/experience
3. Conclusion
This section discusses the
insights the
future/other experiences. It can also be writer has gained and how to connect
used to hypothesise about alternate it to
to, and alternate learnings endings
from, the same experience. The
the question 'what if to arrive at such knowledge. writer can try to answer
4. E d i t e
It is important to read and edit
Have I described the topic what has already been written. The writer should checK
briefly and specifically?
Have Isufficiently and critically
Have I elaborated on my analysed the topic?
vocabulary bank) reflections using appropriate vocabulary?
(refer to
Have I drawn meaningful
meaningfully to inferences from my experience and connected them
other experiences?
Here is a sample of a short
piece of reflective writing:
There is no time like the
themselves today may not present
be
to do what you need to do.,
there The opportunities that present
tomorrow. So why waste time postponing what can be
done today to some other
dirty clothes. But you time? You wake up in the your
morning having resolved to washready
procrastinate till it's late, and then you have to rush to get
for college. In the
process you either forget tooabout till
tomorrow. The next day your clothes or put off washing thhem
laundry to another day. And some emergency comes up which leads to Postponing
you
the cycle continues. Ten days your after your
alarm has gone off and later, you wake up well
realise you have nothing to wear! All and necd
your clothes are dirty
 SEMESTER III: Chapter 3 Introduction to Writing and Types of Writing 25

to be
washed. The original pile of laundry has just grown to encompass your entire wardrobe.
had taken the time ten days ago to wash your clothes when you needed to, you
If only you stuck
wouldn't be today with nothing to wear to college.

ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING

establishes an argument based

Argumentative writing is a piece of writing that builds and
takes a position on a particular topic,
on logic, analysis and evidence. The writer typically research and reliable facts.
sufficient
approaching and explaining it by relying on
even with steadfast conviction in one's opinion or argument, a writer may find
However, of
challenging to write a compelling and impactful argumentative piece. A strong piece
skillful
it
writing requires, alongside a strong set of rationales and evidence, a
argumentative
method of presentation.

General Guidelines

topic several times till you understand it completely.

" Readthe
helps to break down the meaning of the topic. It also helps
" Underline keywords. This every aspect the topic covers.
to build the argument from technique to pen down your thoughts and connect
effective
" Mind map. This is an starting the actual writing process. Some
techniques
before
them intoa coherent map previous section on
Reflective Writing.
outlined in the and
to follow have been support you with necessary discourse markers
handy to and large..., As a
Keep a vocabulary bank Phrases such as Nowadays..., By will
functional language needed. Lastly', In addition to', and so on
markers such as Firstly',
result... ; sequencing
structure to your argument.
help connect and give
Piece
Structure of an Argumentative
straightforwardstructure,
have a clear, coherent and deviation.
An argumentative piece of writing should writer without much
built by the
so that the reader can followthe argument being four sections:
can be divided into
Typically, an argumentative writing

1. Introduction
can be divided into
3 parts:
outlined or
introduced briefly but
This paragraph be
topic should the very outset.
Summarise the topic: The background if needed, at argumentative essay
with any
comprehensively, This important component of an
" Thesis statement: is the most approaches and argues the
the writer
from which point and claim.
as it communicates the position the writer's main
statement of
topic. It should be a concise
26 GENERICENGLISH II

. Outline sentence: This sentence

follow.
should explain the roadmap that the
2. Body
. The first section of the body
should argue and
topic. In order to structure it appropriately, theestablish the writer's
writer can follow theopinion of
O - Opinion ORE forma
R- Reason
E - Example
The writer can give as many
is that each reason or claim reasons as they want. An important point to note he
you have three reasons for orshould be explored in separate paragraphs. Therefore
paragraphs, each dedicated toagainsta
one
certain claim, you would have three
separa
reason is supported by suitable idea or claim only. It is recommended that ead
next reason, again supported by examples/facts. The writer may then move to t
a suitable example.
The second section gives the
complete only when the author opposite opinion. Any argumentative
gives some evidence of his/her essay can
acceptance of the possibilities of the awareness an
also be structured following the contrary/opposite
ORE format as section two opinion. This section
3. Conclusion of the body.
The conclusion should
summarise and restatethee arguments made in the essay. It isn
recommended to introduce any new topic in the conclusion. Agood conclusion in
an application of the topic
a societal practice or in a general context, either through a personal anecdote
policy.
4. Editing Checklist
After you finish writing, the
" Proofread to remove following checklist can help you edit your wo
" Is the main topic Spelling grammar errors and inconsistencies
Does the thesis introduced in the first sentence?
" Does the outline
statement establish the writer's
stance and argument?
statement give a
one of the body roadmap of the essay'
" Does section O
format? establish the writer's opinion following the
" Does section two of the body establish the opposite opinion following the O
format?
Does the conclusion restate and summarise the main points and argument ofth
essay?
COMPARATIVE WRITING

essay, as the name implies, is one where two texts are Compared, highlighting
Acomparative
their similarities and differences. A'text' here refers to any analysable
work-it need not
interview,
essay,
be a book, but can be a short story, nonfiction essay, or even a movie, TV
show,

or audio recording. The two entities being compared can even be ideas or ideolo3e,
song, described
as long as you name and refer to texts where they are examining the

The analysis can either examine both texts through a particular lens (e.g Indian writers),
or
way patriotism is portrayed in the writings oftwo early-twentieth-centurypoet pays homageto
examine one text in the lighttof the other text (e.g., how acontemporary r
of the literary devices
and
an olderpoet, as evidenced by how the more recent poet uses
references
specific literary
using a
that point to the older poet's works). The analysis can also be done
or analytical framework (e.g., realism, feminism, or linguistic analysis).
General Guidelines
academic assignment, you will likely have
. If you are writinga comparative essay as an
and the point of view to compare them from.
been given both the texts to be compared
readings: the texts, any prescribed other readings, and if applicable
Collect the required commentaries
as video analyses, other
help you understand the texts such
sources that
comparative essays, and sources that explain the framework that youare expected
and
to use in the comparative arguments.
reading them (and making notes), brainstorm and write down the similaritiec
After ideas vou get
and differences that you see in the texts. You can write down any and all
brainstormed ideas in
in the brainstorming section. Follow this up by looking at your
sources
the light of the comparative framework, and see how you can use the non-text
to justify your ideas.
similar
" In forming your argument, you are free to consult other comparative essays orcommon
articles, in order to understand how to analyse the texts or be aware of the
arguments in the field. As you include their ideas in your essay, be sure to cite and
reference them and add your own viewpoints.
" To highlight and connect common points, use 'similarly, likewise', and similar words or
phrases. To show that one text has further information than the other on a certain point,
OUS)&

SEMESTER III: Chapter 3 Inntroduction to Writing and Types of

Writing 29
Use'moreover' 'additionally, and similar words or phrases. To highlight differences,
usein contrast conversely', on the other hand', and similar words or phrases.

ofa Comparative Piece

suructure

1 Introduction
.

thetwo works you are comparing and the

Introduce
framework you are using
ethem. Explain the motivation behind the choice. The to
compare
n motivation can draw on
the historical context of both texts and describe how they are
Explain how you are adding to the commonly interpreted.
discussion by continuing the interpretation
arguing against it. or
Provide a brief summary and context of each text. Do
. not assume that the reader
of your essay is familiar with the texts; rather, mention the key
ndset up a context that makes your points of each text
comparative arguments easy to follow.
2. Body
Highlight the similarities and differences between the texts. Do this in a
and clear style writing, and provide additional context from the text systematic
of
(6f it is not there in the above summary). This is where required
the section which likely draws most
heavily on your other, non-text sources. It can be organised
in one of two ways.
. The text-by-text approach lists allthe significant points of text
A,
the significant points of text B. These points can appear in order followed by all
of importance, or
in the order that they appear in each text. This organisation is better for the second
type of analysis described above-one where text Bis analysed in the light of text
A. It also helps the reader understand each text better, as opposed to focusing on
the similarities and differences between them.
" The point-by-point approach describes a point present in both texts (whether a
similarity or difference), then goes on to the next point applicable to both texts, and
so on. This is a thematic approach that highlights the subject material of each text
when contrasted with the other, rather than taking each text as its own. It is also
suited more to the first type of analysis, where you are looking for the same ideas
(or differences) in two texts from a particular standpoint.
3. Conclusion
End with a brief summary of the most significant comparative point/s, and re-state
your argument using the points you have provided in the comparisons section.
 and the on their own through research
their own
students to find it
experiences
personal
teachers expect
it isstheir responsibility to seek assignmen
information,
have questions,
And if students teachers 0
and homework. doubts.
and clarify their knowledge, so when it comes
students to apply their
Lastly, professors expect this knowledge to unique situations than
ability to apply knowledge only a fo.
based more on a student's professors test this
memorisation and retention of
facts. Some course. More emnh
could mean failing the
failinga test
through semester tests, therefore regular testing in college, ensuring studen
projects than
placed on assignments and research are able to make inferences beyond the swlbk
and
are trained
Adapted
to apply foundational principles
from [Link]

CAUSE AND EFFECT WRITING

writing that analyses and establista
Cause and effect writing is an argumentative form of
connections and correlations between two subjects. It explores the relationship betwe
the or is contingent on the ou
influences
things, persons, events, or ideas and shows how one
 SEMESTER III: Chapter 3 Introduction to Writing and Types of Writing 31

exercise where
w the writer gets an opportunity for critical thinking and logical analysis.
Itisan
Scientific
case, studies, laboratory reports are some of the examples of cause and effect writing.

General G u i d e l i n e s

keywords and brainstorm

The fîrst step for the writer is to read the topic, underline
jdeas related to the keywords.
brainstorming can be
done in the form of mind mapping. The causes and effects
. The brainstorm ideas. The same mind
n be two clusters around which the writer can
effects (cause 1, cause 2, cause 3,
man can be used to brainstorm multiple causes and
who, when,why, where, whom and
effect 1, effect 2, effect 3, etc). Wh' questions like
generate ideas. An example is given below:
how can be used as prompts to
CAUSE 1

When and where aresUSILS ofWhy is it a cause

What are the the problem?
the causes evident?
causes?

1 c
EFFECT eity io slqrone&Soh

related
Why is it a
How can it be tangible relation?
What are the
to the cause?
effects?
problem
which clearly links the
thesis statement
have a direct and effective effects, all of
" ltis crucialto discussion may have multiple causes and prepared
topic in advisable to have this
Othe solution. The summarised. It is
comprehensively
which have to be
before starting to write the essay.
Structure of a Cause and Effect Piece
1. Introduction itself.
first sentence
" The writer must introduce the topic: in the information.
" This relevant background
should be followed by any statement
" Next comes a clear and concise thesis
structured the essay
the writer has
Outline sentence to show how
32
GENERIC ENGLISH II
2. Body
" The first section of the body should focus
on the
structure to elaborate on the problem. Focus on whatcause. Follow the mind
is the cause of map
why is it a problem, when and where does it occur. the
cause and proceed to the secondary causes. Start with the problem,
most important
The second section of the body should
focus on the effect. Follow
structure to elaborate on the
effects. Focus on what are the effects, the mind map
related to the cause and how is the
efect and proceed to the relation tangible. Start with the mosthow are they
secondary effects. You may give examples important
whenever possible
3. Conclusion
Summarise the main points of the essay.
Reiterate the thesis statement.

4. Editing the essay

It is essential for the
writer to read through the essay
to check for language
and
to see if the causes and grammar errors
effects are seamlessly established
to use appropriate discourse
markers and signposting language.
Here is a sample of what a short
cause and effect piece would look
like:
Q: Today more people are
causes of this? What are theoverweight than ever before. What
main effects of this epidemic? in your opinion are the primary
The number of people struggling with
The lifestyle in today's fast world weight problems is on the rise across the
and the world today.
behind this epidemic, which is ruining many habits it forces upon people is a primary Caist
discuss the main reasons of this epidemicthe health and happiness of millions. This essay W
and then describe the possible
One of the foremost causes of effects of the probl
more and more people rely onobesity is inactive lifestyle and unhealthy eating habits.
and prefer inactive leisure cars instead of wallking, have
activities. This less physical demands at work
Moreover, the problem is accentuated results in burning less calories and gaining weight.
consume large portions of by the growing number of pepeople who eat irregularly and
in Europe with so-called high-calorie food. For example, about 50% of the adult population
disordered eating suffer from obesity.
The possible effects of
First of all, obesity this problem include physical health problems and loss offproductivity:
results in incorrect
risk of developing some
chronic functioning of the human body and contributes tothe the

person's metabolism worsens, illnesses. For example, as body fat increases,

overweight people are very which in turn may result in diabetes or percentage Secondly,
heart diseases. lessens
unhealthy and often suffer from
stress and tiredness. This