0% found this document useful (0 votes)

3 views799 pages

Java Script

The ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification outlines the latest updates and features of the ECMAScript programming language, which is widely used in web browsers and server applications. It details the history of ECMAScript's development, its editions, and significant enhancements introduced in each version. The document also provides guidelines for conforming implementations and contributions to the specification through community engagement on platforms like GitHub.

Uploaded by

David Pereira Blanco

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

3 views799 pages

Java Script

Uploaded by

David Pereira Blanco

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ECMAScript® 2026
Language Specification

About this Specification

The document at [Link] is the most accurate and up-to-date ECMAScript specification. It contains
the content of the most recent yearly snapshot plus any finished proposals (those that have reached Stage 4 in the
proposal process and thus are implemented in several implementations and will be in the next practical revision)
since that snapshot was taken.

This document is available as a single page and as multiple pages.

Contributing to this Specification

This specification is developed on GitHub with the help of the ECMAScript community. There are a number of ways
to contribute to the development of this specification:

Refer to the colophon for more information on how this document is created.
1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Introduction
This Ecma Standard defines the ECMAScript 2026 Language. It is the seventeenth edition of the ECMAScript Language
Specification. Since publication of the first edition in 1997, ECMAScript has grown to be one of the world's most widely
used general-purpose programming languages. It is best known as the language embedded in web browsers but has
also been widely adopted for server and embedded applications.

ECMAScript is based on several originating technologies, the most well-known being JavaScript (Netscape) and JScript
(Microsoft). The language was invented by Brendan Eich at Netscape and first appeared in that company's Navigator
2.0 browser. It has appeared in all subsequent browsers from Netscape and in all browsers from Microsoft starting with
Internet Explorer 3.0.

The development of the ECMAScript Language Specification started in November 1996. The first edition of this Ecma
Standard was adopted by the Ecma General Assembly of June 1997.

That Ecma Standard was submitted to ISO/IEC JTC 1 for adoption under the fast-track procedure, and approved as
international standard ISO/IEC 16262, in April 1998. The Ecma General Assembly of June 1998 approved the second
edition of ECMA-262 to keep it fully aligned with ISO/IEC 16262. Changes between the first and the second edition are
editorial in nature.

The third edition of the Standard introduced powerful regular expressions, better string handling, new control state-
ments, try/catch exception handling, tighter definition of errors, formatting for numeric output and minor changes in anti-
cipation of future language growth. The third edition of the ECMAScript standard was adopted by the Ecma General
Assembly of December 1999 and published as ISO/IEC 16262:2002 in June 2002.

After publication of the third edition, ECMAScript achieved massive adoption in conjunction with the World Wide Web
where it has become the programming language that is supported by essentially all web browsers. Significant work was
done to develop a fourth edition of ECMAScript. However, that work was not completed and not published as the fourth
edition of ECMAScript but some of it was incorporated into the development of the sixth edition.

The fifth edition of ECMAScript (published as ECMA-262 5th edition) codified de facto interpretations of the language
specification that have become common among browser implementations and added support for new features that had
emerged since the publication of the third edition. Such features include accessor properties, reflective creation and in-
spection of objects, program control of property attributes, additional array manipulation functions, support for the JSON
object encoding format, and a strict mode that provides enhanced error checking and program security. The fifth edition
was adopted by the Ecma General Assembly of December 2009.

The fifth edition was submitted to ISO/IEC JTC 1 for adoption under the fast-track procedure, and approved as interna-
tional standard ISO/IEC 16262:2011. Edition 5.1 of the ECMAScript Standard incorporated minor corrections and is the
same text as ISO/IEC 16262:2011. The 5.1 Edition was adopted by the Ecma General Assembly of June 2011.

Focused development of the sixth edition started in 2009, as the fifth edition was being prepared for publication.
However, this was preceded by significant experimentation and language enhancement design efforts dating to the pub-
lication of the third edition in 1999. In a very real sense, the completion of the sixth edition is the culmination of a fifteen
year effort. The goals for this edition included providing better support for large applications, library creation, and for use
of ECMAScript as a compilation target for other languages. Some of its major enhancements included modules, class
declarations, lexical block scoping, iterators and generators, promises for asynchronous programming, destructuring
patterns, and proper tail calls. The ECMAScript library of built-ins was expanded to support additional data abstractions
including maps, sets, and arrays of binary numeric values as well as additional support for Unicode supplementary char-
acters in strings and regular expressions. The built-ins were also made extensible via subclassing. The sixth edition
provides the foundation for regular, incremental language and library enhancements. The sixth edition was adopted by
the General Assembly of June 2015.

ECMAScript 2016 was the first ECMAScript edition released under Ecma TC39's new yearly release cadence and open
development process. A plain-text source document was built from the ECMAScript 2015 source document to serve as
the base for further development entirely on GitHub. Over the year of this standard's development, hundreds of pull re-
quests and issues were filed representing thousands of bug fixes, editorial fixes and other improvements.
Additionally, numerous software tools were developed to aid in this effort including Ecmarkup, Ecmarkdown, and
Grammarkdown. ES2016 also included support for a new exponentiation operator and adds a new method to
[Link] called includes.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ECMAScript 2017 introduced Async Functions, Shared Memory, and Atomics along with smaller language and library
enhancements, bug fixes, and editorial updates. Async functions improve the asynchronous programming experience by
providing syntax for promise-returning functions. Shared Memory and Atomics introduce a new memory model that al-
lows multi-agent programs to communicate using atomic operations that ensure a well-defined execution order even on
parallel CPUs. It also included new static methods on Object: [Link], [Link], and
[Link].

ECMAScript 2018 introduced support for asynchronous iteration via the async iterator protocol and async generators. It
also included four new regular expression features: the dotAll flag, named capture groups, Unicode property escapes,
and look-behind assertions. Lastly it included object rest and spread properties.

ECMAScript 2019 introduced a few new built-in functions: flat and flatMap on [Link] for flattening ar-
rays, [Link] for directly turning the return value of [Link] into a new Object, and
trimStart and trimEnd on [Link] as better-named alternatives to the widely implemented but non-
standard [Link] and trimRight built-ins. In addition, it included a few minor updates to
syntax and semantics. Updated syntax included optional catch binding parameters and allowing U+2028 (LINE
SEPARATOR) and U+2029 (PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR) in string literals to align with JSON. Other updates included
requiring that [Link] be a stable sort, requiring that [Link] return well-formed UTF-8
regardless of input, and clarifying [Link] by requiring that it either return the correspond-
ing original source text or a standard placeholder.

ECMAScript 2020, the 11th edition, introduced the matchAll method for Strings, to produce an iterator for all match ob-
jects generated by a global regular expression; import(), a syntax to asynchronously import Modules with a dynamic
specifier; BigInt, a new number primitive for working with arbitrary precision integers; [Link], a new
Promise combinator that does not short-circuit; globalThis, a universal way to access the global this value; dedic-
ated export * as ns from 'module' syntax for use within modules; increased standardization of for-in enu-
meration order; [Link], a host-populated object available in Modules that may contain contextual information
about the Module; as well as adding two new syntax features to improve working with “nullish” values (undefined or
null): nullish coalescing, a value selection operator; and optional chaining, a property access and function invocation
operator that short-circuits if the value to access/invoke is nullish.

ECMAScript 2021, the 12th edition, introduced the replaceAll method for Strings; [Link], a Promise combin-
ator that short-circuits when an input value is fulfilled; AggregateError, a new Error type to represent multiple errors
at once; logical assignment operators (??=, &&=, ||=); WeakRef, for referring to a target object without preserving it
from garbage collection, and FinalizationRegistry, to manage registration and unregistration of cleanup opera-
tions performed when target objects are garbage collected; separators for numeric literals (1_000); and
[Link] was made more precise, reducing the amount of cases that result in an implementation-
defined sort order.

ECMAScript 2022, the 13th edition, introduced top-level await, allowing the keyword to be used at the top level of mod-
ules; new class elements: public and private instance fields, public and private static fields, private instance methods
and accessors, and private static methods and accessors; static blocks inside classes, to perform per-class evaluation
initialization; the #x in obj syntax, to test for presence of private fields on objects; regular expression match indices
via the /d flag, which provides start and end indices for matched substrings; the cause property on Error objects,
which can be used to record a causation chain in errors; the at method for Strings, Arrays, and TypedArrays, which al-
lows relative indexing; and [Link], a convenient alternative to [Link].

ECMAScript 2023, the 14th edition, introduced the toSorted, toReversed, with, findLast, and findLastIndex
methods on [Link] and [Link], as well as the toSpliced method on
[Link]; added support for #! comments at the beginning of files to better facilitate executable ECMAScript
files; and allowed the use of most Symbols as keys in weak collections.

ECMAScript 2024, the 15th edition, added facilities for resizing and transferring ArrayBuffers and SharedArrayBuffers;
added a new RegExp /v flag for creating RegExps with more advanced features for working with sets of strings; and in-
troduced the [Link] convenience method for constructing Promises, the [Link] and
[Link] methods for aggregating data, the [Link] method for asynchronously waiting for a
change to shared memory, and the [Link] and [Link]
methods for checking and ensuring that strings contain only well-formed Unicode.

ECMAScript 2025, the 16th edition, added a new Iterator global with associated static and prototype methods for
working with iterators; added methods to [Link] for performing common operations on Sets; added support

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

for importing JSON modules as well as syntax for declaring attributes of imported modules; added the
[Link] method for escaping a string to be safely used in a regular expression; added syntax for enabling and
disabling modifier flags inline within regular expressions; added the [Link] method for calling functions which
may or may not return a Promise and ensuring the result is always a Promise; and added a new Float16Array
TypedArray kind as well as the related [Link].getFloat16, [Link].setFloat16,
and Math.f16round methods.

Dozens of individuals representing many organizations have made very significant contributions within Ecma TC39 to
the development of this edition and to the prior editions. In addition, a vibrant community has emerged supporting
TC39's ECMAScript efforts. This community has reviewed numerous drafts, filed thousands of bug reports, performed
implementation experiments, contributed test suites, and educated the world-wide developer community about
ECMAScript. Unfortunately, it is impossible to identify and acknowledge every person and organization who has contrib-
uted to this effort.

Allen Wirfs-Brock
ECMA-262, Project Editor, 6th Edition

Brian Terlson
ECMA-262, Project Editor, 7th through 10th Editions

Jordan Harband
ECMA-262, Project Editor, 10th through 12th Editions

Shu-yu Guo
ECMA-262, Project Editor, 12th through 16th Editions

Michael Ficarra
ECMA-262, Project Editor, 12th through 16th Editions

Kevin Gibbons
ECMA-262, Project Editor, 12th through 16th Editions

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

1 Scope
This Standard defines the ECMAScript 2026 general-purpose programming language.

2 Conformance

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript must provide and support all the types, values, objects, properties, func-
tions, and program syntax and semantics described in this specification.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript must interpret source text input in conformance with the latest version of
the Unicode Standard and ISO/IEC 10646.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript that provides an application programming interface (API) that supports pro-
grams that need to adapt to the linguistic and cultural conventions used by different human languages and countries
must implement the interface defined by the most recent edition of ECMA-402 that is compatible with this specification.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript may provide additional types, values, objects, properties, and functions
beyond those described in this specification. In particular, a conforming implementation of ECMAScript may provide
properties not described in this specification, and values for those properties, for objects that are described in
this specification.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript may support program and regular expression syntax not described in this
specification. In particular, a conforming implementation of ECMAScript may support program syntax that makes use of
any “future reserved words” noted in subclause 12.7.2 of this specification.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript must not implement any extension that is listed as a Forbidden Extension
in subclause 17.1.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript must not redefine any facilities that are not implementation-defined, imple-
mentation-approximated, or host-defined.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript may choose to implement or not implement Normative Optional sub-
clauses. If any Normative Optional behaviour is implemented, all of the behaviour in the containing Normative Optional
clause must be implemented. A Normative Optional clause is denoted in this specification with the words "Normative
Optional" in a coloured box, as shown below.

NORMATIVE OPTIONAL

2.1 Example Normative Optional Clause Heading

Example clause contents.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript must implement Legacy subclauses, unless they are also marked as
Normative Optional. All of the language features and behaviours specified within Legacy subclauses have one or more
undesirable characteristics. However, their continued usage in existing applications prevents their removal from this
specification. These features are not considered part of the core ECMAScript language. Programmers should not use or
assume the existence of these features and behaviours when writing new ECMAScript code.

LEGACY

2.2 Example Legacy Clause Heading

Example clause contents.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NORMATIVE OPTIONAL, LEGACY

2.3 Example Legacy Normative Optional Clause Heading

Example clause contents.

3 Normative References

The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document. For dated references, only
the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amend-
ments) applies.

IEEE 754-2019, IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic.

The Unicode Standard.

[Link]

ISO/IEC 10646, Information Technology — Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set (UCS) plus Amendment
1:2005, Amendment 2:2006, Amendment 3:2008, Amendment 4:2008, and additional amendments and corrigenda,
or successor.

ECMA-402, ECMAScript Internationalization API Specification, specifically the annual edition corresponding to this edi-
tion of this specification.
[Link]

ECMA-404, The JSON Data Interchange Format.

[Link]

4 Overview
This section contains a non-normative overview of the ECMAScript language.

ECMAScript is an object-oriented programming language for performing computations and manipulating computational
objects within a host environment. ECMAScript as defined here is not intended to be computationally self-sufficient; in-
deed, there are no provisions in this specification for input of external data or output of computed results. Instead, it is
expected that the computational environment of an ECMAScript program will provide not only the objects and other fa-
cilities described in this specification but also certain environment-specific objects, whose description and behaviour are
beyond the scope of this specification except to indicate that they may provide certain properties that can be accessed
and certain functions that can be called from an ECMAScript program.

ECMAScript was originally designed to be used as a scripting language, but has become widely used as a general-pur-
pose programming language. A scripting language is a programming language that is used to manipulate, customize,
and automate the facilities of an existing system. In such systems, useful functionality is already available through a
user interface, and the scripting language is a mechanism for exposing that functionality to program control. In this way,
the existing system is said to provide a host environment of objects and facilities, which completes the capabilities of the
scripting language. A scripting language is intended for use by both professional and non-professional programmers.

ECMAScript was originally designed to be a Web scripting language, providing a mechanism to enliven Web pages in
browsers and to perform server computation as part of a Web-based client-server architecture. ECMAScript is now used
to provide core scripting capabilities for a variety of host environments. Therefore the core language is specified in this
document apart from any particular host environment.

ECMAScript usage has moved beyond simple scripting and it is now used for the full spectrum of programming tasks in
many different environments and scales. As the usage of ECMAScript has expanded, so have the features and facilities
it provides. ECMAScript is now a fully featured general-purpose programming language.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4.1 Web Scripting

A web browser provides an ECMAScript host environment for client-side computation including, for instance, objects
that represent windows, menus, pop-ups, dialog boxes, text areas, anchors, frames, history, cookies, and input/output.
Further, the host environment provides a means to attach scripting code to events such as change of focus, page and
image loading, unloading, error and abort, selection, form submission, and mouse actions. Scripting code appears
within the HTML and the displayed page is a combination of user interface elements and fixed and computed text and
images. The scripting code is reactive to user interaction, and there is no need for a main program.

A web server provides a different host environment for server-side computation including objects representing requests,
clients, and files; and mechanisms to lock and share data. By using browser-side and server-side scripting together, it is
possible to distribute computation between the client and server while providing a customized user interface for a Web-
based application.

Each Web browser and server that supports ECMAScript supplies its own host environment, completing the
ECMAScript execution environment.

4.2 Hosts and Implementations

To aid integrating ECMAScript into host environments, this specification defers the definition of certain facilities (e.g.,
abstract operations), either in whole or in part, to a source outside of this specification. Editorially, this specification
distinguishes the following kinds of deferrals.

An implementation is an external source that further defines facilities enumerated in Annex D or those that are marked
as implementation-defined or implementation-approximated. In informal use, an implementation refers to a concrete
artefact, such as a particular web browser.

An implementation-defined facility is one that defers its definition to an external source without further qualification. This
specification does not make any recommendations for particular behaviours, and conforming implementations are free
to choose any behaviour within the constraints put forth by this specification.

An implementation-approximated facility is one that defers its definition to an external source while recommending an
ideal behaviour. While conforming implementations are free to choose any behaviour within the constraints put forth by
this specification, they are encouraged to strive to approximate the ideal. Some mathematical operations, such as
[Link], are implementation-approximated.

A host is an external source that further defines facilities listed in Annex D but does not further define other implementa-
tion-defined or implementation-approximated facilities. In informal use, a host refers to the set of all implementations,
such as the set of all web browsers, that interface with this specification in the same way via Annex D. A host is often an
external specification, such as WHATWG HTML ([Link] In other words, facilities that are host-
defined are often further defined in external specifications.

A host hook is an abstract operation that is defined in whole or in part by an external source. All host hooks must be lis-
ted in Annex D. A host hook must conform to at least the following requirements:

It must return either a normal completion or a throw completion.

For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.

4.4.1 implementation-approximated

an implementation-approximated facility is defined in whole or in part by an external source but has a recommended,
ideal behaviour in this specification

4.4.2 implementation-defined

an implementation-defined facility is defined in whole or in part by an external source to this specification

4.4.3 host-defined

same as implementation-defined

NOTE Editorially, see clause 4.2.

4.4.4 type

set of data values as defined in clause 6

4.4.5 primitive value

member of one of the types Undefined, Null, Boolean, Number, BigInt, Symbol, or String as defined in clause 6

NOTE A primitive value is a datum that is represented directly at the lowest level of the language implementation.

4.4.6 object

member of the type Object

NOTE An object is a collection of properties and has a single prototype object. The prototype may be null.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4.4.7 constructor

function object that creates and initializes objects

NOTE The value of a constructor's "prototype" property is a prototype object that is used to implement inheritance
and shared properties.

4.4.8 prototype

object that provides shared properties for other objects

NOTE When a constructor creates an object, that object implicitly references the constructor's "prototype"
property for the purpose of resolving property references. The constructor's "prototype" property can be
referenced by the program expression [Link], and properties added to an object's
prototype are shared, through inheritance, by all objects sharing the prototype. Alternatively, a new object
may be created with an explicitly specified prototype by using the [Link] built-in function.

4.4.9 ordinary object

object that has the default behaviour for the essential internal methods that must be supported by all objects

4.4.10 exotic object

object that does not have the default behaviour for one or more of the essential internal methods

NOTE Any object that is not an ordinary object is an exotic object.

4.4.11 standard object

object whose semantics are defined by this specification

4.4.12 built-in object

object specified and supplied by an ECMAScript implementation

NOTE Standard built-in objects are defined in this specification. An ECMAScript implementation may specify and
supply additional kinds of built-in objects.

4.4.13 undefined value

primitive value used when a variable has not been assigned a value

4.4.14 Undefined type

type whose sole value is the undefined value

4.4.15 null value

primitive value that represents the intentional absence of any object value

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4.4.16 Null type

type whose sole value is the null value

4.4.17 Boolean value

member of the Boolean type

NOTE There are only two Boolean values, true and false.

4.4.18 Boolean type

type consisting of the primitive values true and false

4.4.19 Boolean object

member of the Object type that is an instance of the standard built-in Boolean constructor

NOTE A Boolean object is created by using the Boolean constructor in a new expression, supplying a Boolean
value as an argument. The resulting object has an internal slot whose value is the Boolean value. A Boolean
object can be coerced to a Boolean value.

4.4.20 String value

primitive value that is a finite ordered sequence of zero or more 16-bit unsigned integer values

NOTE A String value is a member of the String type. Each integer value in the sequence usually represents a
single 16-bit unit of UTF-16 text. However, ECMAScript does not place any restrictions or requirements on
the values except that they must be 16-bit unsigned integers.

4.4.21 String type

set of all possible String values

4.4.22 String object

member of the Object type that is an instance of the standard built-in String constructor

NOTE A String object is created by using the String constructor in a new expression, supplying a String value as an
argument. The resulting object has an internal slot whose value is the String value. A String object can be
coerced to a String value by calling the String constructor as a function ([Link]).

4.4.23 Number value

primitive value corresponding to a double-precision 64-bit binary format IEEE 754-2019 value

NOTE A Number value is a member of the Number type and is a direct representation of a number.

4.4.24 Number type

set of all possible Number values including NaN (“not a number”), +∞𝔽 (positive infinity), and -∞𝔽 (negative infinity)

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4.4.25 Number object

member of the Object type that is an instance of the standard built-in Number constructor

NOTE A Number object is created by using the Number constructor in a new expression, supplying a Number value
as an argument. The resulting object has an internal slot whose value is the Number value. A Number object
can be coerced to a Number value by calling the Number constructor as a function ([Link]).

4.4.26 Infinity

Number value that is the positive infinite Number value

4.4.27 NaN

Number value that is an IEEE 754-2019 NaN (“not a number”) value

4.4.28 BigInt value

primitive value corresponding to an arbitrary-precision integer value

4.4.29 BigInt type

set of all possible BigInt values

4.4.30 BigInt object

member of the Object type that is an instance of the standard built-in BigInt constructor

4.4.31 Symbol value

primitive value that represents a unique, non-String Object property key

4.4.32 Symbol type

set of all possible Symbol values

4.4.33 Symbol object

member of the Object type that is an instance of the standard built-in Symbol constructor

4.4.34 function

member of the Object type that may be invoked as a subroutine

NOTE In addition to its properties, a function contains executable code and state that determine how it behaves
when invoked. A function's code may or may not be written in ECMAScript.

4.4.35 built-in function

built-in object that is a function

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE Examples of built-in functions include parseInt and [Link]. A host or implementation may provide
additional built-in functions that are not described in this specification.

4.4.36 built-in constructor

built-in function that is a constructor

NOTE Examples of built-in constructors include Object and Function. A host or implementation may provide
additional built-in constructors that are not described in this specification.

4.4.37 property

part of an object that associates a key (either a String value or a Symbol value) and a value

NOTE Depending upon the form of the property the value may be represented either directly as a data value (a
primitive value, an object, or a function object) or indirectly by a pair of accessor functions.

4.4.38 method

function that is the value of a property

NOTE When a function is called as a method of an object, the object is passed to the function as its this value.

4.4.39 built-in method

method that is a built-in function

NOTE Standard built-in methods are defined in this specification. A host or implementation may provide additional
built-in methods that are not described in this specification.

4.4.40 attribute

internal value that defines some characteristic of a property

4.4.41 own property

property that is directly contained by its object

4.4.42 inherited property

property of an object that is not an own property but is a property (either own or inherited) of the object's prototype

4.5 Organization of This Specification

The remainder of this specification is organized as follows:

Clause 5 defines the notational conventions used throughout the specification.

Clauses 6 through 10 define the execution environment within which ECMAScript programs operate.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Clauses 11 through 17 define the actual ECMAScript programming language including its syntactic encoding and the ex-
ecution semantics of all language features.

Clauses 18 through 28 define the ECMAScript standard library. They include the definitions of all of the standard objects
that are available for use by ECMAScript programs as they execute.

Clause 29 describes the memory consistency model of accesses on SharedArrayBuffer-backed memory and methods
of the Atomics object.

5 Notational Conventions

5.1 Syntactic and Lexical Grammars

5.1.1 Context-Free Grammars

A context-free grammar consists of a number of productions. Each production has an abstract symbol called a nonter-
minal as its left-hand side, and a sequence of zero or more nonterminal and terminal symbols as its right-hand side. For
each grammar, the terminal symbols are drawn from a specified alphabet.

A chain production is a production that has exactly one nonterminal symbol on its right-hand side along with zero or
more terminal symbols.

Starting from a sentence consisting of a single distinguished nonterminal, called the goal symbol, a given context-free
grammar specifies a language, namely, the (perhaps infinite) set of possible sequences of terminal symbols that can
result from repeatedly replacing any nonterminal in the sequence with a right-hand side of a production for which the
nonterminal is the left-hand side.

5.1.2 The Lexical and RegExp Grammars

A lexical grammar for ECMAScript is given in clause 12. This grammar has as its terminal symbols Unicode code points
that conform to the rules for SourceCharacter defined in 11.1. It defines a set of productions, starting from the goal sym-
bol InputElementDiv, InputElementTemplateTail, InputElementRegExp, InputElementRegExpOrTemplateTail, or
InputElementHashbangOrRegExp, that describe how sequences of such code points are translated into a sequence of
input elements.

Input elements other than white space and comments form the terminal symbols for the syntactic grammar for
ECMAScript and are called ECMAScript tokens. These tokens are the reserved words, identifiers, literals, and punctuat-
ors of the ECMAScript language. Moreover, line terminators, although not considered to be tokens, also become part of
the stream of input elements and guide the process of automatic semicolon insertion (12.10). Simple white space and
single-line comments are discarded and do not appear in the stream of input elements for the syntactic grammar. A
MultiLineComment (that is, a comment of the form /*…*/ regardless of whether it spans more than one line) is likewise
simply discarded if it contains no line terminator; but if a MultiLineComment contains one or more line terminators, then
it is replaced by a single line terminator, which becomes part of the stream of input elements for the syntactic grammar.

A RegExp grammar for ECMAScript is given in 22.2.1. This grammar also has as its terminal symbols the code points as
defined by SourceCharacter. It defines a set of productions, starting from the goal symbol Pattern, that describe how se-
quences of code points are translated into regular expression patterns.

Productions of the lexical and RegExp grammars are distinguished by having two colons “::” as separating punctuation.
The lexical and RegExp grammars share some productions.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

5.1.3 The Numeric String Grammar

A numeric string grammar appears in [Link]. It has as its terminal symbols SourceCharacter, and is used for translating
Strings into numeric values starting from the goal symbol StringNumericLiteral (which is similar to but distinct from the
lexical grammar for numeric literals).

Productions of the numeric string grammar are distinguished by having three colons “:::” as punctuation, and are never
used for parsing source text.

5.1.4 The Syntactic Grammar

The syntactic grammar for ECMAScript is given in clauses 13 through 16. This grammar has ECMAScript tokens
defined by the lexical grammar as its terminal symbols (5.1.2). It defines a set of productions, starting from two alternat-
ive goal symbols Script and Module, that describe how sequences of tokens form syntactically correct independent
components of ECMAScript programs.

When a stream of code points is to be parsed as an ECMAScript Script or Module, it is first converted to a stream of in-
put elements by repeated application of the lexical grammar; this stream of input elements is then parsed by a single ap-
plication of the syntactic grammar. The input stream is syntactically in error if the tokens in the stream of input elements
cannot be parsed as a single instance of the goal nonterminal (Script or Module), with no tokens left over.

When a parse is successful, it constructs a parse tree, a rooted tree structure in which each node is a Parse Node. Each
Parse Node is an instance of a symbol in the grammar; it represents a span of the source text that can be derived from
that symbol. The root node of the parse tree, representing the whole of the source text, is an instance of the parse's goal
symbol. When a Parse Node is an instance of a nonterminal, it is also an instance of some production that has that
nonterminal as its left-hand side. Moreover, it has zero or more children, one for each symbol on the production's right-
hand side: each child is a Parse Node that is an instance of the corresponding symbol.

New Parse Nodes are instantiated for each invocation of the parser and never reused between parses even of identical
source text. Parse Nodes are considered the same Parse Node if and only if they represent the same span of source
text, are instances of the same grammar symbol, and resulted from the same parser invocation.

NOTE 1 Parsing the same String multiple times will lead to different Parse Nodes. For example, consider:

let str = "1 + 1;";

eval(str);
eval(str);

Each call to eval converts the value of str into ECMAScript source text and performs an independent
parse that creates its own separate tree of Parse Nodes. The trees are distinct even though each parse
operates upon a source text that was derived from the same String value.

NOTE 2 Parse Nodes are specification artefacts, and implementations are not required to use an analogous data
structure.

Productions of the syntactic grammar are distinguished by having just one colon “:” as punctuation.

The syntactic grammar as presented in clauses 13 through 16 is not a complete account of which token sequences are
accepted as a correct ECMAScript Script or Module. Certain additional token sequences are also accepted, namely,
those that would be described by the grammar if only semicolons were added to the sequence in certain places (such
as before line terminator characters). Furthermore, certain token sequences that are described by the grammar are not
considered acceptable if a line terminator character appears in certain “awkward” places.

In certain cases, in order to avoid ambiguities, the syntactic grammar uses generalized productions that permit token se-
quences that do not form a valid ECMAScript Script or Module. For example, this technique is used for object literals
and object destructuring patterns. In such cases a more restrictive supplemental grammar is provided that further re-
stricts the acceptable token sequences. Typically, an early error rule will then state that, in certain contexts, "P must

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

cover an N", where P is a Parse Node (an instance of the generalized production) and N is a nonterminal from the sup-
plemental grammar. This means:

1. The sequence of tokens originally matched by P is parsed again using N as the goal symbol. If N takes grammatical
parameters, then they are set to the same values used when P was originally parsed.
2. If the sequence of tokens can be parsed as a single instance of N, with no tokens left over, then:
1. We refer to that instance of N (a Parse Node, unique for a given P) as "the N that is covered by P".
2. All Early Error rules for N and its derived productions also apply to the N that is covered by P.
3. Otherwise (if the parse fails), it is an early Syntax Error.

5.1.5 Grammar Notation

[Link] Terminal Symbols

In the ECMAScript grammars, some terminal symbols are shown in fixed-width font. These are to appear in a
source text exactly as written. All terminal symbol code points specified in this way are to be understood as the appropri-
ate Unicode code points from the Basic Latin block, as opposed to any similar-looking code points from other Unicode
ranges. A code point in a terminal symbol cannot be expressed by a \ UnicodeEscapeSequence.

In grammars whose terminal symbols are individual Unicode code points (i.e., the lexical, RegExp, and numeric string
grammars), a contiguous run of multiple fixed-width code points appearing in a production is a simple shorthand for the
same sequence of code points, written as standalone terminal symbols.

For example, the production:

HexIntegerLiteral :: 0x HexDigits

is a shorthand for:

HexIntegerLiteral :: 0 x HexDigits

In contrast, in the syntactic grammar, a contiguous run of fixed-width code points is a single terminal symbol.

Terminal symbols come in two other forms:

In the lexical and RegExp grammars, Unicode code points without a conventional printed representation are instead
shown in the form "<ABBREV>" where "ABBREV" is a mnemonic for the code point or set of code points. These
forms are defined in Unicode Format-Control Characters, White Space, and Line Terminators.
In the syntactic grammar, certain terminal symbols (e.g. IdentifierName and RegularExpressionLiteral) are shown in
italics, as they refer to the nonterminals of the same name in the lexical grammar.

[Link] Nonterminal Symbols and Productions

Nonterminal symbols are shown in italic type. The definition of a nonterminal (also called a “production”) is introduced by
the name of the nonterminal being defined followed by one or more colons. (The number of colons indicates to which
grammar the production belongs.) One or more alternative right-hand sides for the nonterminal then follow on succeed-
ing lines. For example, the syntactic definition:

WhileStatement :
while ( Expression ) Statement

states that the nonterminal WhileStatement represents the token while, followed by a left parenthesis token, followed
by an Expression, followed by a right parenthesis token, followed by a Statement. The occurrences of Expression and
Statement are themselves nonterminals. As another example, the syntactic definition:

ArgumentList :
AssignmentExpression
ArgumentList , AssignmentExpression

states that an ArgumentList may represent either a single AssignmentExpression or an ArgumentList, followed by a
comma, followed by an AssignmentExpression. This definition of ArgumentList is recursive, that is, it is defined in terms

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

of itself. The result is that an ArgumentList may contain any positive number of arguments, separated by commas,
where each argument expression is an AssignmentExpression. Such recursive definitions of nonterminals are common.

[Link] Optional Symbols

The subscripted suffix “opt”, which may appear after a terminal or nonterminal, indicates an optional symbol. The altern-
ative containing the optional symbol actually specifies two right-hand sides, one that omits the optional element and one
that includes it. This means that:

VariableDeclaration :
BindingIdentifier Initializeropt

is a convenient abbreviation for:

VariableDeclaration :
BindingIdentifier
BindingIdentifier Initializer

and that:

ForStatement :
for ( LexicalDeclaration Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

is a convenient abbreviation for:

ForStatement :
for ( LexicalDeclaration ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( LexicalDeclaration Expression ; Expressionopt ) Statement

which in turn is an abbreviation for:

ForStatement :
for ( LexicalDeclaration ; ) Statement
for ( LexicalDeclaration ; Expression ) Statement
for ( LexicalDeclaration Expression ; ) Statement
for ( LexicalDeclaration Expression ; Expression ) Statement

so, in this example, the nonterminal ForStatement actually has four alternative right-hand sides.

[Link] Grammatical Parameters

A production may be parameterized by a subscripted annotation of the form “[parameters]”, which may appear as a suffix
to the nonterminal symbol defined by the production. “parameters” may be either a single name or a comma separated list
of names. A parameterized production is shorthand for a set of productions defining all combinations of the parameter
names, preceded by an underscore, appended to the parameterized nonterminal symbol. This means that:

StatementList[Return] :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

is a convenient abbreviation for:

StatementList :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

StatementList_Return :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

and that:

StatementList[Return, In] :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

is an abbreviation for:

StatementList :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

StatementList_Return :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

StatementList_In :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

StatementList_Return_In :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

Multiple parameters produce a combinatoric number of productions, not all of which are necessarily referenced in a
complete grammar.

References to nonterminals on the right-hand side of a production can also be parameterized. For example:

StatementList :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement[+In]

is equivalent to saying:

StatementList :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement_In

and:

StatementList :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement[~In]

is equivalent to:

StatementList :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

A nonterminal reference may have both a parameter list and an “opt” suffix. For example:

VariableDeclaration :
BindingIdentifier Initializer[+In] opt

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

is an abbreviation for:

VariableDeclaration :
BindingIdentifier
BindingIdentifier Initializer_In

Prefixing a parameter name with “?” on a right-hand side nonterminal reference makes that parameter value dependent
upon the occurrence of the parameter name on the reference to the current production's left-hand side symbol.
For example:

VariableDeclaration[In] :
BindingIdentifier Initializer[?In]

is an abbreviation for:

VariableDeclaration :
BindingIdentifier Initializer

VariableDeclaration_In :
BindingIdentifier Initializer_In

If a right-hand side alternative is prefixed with “[+parameter]” that alternative is only available if the named parameter
was used in referencing the production's nonterminal symbol. If a right-hand side alternative is prefixed with
“[~parameter]” that alternative is only available if the named parameter was not used in referencing the production's
nonterminal symbol. This means that:

StatementList[Return] :
ReturnStatement
[+Return]
ExpressionStatement

is an abbreviation for:

StatementList :
ExpressionStatement

StatementList_Return :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

and that:

StatementList[Return] :
ReturnStatement
[~Return]
ExpressionStatement

is an abbreviation for:

StatementList :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

StatementList_Return :
ExpressionStatement

[Link] one of

When the words “one of” follow the colon(s) in a grammar definition, they signify that each of the terminal symbols
on the following line or lines is an alternative definition. For example, the lexical grammar for ECMAScript contains

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

the production:

NonZeroDigit :: one of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

which is merely a convenient abbreviation for:

NonZeroDigit ::
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

[Link] [empty]

If the phrase “[empty]” appears as the right-hand side of a production, it indicates that the production's right-hand side
contains no terminals or nonterminals.

[Link] Lookahead Restrictions

If the phrase “[lookahead = seq]” appears in the right-hand side of a production, it indicates that the production may only
be used if the token sequence seq is a prefix of the immediately following input token sequence. Similarly, “[lookahead ∈
set]”, where set is a finite non-empty set of token sequences, indicates that the production may only be used if some
element of set is a prefix of the immediately following token sequence. For convenience, the set can also be written as a
nonterminal, in which case it represents the set of all token sequences to which that nonterminal could expand. It is con-
sidered an editorial error if the nonterminal could expand to infinitely many distinct token sequences.

These conditions may be negated. “[lookahead ≠ seq]” indicates that the containing production may only be used if seq
is not a prefix of the immediately following input token sequence, and “[lookahead ∉ set]” indicates that the production
may only be used if no element of set is a prefix of the immediately following token sequence.

As an example, given the definitions:

DecimalDigit :: one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

DecimalDigits ::
DecimalDigit
DecimalDigits DecimalDigit

the definition:

LookaheadExample ::
n [lookahead ∉ { 1 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 9 }] DecimalDigits
DecimalDigit [lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]

matches either the letter n followed by one or more decimal digits the first of which is even, or a decimal digit not fol-
lowed by another decimal digit.

Note that when these phrases are used in the syntactic grammar, it may not be possible to unambiguously identify the
immediately following token sequence because determining later tokens requires knowing which lexical goal symbol to
use at later positions. As such, when these are used in the syntactic grammar, it is considered an editorial error for a
token sequence seq to appear in a lookahead restriction (including as part of a set of sequences) if the choices of lexical
goal symbols to use could change whether or not seq would be a prefix of the resulting token sequence.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [no LineTerminator here]

If the phrase “[no LineTerminator here]” appears in the right-hand side of a production of the syntactic grammar, it indic-
ates that the production is a restricted production: it may not be used if a LineTerminator occurs in the input stream at
the indicated position. For example, the production:

ThrowStatement :
throw [no LineTerminator here] Expression ;

indicates that the production may not be used if a LineTerminator occurs in the script between the throw token and
the Expression.

Unless the presence of a LineTerminator is forbidden by a restricted production, any number of occurrences of
LineTerminator may appear between any two consecutive tokens in the stream of input elements without affecting the
syntactic acceptability of the script.

[Link] but not

The right-hand side of a production may specify that certain expansions are not permitted by using the phrase “but not”
and then indicating the expansions to be excluded. For example, the production:

Identifier ::
IdentifierName but not ReservedWord

means that the nonterminal Identifier may be replaced by any sequence of code points that could replace
IdentifierName provided that the same sequence of code points could not replace ReservedWord.

[Link] Descriptive Phrases

Finally, a few nonterminal symbols are described by a descriptive phrase in sans-serif type in cases where it would be
impractical to list all the alternatives:

SourceCharacter ::
any Unicode code point

5.2 Algorithm Conventions

The specification often uses a numbered list to specify steps in an algorithm. These algorithms are used to precisely
specify the required semantics of ECMAScript language constructs. The algorithms are not intended to imply the use of
any specific implementation technique. In practice, there may be more efficient algorithms available to implement a
given feature.

Algorithms may be explicitly parameterized with an ordered, comma-separated sequence of alias names which may be
used within the algorithm steps to reference the argument passed in that position. Optional parameters are denoted with
surrounding brackets ([ , name ]) and are no different from required parameters within algorithm steps. A rest parameter
may appear at the end of a parameter list, denoted with leading ellipsis (, ...name). The rest parameter captures all of
the arguments provided following the required and optional parameters into a List. If there are no such additional argu-
ments, that List is empty.

Algorithm steps may be subdivided into sequential substeps. Substeps are indented and may themselves be further
divided into indented substeps. Outline numbering conventions are used to identify substeps with the first level of
substeps labelled with lowercase alphabetic characters and the second level of substeps labelled with lowercase
roman numerals. If more than three levels are required these rules repeat with the fourth level using numeric labels.
For example:

1. Top-level step

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

a. Substep.
b. Substep.
i. Subsubstep.
1. Subsubsubstep
a. Subsubsubsubstep
i. Subsubsubsubsubstep

A step or substep may be written as an “if” predicate that conditions its substeps. In this case, the substeps are only ap-
plied if the predicate is true. If a step or substep begins with the word “else”, it is a predicate that is the negation of the
preceding “if” predicate step at the same level.

A step may specify the iterative application of its substeps.

A step that begins with “Assert:” asserts an invariant condition of its algorithm. Such assertions are used to make explicit
algorithmic invariants that would otherwise be implicit. Such assertions add no additional semantic requirements and
hence need not be checked by an implementation. They are used simply to clarify algorithms.

Algorithm steps may declare named aliases for any value using the form “Let x be someValue”. These aliases are refer-
ence-like in that both x and someValue refer to the same underlying data and modifications to either are visible to both.
Algorithm steps that want to avoid this reference-like behaviour should explicitly make a copy of the right-hand side: “Let
x be a copy of someValue” creates a shallow copy of someValue.

Once declared, an alias may be referenced in any subsequent steps and must not be referenced from steps prior to the
alias's declaration. Aliases may be modified using the form “Set x to someOtherValue”.

5.2.1 Abstract Operations

In order to facilitate their use in multiple parts of this specification, some algorithms, called abstract operations, are
named and written in parameterized functional form so that they may be referenced by name from within other al-
gorithms. Abstract operations are typically referenced using a functional application style such as OperationName(arg1,
arg2). Some abstract operations are treated as polymorphically dispatched methods of class-like specification abstrac-
tions. Such method-like abstract operations are typically referenced using a method application style such as
[Link](arg1, arg2).

5.2.2 Syntax-Directed Operations

A syntax-directed operation is a named operation whose definition consists of algorithms, each of which is associated
with one or more productions from one of the ECMAScript grammars. A production that has multiple alternative defini-
tions will typically have a distinct algorithm for each alternative. When an algorithm is associated with a grammar pro-
duction, it may reference the terminal and nonterminal symbols of the production alternative as if they were parameters
of the algorithm. When used in this manner, nonterminal symbols refer to the actual alternative definition that is matched
when parsing the source text. The source text matched by a grammar production or Parse Node derived from it is the
portion of the source text that starts at the beginning of the first terminal that participated in the match and ends at the
end of the last terminal that participated in the match.

When an algorithm is associated with a production alternative, the alternative is typically shown without any “[ ]” gram-
mar annotations. Such annotations should only affect the syntactic recognition of the alternative and have no effect on
the associated semantics for the alternative.

Syntax-directed operations are invoked with a parse node and, optionally, other parameters by using the conventions on
steps 1, 3, and 4 in the following algorithm:

1. Let status be SyntaxDirectedOperation of SomeNonTerminal.

2. Let someParseNode be the parse of some source text.
3. Perform SyntaxDirectedOperation of someParseNode.
4. Perform SyntaxDirectedOperation of someParseNode with argument "value".

Unless explicitly specified otherwise, all chain productions have an implicit definition for every operation that might be
applied to that production's left-hand side nonterminal. The implicit definition simply reapplies the same operation
with the same parameters, if any, to the chain production's sole right-hand side nonterminal and then returns the

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

result. For example, assume that some algorithm has a step of the form: “Return Evaluation of Block” and that there is
a production:

Block :
{ StatementList }

but the Evaluation operation does not associate an algorithm with that production. In that case, the Evaluation operation
implicitly includes an association of the form:

Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

Block : { StatementList }

1. Return Evaluation of StatementList.

5.2.3 Runtime Semantics

Algorithms which specify semantics that must be called at runtime are called runtime semantics. Runtime semantics are
defined by abstract operations or syntax-directed operations.

[Link] Completion ( completionRecord )

The abstract operation Completion takes argument completionRecord (a Completion Record) and returns a Completion
Record. It is used to emphasize that a Completion Record is being returned. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: completionRecord is a Completion Record.

2. Return completionRecord.

[Link] Throw an Exception

Algorithms steps that say to throw an exception, such as

1. Throw a TypeError exception.

mean the same things as:

1. Return ThrowCompletion(a newly created TypeError object).

[Link] ReturnIfAbrupt

Algorithms steps that say or are otherwise equivalent to:

1. ReturnIfAbrupt(argument).

mean the same thing as:

1. Assert: argument is a Completion Record.

2. If argument is an abrupt completion, return Completion(argument).
3. Else, set argument to argument.⁠[[Value]].

Algorithms steps that say or are otherwise equivalent to:

1. ReturnIfAbrupt(AbstractOperation()).

mean the same thing as:

1. Let hygienicTemp be AbstractOperation().

2. Assert: hygienicTemp is a Completion Record.
3. If hygienicTemp is an abrupt completion, return Completion(hygienicTemp).
4. Else, set hygienicTemp to hygienicTemp.⁠[[Value]].

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Where hygienicTemp is ephemeral and visible only in the steps pertaining to ReturnIfAbrupt.

Algorithms steps that say or are otherwise equivalent to:

1. Let result be AbstractOperation(ReturnIfAbrupt(argument)).

mean the same thing as:

1. Assert: argument is a Completion Record.

2. If argument is an abrupt completion, return Completion(argument).
3. Else, set argument to argument.⁠[[Value]].
4. Let result be AbstractOperation(argument).

[Link] ReturnIfAbrupt Shorthands

Invocations of abstract operations and syntax-directed operations that are prefixed by ? indicate that ReturnIfAbrupt
should be applied to the resulting Completion Record. For example, the step:

1. ? OperationName().

is equivalent to the following step:

1. ReturnIfAbrupt(OperationName()).

Similarly, for method application style, the step:

1. ? [Link]().

is equivalent to:

1. ReturnIfAbrupt([Link]()).

Similarly, prefix ! is used to indicate that the following invocation of an abstract or syntax-directed operation will never
return an abrupt completion and that the resulting Completion Record's ⁠[[Value]] field should be used in place of the re-
turn value of the operation. For example, the step:

1. Let val be ! OperationName().

is equivalent to the following steps:

1. Let val be OperationName().

2. Assert: val is a normal completion.
3. Set val to val.⁠[[Value]].

Syntax-directed operations for runtime semantics make use of this shorthand by placing ! or ? before the invocation of
the operation:

1. Perform ! SyntaxDirectedOperation of NonTerminal.

[Link] Implicit Normal Completion

In algorithms within abstract operations which are declared to return a Completion Record, and within all built-in func-
tions, the returned value is first passed to NormalCompletion, and the result is used instead. This rule does not apply
within the Completion algorithm or when the value being returned is clearly marked as a Completion Record in that step;
these cases are:

when the result of applying Completion, NormalCompletion, ThrowCompletion, or ReturnCompletion is directly

returned
when the result of constructing a Completion Record is directly returned

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

It is an editorial error if a Completion Record is returned from such an abstract operation through any other means. For
example, within these abstract operations,

1. Return true.

means the same things as any of

1. Return NormalCompletion(true).

1. Let completion be NormalCompletion(true).

2. Return Completion(completion).

1. Return Completion Record { ⁠[[Type]]: NORMAL, ⁠[[Value]]: true, ⁠[[Target]]: EMPTY }.

Note that, through the ReturnIfAbrupt expansion, the following example is allowed, as within the expanded steps, the
result of applying Completion is returned directly in the abrupt case and the implicit NormalCompletion application oc-
curs after unwrapping in the normal case.

1. Return ? completion.

The following example would be an editorial error because a Completion Record is being returned without being annot-
ated in that step.

1. Let completion be NormalCompletion(true).

2. Return completion.

5.2.4 Static Semantics

Context-free grammars are not sufficiently powerful to express all the rules that define whether a stream of input ele-
ments form a valid ECMAScript Script or Module that may be evaluated. In some situations additional rules are needed
that may be expressed using either ECMAScript algorithm conventions or prose requirements. Such rules are always
associated with a production of a grammar and are called the static semantics of the production.

Static Semantic Rules have names and typically are defined using an algorithm. Named Static Semantic Rules are as-
sociated with grammar productions and a production that has multiple alternative definitions will typically have for each
alternative a distinct algorithm for each applicable named static semantic rule.

A special kind of static semantic rule is an Early Error Rule. Early error rules define early error conditions (see clause
17) that are associated with specific grammar productions. Evaluation of most early error rules are not explicitly invoked
within the algorithms of this specification. A conforming implementation must, prior to the first evaluation of a Script or
Module, validate all of the early error rules of the productions used to parse that Script or Module. If any of the early er-
ror rules are violated the Script or Module is invalid and cannot be evaluated.

5.2.5 Mathematical Operations

This specification makes reference to these kinds of numeric values:

Mathematical values: Arbitrary real numbers, used as the default numeric type.
Extended mathematical values: Mathematical values together with +∞ and -∞.
Numbers: IEEE 754-2019 binary64 (double-precision floating point) values.
BigInts: ECMAScript language values representing arbitrary integers in a one-to-one correspondence.

In the language of this specification, numerical values are distinguished among different numeric kinds using subscript
suffixes. The subscript 𝔽 refers to Numbers, and the subscript ℤ refers to BigInts. Numeric values without a subscript suf-
fix refer to mathematical values. This specification denotes most numeric values in base 10; it also uses numeric values
of the form 0x followed by digits 0-9 or A-F as base-16 values.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

In general, when this specification refers to a numerical value, such as in the phrase, "the length of y" or "the integer
represented by the four hexadecimal digits ...", without explicitly specifying a numeric kind, the phrase refers to a math-
ematical value. Phrases which refer to a Number or a BigInt value are explicitly annotated as such; for example, "the
Number value for the number of code points in …" or "the BigInt value for …".

When the term integer is used in this specification, it refers to a mathematical value which is in the set of integers, un-
less otherwise stated. When the term integral Number is used in this specification, it refers to a finite Number value
whose mathematical value is in the set of integers.

Numeric operators such as +, ×, =, and ≥ refer to those operations as determined by the type of the operands. When ap-
plied to mathematical values, the operators refer to the usual mathematical operations. When applied to extended math-
ematical values, the operators refer to the usual mathematical operations over the extended real numbers; indetermin-
ate forms are not defined and their use in this specification should be considered an editorial error. When applied to
Numbers, the operators refer to the relevant operations within IEEE 754-2019. When applied to BigInts, the operators
refer to the usual mathematical operations applied to the mathematical value of the BigInt. Numeric operators applied to
mixed-type operands (such as a Number and a mathematical value) are not defined and should be considered an edit-
orial error in this specification.

Conversions between mathematical values and Numbers or BigInts are always explicit in this document. A conversion
from a mathematical value or extended mathematical value x to a Number is denoted as "the Number value for x" or
𝔽(x), and is defined in [Link]. A conversion from an integer x to a BigInt is denoted as "the BigInt value for x" or ℤ(x). A
conversion from a Number or BigInt x to a mathematical value is denoted as "the mathematical value of x", or ℝ(x). The
mathematical value of +0𝔽 and -0𝔽 is the mathematical value 0. The mathematical value of non-finite values is not
defined. The extended mathematical value of x is the mathematical value of x for finite values, and is +∞ and -∞ for +∞𝔽
and -∞𝔽 respectively; it is not defined for NaN.

The mathematical function abs(x) produces the absolute value of x, which is -x if x < 0 and otherwise is x itself.

The mathematical function min(x1, x2, … , xN) produces the mathematically smallest of x1 through xN. The mathemat-
ical function max(x1, x2, ..., xN) produces the mathematically largest of x1 through xN. The domain and range of these
mathematical functions are the extended mathematical values.

The notation “x modulo y” (y must be finite and non-zero) computes a value k of the same sign as y (or zero) such that
abs(k) < abs(y) and x - k = q × y for some integer q.

The phrase "the result of clamping x between lower and upper" (where x is an extended mathematical value and lower
and upper are mathematical values such that lower ≤ upper) produces lower if x < lower, produces upper if x > upper,
and otherwise produces x.

The mathematical function floor(x) produces the largest integer (closest to +∞) that is not larger than x.

NOTE floor(x) = x - (x modulo 1).

The mathematical function truncate(x) removes the fractional part of x by rounding towards zero, producing -floor(-x) if x
< 0 and otherwise producing floor(x).

Mathematical functions min, max, abs, floor, and truncate are not defined for Numbers and BigInts, and any usage of
those methods that have non-mathematical value arguments would be an editorial error in this specification.

An interval from lower bound a to upper bound b is a possibly-infinite, possibly-empty set of numeric values of the same
numeric type. Each bound will be described as either inclusive or exclusive, but not both. There are four kinds of inter-
vals, as follows:

An interval from a (inclusive) to b (inclusive), also called an inclusive interval from a to b, includes all values x of the
same numeric type such that a ≤ x ≤ b, and no others.
An interval from a (inclusive) to b (exclusive) includes all values x of the same numeric type such that a ≤ x < b, and
no others.
An interval from a (exclusive) to b (inclusive) includes all values x of the same numeric type such that a < x ≤ b, and
no others.
An interval from a (exclusive) to b (exclusive) includes all values x of the same numeric type such that a < x < b, and
no others.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

For example, the interval from 1 (inclusive) to 2 (exclusive) consists of all mathematical values between 1 and 2, includ-
ing 1 and not including 2. For the purpose of defining intervals, -0𝔽 < +0𝔽, so, for example, an inclusive interval with a
lower bound of +0𝔽 includes +0𝔽 but not -0𝔽. NaN is never included in an interval.

5.2.6 Value Notation

In this specification, ECMAScript language values are displayed in bold. Examples include null, true, or "hello". These
are distinguished from ECMAScript source text such as [Link] or let n = 42;.

5.2.7 Identity

In this specification, both specification values and ECMAScript language values are compared for equality. When com-
paring for equality, values fall into one of two categories. Values without identity are equal to other values without iden-
tity if all of their innate characteristics are the same — characteristics such as the magnitude of an integer or the length
of a sequence. Values without identity may be manifest without prior reference by fully describing their characteristics. In
contrast, each value with identity is unique and therefore only equal to itself. Values with identity are like values without
identity but with an additional unguessable, unchangeable, universally-unique characteristic called identity. References
to existing values with identity cannot be manifest simply by describing them, as the identity itself is indescribable; in-
stead, references to these values must be explicitly passed from one place to another. Some values with identity are
mutable and therefore can have their characteristics (except their identity) changed in-place, causing all holders of the
value to observe the new characteristics. A value without identity is never equal to a value with identity.

From the perspective of this specification, the word “is” is used to compare two values for equality, as in “If bool is true,
then ...”, and the word “contains” is used to search for a value inside lists using equality comparisons, as in "If list con-
tains a Record r such that r.⁠[[Foo]] is true, then ...". The specification identity of values determines the result of these
comparisons and is axiomatic in this specification.

From the perspective of the ECMAScript language, language values are compared for equality using the SameValue ab-
stract operation and the abstract operations it transitively calls. The algorithms of these comparison abstract operations
determine language identity of ECMAScript language values.

For specification values, examples of values without specification identity include, but are not limited to: mathematical
values and extended mathematical values; ECMAScript source text, surrogate pairs, Directive Prologues, etc; UTF-16
code units; Unicode code points; enums; abstract operations, including syntax-directed operations, host hooks, etc; and
ordered pairs. Examples of specification values with specification identity include, but are not limited to: any kind
of Records, including Property Descriptors, PrivateElements, etc; Parse Nodes; Lists; Sets and Relations; Abstract
Closures; Data Blocks; Private Names; execution contexts and execution context stacks; agent signifiers; and
WaiterList Records.

Specification identity agrees with language identity for all ECMAScript language values except Symbol values produced
by [Link]. The ECMAScript language values without specification identity and without language identity are un-
defined, null, Booleans, Strings, Numbers, and BigInts. The ECMAScript language values with specification identity
and language identity are Symbols not produced by [Link] and Objects. Symbol values produced by [Link]
have specification identity, but not language identity.

6 ECMAScript Data Types and Values

Algorithms within this specification manipulate values each of which has an associated type. The possible value
types are exactly those defined in this clause. Types are further classified into ECMAScript language types and
specification types.

6.1 ECMAScript Language Types

An ECMAScript language type corresponds to values that are directly manipulated by an ECMAScript programmer us-
ing the ECMAScript language. The ECMAScript language types are Undefined, Null, Boolean, String, Symbol, Number,
BigInt, and Object. An ECMAScript language value is a value that is characterized by an ECMAScript language type.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

6.1.1 The Undefined Type

The Undefined type has exactly one value, called undefined. Any variable that has not been assigned a value has the
value undefined.

6.1.2 The Null Type

The Null type has exactly one value, called null.

6.1.3 The Boolean Type

The Boolean type represents a logical entity having two values, called true and false.

6.1.4 The String Type

The String type is the set of all ordered sequences of zero or more 16-bit unsigned integer values (“elements”) up to a
maximum length of 253 - 1 elements. The String type is generally used to represent textual data in a running
ECMAScript program, in which case each element in the String is treated as a UTF-16 code unit value. Each element is
regarded as occupying a position within the sequence. These positions are indexed with non-negative integers. The first
element (if any) is at index 0, the next element (if any) at index 1, and so on. The length of a String is the number of ele-
ments (i.e., 16-bit values) within it. The empty String has length zero and therefore contains no elements.

ECMAScript operations that do not interpret String contents apply no further semantics. Operations that do interpret
String values treat each element as a single UTF-16 code unit. However, ECMAScript does not restrict the value of or
relationships between these code units, so operations that further interpret String contents as sequences of Unicode
code points encoded in UTF-16 must account for ill-formed subsequences. Such operations apply special treatment to
every code unit with a numeric value in the inclusive interval from 0xD800 to 0xDBFF (defined by the Unicode Standard
as a leading surrogate, or more formally as a high-surrogate code unit) and every code unit with a numeric value in the
inclusive interval from 0xDC00 to 0xDFFF (defined as a trailing surrogate, or more formally as a low-surrogate code
unit) using the following rules:

A code unit that is not a leading surrogate and not a trailing surrogate is interpreted as a code point with the same
value.
A sequence of two code units, where the first code unit c1 is a leading surrogate and the second code unit c2 a
trailing surrogate, is a surrogate pair and is interpreted as a code point with the value (c1 - 0xD800) × 0x400 + (c2 -
0xDC00) + 0x10000. (See 11.1.3)
A code unit that is a leading surrogate or trailing surrogate, but is not part of a surrogate pair, is interpreted as a
code point with the same value.

The function [Link] (see [Link]) can be used to explicitly normalize a String value.
[Link] (see [Link]) internally normalizes String values, but no other operations im-
plicitly normalize the strings upon which they operate. Operation results are not language- and/or locale-sensitive unless
stated otherwise.

NOTE The rationale behind this design was to keep the implementation of Strings as simple and high-performing
as possible. If ECMAScript source text is in Normalized Form C, string literals are guaranteed to also be
normalized, as long as they do not contain any Unicode escape sequences.

In this specification, the phrase "the string-concatenation of A, B, ..." (where each argument is a String value, a code
unit, or a sequence of code units) denotes the String value whose sequence of code units is the concatenation of the
code units (in order) of each of the arguments (in order).

The phrase "the substring of S from inclusiveStart to exclusiveEnd" (where S is a String value or a sequence of code
units and inclusiveStart and exclusiveEnd are integers) denotes the String value consisting of the consecutive
code units of S beginning at index inclusiveStart and ending immediately before index exclusiveEnd (which is the
empty String when inclusiveStart = exclusiveEnd). If the "to" suffix is omitted, the length of S is used as the value
of exclusiveEnd.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

The phrase "the ASCII word characters" denotes the following String value, which consists solely of every letter and
number in the Unicode Basic Latin block along with U+005F (LOW LINE):
"ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789_".
For historical reasons, it has significance to various algorithms.

[Link] StringIndexOf ( string, searchValue, fromIndex )

The abstract operation StringIndexOf takes arguments string (a String), searchValue (a String), and fromIndex (a non-
negative integer) and returns a non-negative integer or NOT-FOUND. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let len be the length of string.

2. If searchValue is the empty String and fromIndex ≤ len, return fromIndex.
3. Let searchLen be the length of searchValue.
4. For each integer i such that fromIndex ≤ i ≤ len - searchLen, in ascending order, do
a. Let candidate be the substring of string from i to i + searchLen.
b. If candidate is searchValue, return i.
5. Return NOT-FOUND.

NOTE 1 If searchValue is the empty String and fromIndex ≤ the length of string, this algorithm returns fromIndex. The
empty String is effectively found at every position within a string, including after the last code unit.

NOTE 2 This algorithm always returns NOT-FOUND if fromIndex + the length of searchValue > the length of string.

[Link] StringLastIndexOf ( string, searchValue, fromIndex )

The abstract operation StringLastIndexOf takes arguments string (a String), searchValue (a String), and fromIndex (a
non-negative integer) and returns a non-negative integer or NOT-FOUND. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let len be the length of string.

2. Let searchLen be the length of searchValue.
3. Assert: fromIndex + searchLen ≤ len.
4. For each integer i such that 0 ≤ i ≤ fromIndex, in descending order, do
a. Let candidate be the substring of string from i to i + searchLen.
b. If candidate is searchValue, return i.
5. Return NOT-FOUND.

NOTE If searchValue is the empty String, this algorithm returns fromIndex. The empty String is effectively found at
every position within a string, including after the last code unit.

6.1.5 The Symbol Type

The Symbol type is the set of all non-String values that may be used as the key of an Object property (6.1.7).

Each possible Symbol value is unique and immutable.

Each Symbol value immutably holds an associated value called ⁠[[Description]] that is either undefined or a String value.

[Link] Well-Known Symbols

Well-known symbols are built-in Symbol values that are explicitly referenced by algorithms of this specification. They are
typically used as the keys of properties whose values serve as extension points of a specification algorithm. Unless oth-
erwise specified, well-known symbols values are shared by all realms (9.3).

Within this specification a well-known symbol is referred to using the standard intrinsic notation where the intrinsic is one
of the values listed in Table 1.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE Previous editions of this specification used a notation of the form @@name, where the current edition would
use %[Link]%. In particular, the following names were used: @@asyncIterator, @@hasInstance,
@@isConcatSpreadable, @@iterator, @@match, @@matchAll, @@replace, @@search, @@species,
@@split, @@toPrimitive, @@toStringTag, and @@unscopables.

Table 1: Well-known Symbols

Specification Name ⁠[[Description]] Value and Purpose
%[Link]% "[Link]" A method that returns the default async iterator
for an object. Called by the semantics of the for-
await-of statement.
%[Link]% "[Link]" A method that determines if a constructor object
recognizes an object as one of the constructor's
instances. Called by the semantics of the
instanceof operator.
%[Link]% "[Link]" A Boolean valued property that if true indicates
that an object should be flattened to its array
elements by [Link].
%[Link]% "[Link]" A method that returns the default iterator for an
object. Called by the semantics of the for-of
statement.
%[Link]% "[Link]" A regular expression method that matches the
regular expression against a string. Called by the
[Link] method.
%[Link]% "[Link]" A regular expression method that returns an
iterator that yields matches of the regular
expression against a string. Called by the
[Link] method.
%[Link]% "[Link]" A regular expression method that replaces
matched substrings of a string. Called by the
[Link] method.
%[Link]% "[Link]" A regular expression method that returns the
index within a string that matches the regular
expression. Called by the
[Link] method.
%[Link]% "[Link]" A function valued property that is the constructor
function that is used to create derived objects.
%[Link]% "[Link]" A regular expression method that splits a string at
the indices that match the regular expression.
Called by the [Link]
method.
%[Link]% "[Link]" A method that converts an object to a
corresponding primitive value. Called by the
ToPrimitive abstract operation.
%[Link]% "[Link]" A String valued property that is used in the
creation of the default string description of an
object. Accessed by the built-in method
[Link].

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Specification Name ⁠[[Description]] Value and Purpose

%[Link]% "[Link]" An object valued property whose own and
inherited property names are property names
that are excluded from the with environment
bindings of the associated object.

6.1.6 Numeric Types

ECMAScript has two built-in numeric types: Number and BigInt. The following abstract operations are defined over
these numeric types. The "Result" column shows the return type, along with an indication if it is possible for some invoc-
ations of the operation to return an abrupt completion.

Table 2: Numeric Type Operations

Operation Example source Invoked by the Evaluation semantics Result
of ...
Number::unaryMinus Number
-x Unary - Operator
BigInt::unaryMinus BigInt
Number::bitwiseNOT Number
~x Bitwise NOT Operator ( ~ )
BigInt::bitwiseNOT BigInt
Number::exponentiate Number
BigInt::exponentiate Exponentiation Operator and [Link] ( either a normal
x ** y completion containing
base, exponent )
a BigInt or a throw
completion
Number::multiply Number
x * y Multiplicative Operators
BigInt::multiply BigInt
Number::divide Number
BigInt::divide either a normal
x / y Multiplicative Operators completion containing
a BigInt or a throw
completion
Number::remainder Number
BigInt::remainder either a normal
x % y Multiplicative Operators completion containing
a BigInt or a throw
completion
Number::add x ++ Postfix Increment Operator, Prefix Number
++ x Increment Operator, and The Addition
BigInt::add x + y Operator ( + ) BigInt

Number::subtract x -- Postfix Decrement Operator, Prefix Number

-- x Decrement Operator, and The
BigInt::subtract x - y Subtraction Operator ( - ) BigInt

Number::leftShift Number
x << y The Left Shift Operator ( << )
BigInt::leftShift BigInt
Number::signedRightShift Number
x >> y The Signed Right Shift Operator ( >> )
BigInt::signedRightShift BigInt

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Operation Example source Invoked by the Evaluation semantics Result

of ...
Number::unsignedRightShift The Unsigned Right Shift Operator ( >>> Number
x >>> y
BigInt::unsignedRightShift ) a throw completion
Number::lessThan x < y Boolean or undefined
x > y Relational Operators, via IsLessThan ( (for unordered inputs)
x <= y x, y, LeftFirst )
BigInt::lessThan x >= y Boolean

Number::equal x == y
x != y Equality Operators, via IsStrictlyEqual (
Boolean
BigInt::equal x === y x, y )
x !== y
Number::sameValue [Link](x, y) Object internal methods, via SameValue Boolean
( x, y ), to test exact value equality
Number::sameValueZero [x].includes(y) via SameValueZero ( x, y ), to test value Boolean
equality, ignoring the difference between
+0𝔽 and -0𝔽, as in Array, Map, and Set
methods
Number::bitwiseAND Number
x & y
BigInt::bitwiseAND BigInt
Number::bitwiseXOR Number
x ^ y Binary Bitwise Operators
BigInt::bitwiseXOR BigInt
Number::bitwiseOR Number
x | y
BigInt::bitwiseOR BigInt
Number::toString Many expressions and built-in functions,
String(x) String
BigInt::toString via ToString ( argument )

Because the numeric types are in general not convertible without loss of precision or truncation, the ECMAScript
language provides no implicit conversion among these types. Programmers must explicitly call Number and
BigInt functions to convert among types when calling a function which requires another type.

NOTE The first and subsequent editions of ECMAScript have provided, for certain operators, implicit numeric
conversions that could lose precision or truncate. These legacy implicit conversions are maintained for
backward compatibility, but not provided for BigInt in order to minimize opportunity for programmer error, and
to leave open the option of generalized value types in a future edition.

[Link] The Number Type

The Number type has exactly 18,437,736,874,454,810,627 (that is, 264 - 253 + 3) values, representing the double-preci-
sion floating point IEEE 754-2019 binary64 values as specified in the IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point
Arithmetic, except that the 9,007,199,254,740,990 (that is, 253 - 2) distinct NaN values of the IEEE Standard are repres-
ented in ECMAScript as a single special NaN value. (Note that the NaN value is produced by the program expression

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NaN.) In some implementations, external code might be able to detect a difference between various NaN values, but
such behaviour is implementation-defined; to ECMAScript code, all NaN values are indistinguishable from each other.

NOTE The bit pattern that might be observed in an ArrayBuffer (see 25.1) or a SharedArrayBuffer (see 25.2) after a
Number value has been stored into it is not necessarily the same as the internal representation of that
Number value used by the ECMAScript implementation.

There are two other special values, called positive Infinity and negative Infinity. For brevity, these values are also re-
ferred to for expository purposes by the symbols +∞𝔽 and -∞𝔽, respectively. (Note that these two infinite Number values
are produced by the program expressions +Infinity (or simply Infinity) and -Infinity.)

The other 18,437,736,874,454,810,624 (that is, 264 - 253) values are called the finite numbers. Half of these are positive
numbers and half are negative numbers; for every finite positive Number value there is a corresponding negative value
having the same magnitude.

Note that there is both a positive zero and a negative zero. For brevity, these values are also referred to for expository
purposes by the symbols +0𝔽 and -0𝔽, respectively. (Note that these two different zero Number values are produced by
the program expressions +0 (or simply 0) and -0.)

The 18,437,736,874,454,810,622 (that is, 264 - 253 - 2) finite non-zero values are of two kinds:

18,428,729,675,200,069,632 (that is, 264 - 254) of them are normalized, having the form

s × m × 2e

where s is 1 or -1, m is an integer in the interval from 252 (inclusive) to 253 (exclusive), and e is an integer in the inclus-
ive interval from -1074 to 971.

The remaining 9,007,199,254,740,990 (that is, 253 - 2) values are denormalized, having the form

s × m × 2e

where s is 1 or -1, m is an integer in the interval from 0 (exclusive) to 252 (exclusive), and e is -1074.

Note that all the positive and negative integers whose magnitude is no greater than 253 are representable in the Number
type. The integer 0 has two representations in the Number type: +0𝔽 and -0𝔽.

A finite number has an odd significand if it is non-zero and the integer m used to express it (in one of the two forms
shown above) is odd. Otherwise, it has an even significand.

In this specification, the phrase “the Number value for x” where x represents an exact real mathematical quantity (which
might even be an irrational number such as π) means a Number value chosen in the following manner. Consider the set
of all finite values of the Number type, with -0𝔽 removed and with two additional values added to it that are not repres-
entable in the Number type, namely 21024 (which is +1 × 253 × 2971) and -21024 (which is -1 × 253 × 2971). Choose the
member of this set that is closest in value to x. If two values of the set are equally close, then the one with an even signi-
ficand is chosen; for this purpose, the two extra values 21024 and -21024 are considered to have even significands.
Finally, if 21024 was chosen, replace it with +∞𝔽; if -21024 was chosen, replace it with -∞𝔽; if +0𝔽 was chosen, replace it
with -0𝔽 if and only if x < 0; any other chosen value is used unchanged. The result is the Number value for x. (This pro-
cedure corresponds exactly to the behaviour of the IEEE 754-2019 roundTiesToEven mode.)

The Number value for +∞ is +∞𝔽, and the Number value for -∞ is -∞𝔽.

Some ECMAScript operators deal only with integers in specific ranges such as the inclusive interval from -231 to 231 - 1
or the inclusive interval from 0 to 216 - 1. These operators accept any value of the Number type but first convert each
such value to an integer value in the expected range. See the descriptions of the numeric conversion operations in 7.1.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].1 Number::unaryMinus ( x )

The abstract operation Number::unaryMinus takes argument x (a Number) and returns a Number. It performs the follow-
ing steps when called:

1. If x is NaN, return NaN.

2. Return the negation of x; that is, compute a Number with the same magnitude but opposite sign.

[Link].2 Number::bitwiseNOT ( x )

The abstract operation Number::bitwiseNOT takes argument x (a Number) and returns an integral Number. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Let oldValue be ! ToInt32(x).

2. Return the bitwise complement of oldValue. The mathematical value of the result is exactly representable as a 32-bit
two's complement bit string.

[Link].3 Number::exponentiate ( base, exponent )

The abstract operation Number::exponentiate takes arguments base (a Number) and exponent (a Number) and returns
a Number. It returns an implementation-approximated value representing the result of raising base to the exponent
power. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If exponent is NaN, return NaN.

2. If exponent is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return 1𝔽.
3. If base is NaN, return NaN.
4. If base is +∞𝔽, then
a. If exponent > +0𝔽, return +∞𝔽; otherwise return +0𝔽.
5. If base is -∞𝔽, then
a. If exponent > +0𝔽, then
i. If exponent is an odd integral Number, return -∞𝔽; otherwise return +∞𝔽.
b. Else,
i. If exponent is an odd integral Number, return -0𝔽; otherwise return +0𝔽.
6. If base is +0𝔽, then
a. If exponent > +0𝔽, return +0𝔽; otherwise return +∞𝔽.
7. If base is -0𝔽, then
a. If exponent > +0𝔽, then
i. If exponent is an odd integral Number, return -0𝔽; otherwise return +0𝔽.
b. Else,
i. If exponent is an odd integral Number, return -∞𝔽; otherwise return +∞𝔽.
8. Assert: base is finite and is neither +0𝔽 nor -0𝔽.
9. If exponent is +∞𝔽, then
a. If abs(ℝ(base)) > 1, return +∞𝔽.
b. If abs(ℝ(base)) = 1, return NaN.
c. If abs(ℝ(base)) < 1, return +0𝔽.
10. If exponent is -∞𝔽, then
a. If abs(ℝ(base)) > 1, return +0𝔽.
b. If abs(ℝ(base)) = 1, return NaN.
c. If abs(ℝ(base)) < 1, return +∞𝔽.
11. Assert: exponent is finite and is neither +0𝔽 nor -0𝔽.
12. If base < -0𝔽 and exponent is not an integral Number, return NaN.
13. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing the result of raising ℝ(base) to the ℝ(exponent)
power.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE The result of base ** exponent when base is 1𝔽 or -1𝔽 and exponent is +∞𝔽 or -∞𝔽, or when base is 1𝔽 and
exponent is NaN, differs from IEEE 754-2019. The first edition of ECMAScript specified a result of NaN for
this operation, whereas later revisions of IEEE 754 specified 1𝔽. The historical ECMAScript behaviour is
preserved for compatibility reasons.

[Link].4 Number::multiply ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::multiply takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number) and returns a Number. It per-
forms multiplication according to the rules of IEEE 754-2019 binary double-precision arithmetic, producing the product of
x and y. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If x is NaN or y is NaN, return NaN.

2. If x is either +∞𝔽 or -∞𝔽, then
a. If y is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return NaN.
b. If y > +0𝔽, return x.
c. Return -x.
3. If y is either +∞𝔽 or -∞𝔽, then
a. If x is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return NaN.
b. If x > +0𝔽, return y.
c. Return -y.
4. If x is -0𝔽, then
a. If y is -0𝔽 or y < -0𝔽, return +0𝔽.
b. Else, return -0𝔽.
5. If y is -0𝔽, then
a. If x < -0𝔽, return +0𝔽.
b. Else, return -0𝔽.
6. Return 𝔽(ℝ(x) × ℝ(y)).

NOTE Finite-precision multiplication is commutative, but not always associative.

[Link].5 Number::divide ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::divide takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number) and returns a Number. It per-
forms division according to the rules of IEEE 754-2019 binary double-precision arithmetic, producing the quotient of x
and y where x is the dividend and y is the divisor. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If x is NaN or y is NaN, return NaN.

2. If x is either +∞𝔽 or -∞𝔽, then
a. If y is either +∞𝔽 or -∞𝔽, return NaN.
b. If y is +0𝔽 or y > +0𝔽, return x.
c. Return -x.
3. If y is +∞𝔽, then
a. If x is +0𝔽 or x > +0𝔽, return +0𝔽; otherwise return -0𝔽.
4. If y is -∞𝔽, then
a. If x is +0𝔽 or x > +0𝔽, return -0𝔽; otherwise return +0𝔽.
5. If x is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, then
a. If y is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return NaN.
b. If y > +0𝔽, return x.
c. Return -x.
6. If y is +0𝔽, then
a. If x > +0𝔽, return +∞𝔽; otherwise return -∞𝔽.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7. If y is -0𝔽, then
a. If x > +0𝔽, return -∞𝔽; otherwise return +∞𝔽.
8. Return 𝔽(ℝ(x) / ℝ(y)).

[Link].6 Number::remainder ( n, d )

The abstract operation Number::remainder takes arguments n (a Number) and d (a Number) and returns a Number. It
yields the remainder from an implied division of its operands where n is the dividend and d is the divisor. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. If n is NaN or d is NaN, return NaN.

2. If n is either +∞𝔽 or -∞𝔽, return NaN.
3. If d is either +∞𝔽 or -∞𝔽, return n.
4. If d is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return NaN.
5. If n is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return n.
6. Assert: n and d are finite and non-zero.
7. Let quotient be ℝ(n) / ℝ(d).
8. Let q be truncate(quotient).
9. Let r be ℝ(n) - (ℝ(d) × q).
10. If r = 0 and n < -0𝔽, return -0𝔽.
11. Return 𝔽(r).

NOTE 1 In C and C++, the remainder operator accepts only integral operands; in ECMAScript, it also accepts
floating-point operands.

NOTE 2 The result of a floating-point remainder operation as computed by the % operator is not the same as the
“remainder” operation defined by IEEE 754-2019. The IEEE 754-2019 “remainder” operation computes the
remainder from a rounding division, not a truncating division, and so its behaviour is not analogous to that of
the usual integer remainder operator. Instead the ECMAScript language defines % on floating-point
operations to behave in a manner analogous to that of the Java integer remainder operator; this may be
compared with the C library function fmod.

[Link].7 Number::add ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::add takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number) and returns a Number. It
performs addition according to the rules of IEEE 754-2019 binary double-precision arithmetic, producing the sum of its
arguments. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If x is NaN or y is NaN, return NaN.

2. If x is +∞𝔽 and y is -∞𝔽, return NaN.
3. If x is -∞𝔽 and y is +∞𝔽, return NaN.
4. If x is either +∞𝔽 or -∞𝔽, return x.
5. If y is either +∞𝔽 or -∞𝔽, return y.
6. Assert: x and y are both finite.
7. If x is -0𝔽 and y is -0𝔽, return -0𝔽.
8. Return 𝔽(ℝ(x) + ℝ(y)).

NOTE Finite-precision addition is commutative, but not always associative.

[Link].8 Number::subtract ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::subtract takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number) and returns a Number. It
performs subtraction, producing the difference of its operands; x is the minuend and y is the subtrahend. It performs the

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

following steps when called:

1. Return Number::add(x, Number::unaryMinus(y)).

NOTE It is always the case that x - y produces the same result as x + (-y).

[Link].9 Number::leftShift ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::leftShift takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number) and returns an integral
Number. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let lNum be ! ToInt32(x).

2. Let rNum be ! ToUint32(y).
3. Let shiftCount be ℝ(rNum) modulo 32.
4. Return the result of left shifting lNum by shiftCount bits. The mathematical value of the result is exactly
representable as a 32-bit two's complement bit string.

[Link].10 Number::signedRightShift ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::signedRightShift takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number) and returns an integ-
ral Number. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let lNum be ! ToInt32(x).

2. Let rNum be ! ToUint32(y).
3. Let shiftCount be ℝ(rNum) modulo 32.
4. Return the result of performing a sign-extending right shift of lNum by shiftCount bits. The most significant bit is
propagated. The mathematical value of the result is exactly representable as a 32-bit two's complement bit string.

[Link].11 Number::unsignedRightShift ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::unsignedRightShift takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number) and returns an in-
tegral Number. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let lNum be ! ToUint32(x).

2. Let rNum be ! ToUint32(y).
3. Let shiftCount be ℝ(rNum) modulo 32.
4. Return the result of performing a zero-filling right shift of lNum by shiftCount bits. Vacated bits are filled with zero.
The mathematical value of the result is exactly representable as a 32-bit unsigned bit string.

[Link].12 Number::lessThan ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::lessThan takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number) and returns a Boolean or
undefined. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If x is NaN, return undefined.

2. If y is NaN, return undefined.
3. If x is y, return false.
4. If x is +0𝔽 and y is -0𝔽, return false.
5. If x is -0𝔽 and y is +0𝔽, return false.
6. If x is +∞𝔽, return false.
7. If y is +∞𝔽, return true.
8. If y is -∞𝔽, return false.
9. If x is -∞𝔽, return true.
10. Assert: x and y are finite.
11. If ℝ(x) < ℝ(y), return true; otherwise return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].13 Number::equal ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::equal takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number) and returns a Boolean. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. If x is NaN, return false.

2. If y is NaN, return false.
3. If x is y, return true.
4. If x is +0𝔽 and y is -0𝔽, return true.
5. If x is -0𝔽 and y is +0𝔽, return true.
6. Return false.

[Link].14 Number::sameValue ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::sameValue takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number) and returns a Boolean. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. If x is NaN and y is NaN, return true.

2. If x is +0𝔽 and y is -0𝔽, return false.
3. If x is -0𝔽 and y is +0𝔽, return false.
4. If x is y, return true.
5. Return false.

[Link].15 Number::sameValueZero ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::sameValueZero takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number) and returns a
Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If x is NaN and y is NaN, return true.

2. If x is +0𝔽 and y is -0𝔽, return true.
3. If x is -0𝔽 and y is +0𝔽, return true.
4. If x is y, return true.
5. Return false.

[Link].16 NumberBitwiseOp ( op, x, y )

The abstract operation NumberBitwiseOp takes arguments op (&, ^, or |), x (a Number), and y (a Number) and returns
an integral Number. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let lNum be ! ToInt32(x).

2. Let rNum be ! ToInt32(y).
3. Let lBits be the 32-bit two's complement bit string representing ℝ(lNum).
4. Let rBits be the 32-bit two's complement bit string representing ℝ(rNum).
5. If op is &, then
a. Let result be the result of applying the bitwise AND operation to lBits and rBits.
6. Else if op is ^, then
a. Let result be the result of applying the bitwise exclusive OR (XOR) operation to lBits and rBits.
7. Else,
a. Assert: op is |.
b. Let result be the result of applying the bitwise inclusive OR operation to lBits and rBits.
8. Return the Number value for the integer represented by the 32-bit two's complement bit string result.

[Link].17 Number::bitwiseAND ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::bitwiseAND takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number) and returns an integral
Number. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return NumberBitwiseOp(&, x, y).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].18 Number::bitwiseXOR ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::bitwiseXOR takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number) and returns an integral
Number. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return NumberBitwiseOp(^, x, y).

[Link].19 Number::bitwiseOR ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::bitwiseOR takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number) and returns an integral
Number. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return NumberBitwiseOp(|, x, y).

[Link].20 Number::toString ( x, radix )

The abstract operation Number::toString takes arguments x (a Number) and radix (an integer in the inclusive interval
from 2 to 36) and returns a String. It represents x as a String using a positional numeral system with radix radix. The di-
gits used in the representation of a number using radix r are taken from the first r code units of
"0123456789abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz" in order. The representation of numbers with magnitude greater than or
equal to 1𝔽 never includes leading zeroes. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If x is NaN, return "NaN".

2. If x is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return "0".
3. If x < -0𝔽, return the string-concatenation of "-" and Number::toString(-x, radix).
4. If x is +∞𝔽, return "Infinity".
5. Let n, k, and s be integers such that k ≥ 1, radixk - 1 ≤ s < radixk, 𝔽(s × radixn - k) is x, and k is as small as possible.
Note that k is the number of digits in the representation of s using radix radix, that s is not divisible by radix, and that
the least significant digit of s is not necessarily uniquely determined by these criteria.
6. If radix ≠ 10 or n is in the inclusive interval from -5 to 21, then
a. If n ≥ k, then
i. Return the string-concatenation of:
the code units of the k digits of the representation of s using radix radix
n - k occurrences of the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO)
b. Else if n > 0, then
i. Return the string-concatenation of:
the code units of the most significant n digits of the representation of s using radix radix
the code unit 0x002E (FULL STOP)
the code units of the remaining k - n digits of the representation of s using radix radix
c. Else,
i. Assert: n ≤ 0.
ii. Return the string-concatenation of:
the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO)
the code unit 0x002E (FULL STOP)
-n occurrences of the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO)
the code units of the k digits of the representation of s using radix radix
7. NOTE: In this case, the input will be represented using scientific E notation, such as 1.2e+3.
8. Assert: radix is 10.
9. If n < 0, then
a. Let exponentSign be the code unit 0x002D (HYPHEN-MINUS).
10. Else,
a. Let exponentSign be the code unit 0x002B (PLUS SIGN).
11. If k = 1, then
a. Return the string-concatenation of:
the code unit of the single digit of s
the code unit 0x0065 (LATIN SMALL LETTER E)
exponentSign
the code units of the decimal representation of abs(n - 1)
12. Return the string-concatenation of:

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

the code unit of the most significant digit of the decimal representation of s
the code unit 0x002E (FULL STOP)
the code units of the remaining k - 1 digits of the decimal representation of s
the code unit 0x0065 (LATIN SMALL LETTER E)
exponentSign
the code units of the decimal representation of abs(n - 1)

NOTE 1 The following observations may be useful as guidelines for implementations, but are not part of the
normative requirements of this Standard:

If x is any Number value other than -0𝔽, then ToNumber(ToString(x)) is x.

The least significant digit of s is not always uniquely determined by the requirements listed in step 5.

NOTE 2 For implementations that provide more accurate conversions than required by the rules above, it is
recommended that the following alternative version of step 5 be used as a guideline:

5. Let n, k, and s be integers such that k ≥ 1, radixk - 1 ≤ s < radixk, 𝔽(s × radixn - k) is x, and k is as small
as possible. If there are multiple possibilities for s, choose the value of s for which s × radixn - k is closest
in value to ℝ(x). If there are two such possible values of s, choose the one that is even. Note that k is the
number of digits in the representation of s using radix radix and that s is not divisible by radix.

NOTE 3 Implementers of ECMAScript may find useful the paper and code written by David M. Gay for binary-to-
decimal conversion of floating-point numbers:

Gay, David M. Correctly Rounded Binary-Decimal and Decimal-Binary Conversions. Numerical Analysis,
Manuscript 90-10. AT&T Bell Laboratories (Murray Hill, New Jersey). 30 November 1990. Available as
[Link] Associated code available as
[Link] and as
[Link] and may also be found at the various netlib mirror sites.

[Link] The BigInt Type

The BigInt type represents an integer value. The value may be any size and is not limited to a particular bit-width.
Generally, where not otherwise noted, operations are designed to return exact mathematically-based answers. For
binary operations, BigInts act as two's complement binary strings, with negative numbers treated as having bits set
infinitely to the left.

[Link].1 BigInt::unaryMinus ( x )

The abstract operation BigInt::unaryMinus takes argument x (a BigInt) and returns a BigInt. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. If x = 0ℤ, return 0ℤ.

2. Return -x.

[Link].2 BigInt::bitwiseNOT ( x )

The abstract operation BigInt::bitwiseNOT takes argument x (a BigInt) and returns a BigInt. It returns the one's comple-
ment of x. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return -x - 1ℤ.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].3 BigInt::exponentiate ( base, exponent )

The abstract operation BigInt::exponentiate takes arguments base (a BigInt) and exponent (a BigInt) and returns either
a normal completion containing a BigInt or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If exponent < 0ℤ, throw a RangeError exception.

2. If base = 0ℤ and exponent = 0ℤ, return 1ℤ.
3. Return base raised to the power exponent.

[Link].4 BigInt::multiply ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::multiply takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt) and returns a BigInt. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Return x × y.

NOTE Even if the result has a much larger bit width than the input, the exact mathematical answer is given.

[Link].5 BigInt::divide ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::divide takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt) and returns either a normal comple-
tion containing a BigInt or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If y = 0ℤ, throw a RangeError exception.

2. Let quotient be ℝ(x) / ℝ(y).
3. Return ℤ(truncate(quotient)).

[Link].6 BigInt::remainder ( n, d )

The abstract operation BigInt::remainder takes arguments n (a BigInt) and d (a BigInt) and returns either a normal com-
pletion containing a BigInt or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If d = 0ℤ, throw a RangeError exception.

2. If n = 0ℤ, return 0ℤ.
3. Let quotient be ℝ(n) / ℝ(d).
4. Let q be ℤ(truncate(quotient)).
5. Return n - (d × q).

NOTE The sign of the result is the sign of the dividend.

[Link].7 BigInt::add ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::add takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt) and returns a BigInt. It performs the fol-
lowing steps when called:

1. Return x + y.

[Link].8 BigInt::subtract ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::subtract takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt) and returns a BigInt. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Return x - y.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].9 BigInt::leftShift ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::leftShift takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt) and returns a BigInt. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. If y < 0ℤ, then

a. Return ℤ(floor(ℝ(x) / 2-ℝ(y))).
2. Return x × 2ℤy.

NOTE Semantics here should be equivalent to a bitwise shift, treating the BigInt as an infinite length string of binary
two's complement digits.

[Link].10 BigInt::signedRightShift ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::signedRightShift takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt) and returns a BigInt. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Return BigInt::leftShift(x, -y).

[Link].11 BigInt::unsignedRightShift ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::unsignedRightShift takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt) and returns a throw com-
pletion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Throw a TypeError exception.

[Link].12 BigInt::lessThan ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::lessThan takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt) and returns a Boolean. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. If ℝ(x) < ℝ(y), return true; otherwise return false.

[Link].13 BigInt::equal ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::equal takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt) and returns a Boolean. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. If ℝ(x) = ℝ(y), return true; otherwise return false.

[Link].14 BinaryAnd ( x, y )

The abstract operation BinaryAnd takes arguments x (0 or 1) and y (0 or 1) and returns 0 or 1. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. If x = 1 and y = 1, return 1.
2. Else, return 0.

[Link].15 BinaryOr ( x, y )

The abstract operation BinaryOr takes arguments x (0 or 1) and y (0 or 1) and returns 0 or 1. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. If x = 1 or y = 1, return 1.
2. Else, return 0.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].16 BinaryXor ( x, y )

The abstract operation BinaryXor takes arguments x (0 or 1) and y (0 or 1) and returns 0 or 1. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. If x = 1 and y = 0, return 1.
2. Else if x = 0 and y = 1, return 1.
3. Else, return 0.

[Link].17 BigIntBitwiseOp ( op, x, y )

The abstract operation BigIntBitwiseOp takes arguments op (&, ^, or |), x (a BigInt), and y (a BigInt) and returns a
BigInt. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Set x to ℝ(x).
2. Set y to ℝ(y).
3. Let result be 0.
4. Let shift be 0.
5. Repeat, until (x = 0 or x = -1) and (y = 0 or y = -1),
a. Let xDigit be x modulo 2.
b. Let yDigit be y modulo 2.
c. If op is &, then
i. Set result to result + 2shift × BinaryAnd(xDigit, yDigit).
d. Else if op is |, then
i. Set result to result + 2shift × BinaryOr(xDigit, yDigit).
e. Else,
i. Assert: op is ^.
ii. Set result to result + 2shift × BinaryXor(xDigit, yDigit).
f. Set shift to shift + 1.
g. Set x to (x - xDigit) / 2.
h. Set y to (y - yDigit) / 2.
6. If op is &, then
a. Let tmp be BinaryAnd(x modulo 2, y modulo 2).
7. Else if op is |, then
a. Let tmp be BinaryOr(x modulo 2, y modulo 2).
8. Else,
a. Assert: op is ^.
b. Let tmp be BinaryXor(x modulo 2, y modulo 2).
9. If tmp ≠ 0, then
a. Set result to result - 2shift.
b. NOTE: This extends the sign.
10. Return the BigInt value for result.

[Link].18 BigInt::bitwiseAND ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::bitwiseAND takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt) and returns a BigInt. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Return BigIntBitwiseOp(&, x, y).

[Link].19 BigInt::bitwiseXOR ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::bitwiseXOR takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt) and returns a BigInt. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Return BigIntBitwiseOp(^, x, y).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].20 BigInt::bitwiseOR ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::bitwiseOR takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt) and returns a BigInt. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Return BigIntBitwiseOp(|, x, y).

[Link].21 BigInt::toString ( x, radix )

The abstract operation BigInt::toString takes arguments x (a BigInt) and radix (an integer in the inclusive interval from 2
to 36) and returns a String. It represents x as a String using a positional numeral system with radix radix. The digits used
in the representation of a BigInt using radix r are taken from the first r code units of
"0123456789abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz" in order. The representation of BigInts other than 0ℤ never includes lead-
ing zeroes. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If x < 0ℤ, return the string-concatenation of "-" and BigInt::toString(-x, radix).

2. Return the String value consisting of the representation of x using radix radix.

6.1.7 The Object Type

Each instance of the Object type, also referred to simply as “an Object”, represents a collection of properties. Each
property is either a data property, or an accessor property:

A data property associates a key value with an ECMAScript language value and a set of Boolean attributes.
An accessor property associates a key value with one or two accessor functions, and a set of Boolean attributes.
The accessor functions are used to store or retrieve an ECMAScript language value that is associated with the
property.

The properties of an object are uniquely identified using property keys. A property key is either a String or a Symbol. All
Strings and Symbols, including the empty String, are valid as property keys. A property name is a property key that is
a String.

An integer index is a property name n such that CanonicalNumericIndexString(n) returns an integral Number in the
inclusive interval from +0𝔽 to 𝔽(253 - 1). An array index is an integer index n such that CanonicalNumericIndexString(n)
returns an integral Number in the inclusive interval from +0𝔽 to 𝔽(232 - 2).

NOTE Every non-negative safe integer has a corresponding integer index. Every 32-bit unsigned integer except
232 - 1 has a corresponding array index. "-0" is neither an integer index nor an array index.

Property keys are used to access properties and their values. There are two kinds of access for properties: get and set,
corresponding to value retrieval and assignment, respectively. The properties accessible via get and set access includes
both own properties that are a direct part of an object and inherited properties which are provided by another associated
object via a property inheritance relationship. Inherited properties may be either own or inherited properties of the asso-
ciated object. Each own property of an object must each have a key value that is distinct from the key values of the
other own properties of that object.

All objects are logically collections of properties, but there are multiple forms of objects that differ in their semantics for
accessing and manipulating their properties. Please see [Link] for definitions of the multiple forms of objects.

In addition, some objects are callable; these are referred to as functions or function objects and are described further
below. All functions in ECMAScript are members of the Object type.

[Link] Property Attributes

Attributes are used in this specification to define and explain the state of Object properties as described in Table 3.
Unless specified explicitly, the initial value of each attribute is its Default Value.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Table 3: Attributes of an Object property

Attribute Types of Value Default Description
Name property for Domain Value
which it is
present
⁠[[Value]] data an undefined The value retrieved by a get access of the property.
property ECMAScript
language
value
⁠[[Writable]] data a Boolean false If false, attempts by ECMAScript code to change the
property property's ⁠[[Value]] attribute using ⁠[[Set]] will not
succeed.
⁠[[Get]] accessor an Object or undefined If the value is an Object it must be a function object. The
property undefined function's ⁠[[Call]] internal method (Table 5) is called with
an empty arguments list to retrieve the property value
each time a get access of the property is performed.
⁠[[Set]] accessor an Object or undefined If the value is an Object it must be a function object. The
property undefined function's ⁠[[Call]] internal method (Table 5) is called with
an arguments list containing the assigned value as its
sole argument each time a set access of the property is
performed. The effect of a property's ⁠[[Set]] internal
method may, but is not required to, have an effect on the
value returned by subsequent calls to the property's
⁠[[Get]] internal method.
⁠[[Enumerable]] data a Boolean false If true, the property will be enumerated by a for-in
property or enumeration (see 14.7.5). Otherwise, the property is said
accessor to be non-enumerable.
property
⁠[[Configurable]] data a Boolean false If false, attempts to delete the property, change it from a
property or data property to an accessor property or from an
accessor accessor property to a data property, or make any
property changes to its attributes (other than replacing an existing
⁠[[Value]] or setting ⁠[[Writable]] to false) will fail.

[Link] Object Internal Methods and Internal Slots

The actual semantics of objects, in ECMAScript, are specified via algorithms called internal methods. Each object in an
ECMAScript engine is associated with a set of internal methods that defines its runtime behaviour. These internal meth-
ods are not part of the ECMAScript language. They are defined by this specification purely for expository purposes.
However, each object within an implementation of ECMAScript must behave as specified by the internal methods asso-
ciated with it. The exact manner in which this is accomplished is determined by the implementation.

Internal method names are polymorphic. This means that different object values may perform different algorithms when
a common internal method name is invoked upon them. That actual object upon which an internal method is invoked is
the “target” of the invocation. If, at runtime, the implementation of an algorithm attempts to use an internal method of an
object that the object does not support, a TypeError exception is thrown.

Internal slots correspond to internal state that is associated with objects and used by various ECMAScript specification
algorithms. Internal slots are not object properties and they are not inherited. Depending upon the specific internal slot
specification, such state may consist of values of any ECMAScript language type or of specific ECMAScript specification
type values. Unless explicitly specified otherwise, internal slots are allocated as part of the process of creating an object
and may not be dynamically added to an object. Unless specified otherwise, the initial value of an internal slot is the
value undefined. Various algorithms within this specification create objects that have internal slots. However, the
ECMAScript language provides no direct way to associate internal slots with an object.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

All objects have an internal slot named ⁠[[PrivateElements]], which is a List of PrivateElements. This List represents the
values of the private fields, methods, and accessors for the object. Initially, it is an empty List.

Internal methods and internal slots are identified within this specification using names enclosed in double square brack-
ets [[ ]].

Table 4 summarizes the essential internal methods used by this specification that are applicable to all objects created or
manipulated by ECMAScript code. Every object must have algorithms for all of the essential internal methods. However,
all objects do not necessarily use the same algorithms for those methods.

An ordinary object is an object that satisfies all of the following criteria:

For the internal methods listed in Table 4, the object uses those defined in 10.1.
If the object has a ⁠[[Call]] internal method, it uses either the one defined in 10.2.1 or the one defined in 10.3.1.
If the object has a ⁠[[Construct]] internal method, it uses either the one defined in 10.2.2 or the one defined in 10.3.2.

An exotic object is an object that is not an ordinary object.

This specification recognizes different kinds of exotic objects by those objects' internal methods. An object that is
behaviourally equivalent to a particular kind of exotic object (such as an Array exotic object or a bound function exotic
object), but does not have the same collection of internal methods specified for that kind, is not recognized as that kind
of exotic object.

The “Signature” column of Table 4 and other similar tables describes the invocation pattern for each internal method.
The invocation pattern always includes a parenthesized list of descriptive parameter names. If a parameter name is the
same as an ECMAScript type name then the name describes the required type of the parameter value. If an internal
method explicitly returns a value, its parameter list is followed by the symbol “→” and the type name of the returned
value. The type names used in signatures refer to the types defined in clause 6 augmented by the following additional
names. “any” means the value may be any ECMAScript language type.

In addition to its parameters, an internal method always has access to the object that is the target of the
method invocation.

An internal method implicitly returns a Completion Record, either a normal completion that wraps a value of the return
type shown in its invocation pattern, or a throw completion.

Table 4: Essential Internal Methods

Internal Method Signature Description
⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] ( ) → Object | Null Determine the object that provides inherited properties for this
object. A null value indicates that there are no inherited properties.
⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]] (Object | Null) → Associate this object with another object that provides inherited
Boolean properties. Passing null indicates that there are no inherited
properties. Returns true indicating that the operation was
completed successfully or false indicating that the operation was
not successful.
⁠[[IsExtensible]] ( ) → Boolean Determine whether it is permitted to add additional properties to
this object.
⁠[[PreventExtensions]] ( ) → Boolean Control whether new properties may be added to this object.
Returns true if the operation was successful or false if the
operation was unsuccessful.
⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] (propertyKey) → Return a Property Descriptor for the own property of this object
Undefined | Property whose key is propertyKey, or undefined if no such property exists.
Descriptor
⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] (propertyKey, Create or alter the own property, whose key is propertyKey, to
PropertyDescriptor) → have the state described by PropertyDescriptor. Return true if that
Boolean property was successfully created/updated or false if the property
could not be created or updated.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Internal Method Signature Description

⁠[[HasProperty]] (propertyKey) → Return a Boolean value indicating whether this object already has
Boolean either an own or inherited property whose key is propertyKey.
⁠[[Get]] (propertyKey, Receiver) Return the value of the property whose key is propertyKey from
→ any this object. If any ECMAScript code must be executed to retrieve
the property value, Receiver is used as the this value when
evaluating the code.
⁠[[Set]] (propertyKey, value, Set the value of the property whose key is propertyKey to value. If
Receiver) → Boolean any ECMAScript code must be executed to set the property value,
Receiver is used as the this value when evaluating the code.
Returns true if the property value was set or false if it could not be
set.
⁠[[Delete]] (propertyKey) → Remove the own property whose key is propertyKey from this
Boolean object. Return false if the property was not deleted and is still
present. Return true if the property was deleted or is not present.
⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]] ( ) → List of property Return a List whose elements are all of the own property keys for
keys the object.

Table 5 summarizes additional essential internal methods that are supported by objects that may be called as functions.
A function object is an object that supports the ⁠[[Call]] internal method. A constructor is an object that supports the
[[Construct]] internal method. Every object that supports ⁠[[Construct]] must support ⁠[[Call]]; that is, every constructor
must be a function object. Therefore, a constructor may also be referred to as a constructor function or constructor func-
tion object.

Table 5: Additional Essential Internal Methods of Function Objects

Internal Signature Description
Method
⁠[[Call]] (any, a List of Executes code associated with this object. Invoked via a function call expression. The
any) → any arguments to the internal method are a this value and a List whose elements are the
arguments passed to the function by a call expression. Objects that implement this
internal method are callable.
⁠[[Construct]] (a List of any, Creates an object. Invoked via the new operator or a super call. The first argument to
Object) → the internal method is a List whose elements are the arguments of the constructor
Object invocation or the super call. The second argument is the object to which the new
operator was initially applied. Objects that implement this internal method are called
constructors. A function object is not necessarily a constructor and such non-constructor
function objects do not have a ⁠[[Construct]] internal method.

The semantics of the essential internal methods for ordinary objects and standard exotic objects are specified in clause
10. If any specified use of an internal method of an exotic object is not supported by an implementation, that usage must
throw a TypeError exception when attempted.

[Link] Invariants of the Essential Internal Methods

The Internal Methods of Objects of an ECMAScript engine must conform to the list of invariants specified below.
Ordinary ECMAScript Objects as well as all standard exotic objects in this specification maintain these invariants.
ECMAScript Proxy objects maintain these invariants by means of runtime checks on the result of traps invoked on the
[[ProxyHandler]] object.

Any implementation provided exotic objects must also maintain these invariants for those objects. Violation of these in-
variants may cause ECMAScript code to have unpredictable behaviour and create security issues. However, violation of
these invariants must never compromise the memory safety of an implementation.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

An implementation must not allow these invariants to be circumvented in any manner such as by providing alternative
interfaces that implement the functionality of the essential internal methods without enforcing their invariants.

Definitions:

The target of an internal method is the object upon which the internal method is called.
A target is non-extensible if it has been observed to return false from its ⁠[[IsExtensible]] internal method, or true
from its ⁠[[PreventExtensions]] internal method.
A non-existent property is a property that does not exist as an own property on a non-extensible target.
All references to SameValue are according to the definition of the SameValue algorithm.

Return value:

The value returned by any internal method must be a Completion Record with either:

[⁠[Type]] = NORMAL, ⁠[[Target]] = EMPTY, and ⁠[[Value]] = a value of the "normal return type" shown below for that
internal method, or
⁠[[Type]] = THROW, ⁠[[Target]] = EMPTY, and ⁠[[Value]] = any ECMAScript language value.

NOTE 1 An internal method must not return a continue completion, a break completion, or a return completion.

[[GetPrototypeOf]] ( )

The normal return type is either Object or Null.

If target is non-extensible, and ⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] returns a value V, then any future calls to ⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]]
should return the SameValue as V.

NOTE 2 An object's prototype chain should have finite length (that is, starting from any object, recursively applying
the ⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] internal method to its result should eventually lead to the value null). However, this
requirement is not enforceable as an object level invariant if the prototype chain includes any exotic objects
that do not use the ordinary object definition of ⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]]. Such a circular prototype chain may
result in infinite loops when accessing object properties.

[[SetPrototypeOf]] ( V )

The normal return type is Boolean.

If target is non-extensible, ⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]] must return false, unless V is the SameValue as the target's observed
⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] value.

[[IsExtensible]] ( )

The normal return type is Boolean.

If ⁠[[IsExtensible]] returns false, all future calls to ⁠[[IsExtensible]] on the target must return false.

[[PreventExtensions]] ( )

The normal return type is Boolean.

If ⁠[[PreventExtensions]] returns true, all future calls to ⁠[[IsExtensible]] on the target must return false and the target
is now considered non-extensible.

[[GetOwnProperty]] ( P )

The normal return type is either Property Descriptor or Undefined.

If the return value is a Property Descriptor, it must be a fully populated Property Descriptor.
If P is described as a non-configurable, non-writable own data property, all future calls to ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] ( P )
must return Property Descriptor whose ⁠[[Value]] is SameValue as P's ⁠[[Value]] attribute.
If P's attributes other than ⁠[[Writable]] and ⁠[[Value]] may change over time, or if the property might be deleted, then
P's ⁠[[Configurable]] attribute must be true.
If the ⁠[[Writable]] attribute may change from false to true, then the ⁠[[Configurable]] attribute must be true.
If the target is non-extensible and P is non-existent, then all future calls to ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] (P) on the target must
describe P as non-existent (i.e. ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] (P) must return undefined).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 3 As a consequence of the third invariant, if a property is described as a data property and it may return
different values over time, then either or both of the ⁠[[Writable]] and ⁠[[Configurable]] attributes must be true
even if no mechanism to change the value is exposed via the other essential internal methods.

[[DefineOwnProperty]] ( P, Desc )

The normal return type is Boolean.

⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] must return false if P has previously been observed as a non-configurable own property of
the target, unless either:
1. P is a writable data property. A non-configurable writable data property can be changed into a non-configurable
non-writable data property.
2. All attributes of Desc are the SameValue as P's attributes.
⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] (P, Desc) must return false if target is non-extensible and P is a non-existent own property.
That is, a non-extensible target object cannot be extended with new properties.

[[HasProperty]] ( P )

The normal return type is Boolean.

If P was previously observed as a non-configurable own data or accessor property of the target, ⁠[[HasProperty]]
must return true.

[[Get]] ( P, Receiver )

The normal return type is any ECMAScript language type.

If P was previously observed as a non-configurable, non-writable own data property of the target with value V, then
⁠[[Get]] must return the SameValue as V.
If P was previously observed as a non-configurable own accessor property of the target whose ⁠[[Get]] attribute is
undefined, the ⁠[[Get]] operation must return undefined.

[[Set]] ( P, V, Receiver )

The normal return type is Boolean.

If P was previously observed as a non-configurable, non-writable own data property of the target, then ⁠[[Set]] must
return false unless V is the SameValue as P's ⁠[[Value]] attribute.
If P was previously observed as a non-configurable own accessor property of the target whose ⁠[[Set]] attribute is
undefined, the ⁠[[Set]] operation must return false.

[[Delete]] ( P )

The normal return type is Boolean.

If P was previously observed as a non-configurable own data or accessor property of the target, ⁠[[Delete]] must
return false.

[[OwnPropertyKeys]] ( )

The normal return type is List.

The returned List must not contain any duplicate entries.
Each element of the returned List must be a property key.
The returned List must contain at least the keys of all non-configurable own properties that have previously been
observed.
If the target is non-extensible, the returned List must contain only the keys of all own properties of the target that are
observable using ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]].

[[Call]] ( )

The normal return type is any ECMAScript language type.

[[Construct]] ( )

The normal return type is Object.

The target must also have a ⁠[[Call]] internal method.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Well-Known Intrinsic Objects

Well-known intrinsics are built-in objects that are explicitly referenced by the algorithms of this specification and which
usually have realm-specific identities. Unless otherwise specified each intrinsic object actually corresponds to a set of
similar objects, one per realm.

Within this specification a reference such as %name% means the intrinsic object, associated with the current realm, cor-
responding to the name. A reference such as %name.a.b% means, as if the "b" property of the value of the "a" property
of the intrinsic object %name% was accessed prior to any ECMAScript code being evaluated. Determination of the cur-
rent realm and its intrinsics is described in 9.4. The well-known intrinsics are listed in Table 6.

Table 6: Well-Known Intrinsic Objects

Intrinsic Name Global Name ECMAScript Language Association
%AggregateError% AggregateError The AggregateError constructor ([Link])
%Array% Array The Array constructor (23.1.1)
%ArrayBuffer% ArrayBuffer The ArrayBuffer constructor (25.1.4)
%ArrayIteratorPrototype% The prototype of Array Iterator objects (23.1.5)
%AsyncFromSyncIteratorPrototype% The prototype of Async-from-Sync Iterator objects
(27.1.6)
%AsyncFunction% The constructor of async function objects (27.7.1)
%AsyncGeneratorFunction% The constructor of async generator function
objects (27.4.1)
%AsyncGeneratorPrototype% The prototype of async generator objects (27.6)
%AsyncIteratorPrototype% An object that all standard built-in async iterator
objects indirectly inherit from
%Atomics% Atomics The Atomics object (25.4)
%BigInt% BigInt The BigInt constructor (21.2.1)
%BigInt64Array% BigInt64Array The BigInt64Array constructor (23.2)
%BigUint64Array% BigUint64Array The BigUint64Array constructor (23.2)
%Boolean% Boolean The Boolean constructor (20.3.1)
%DataView% DataView The DataView constructor (25.3.2)
%Date% Date The Date constructor (21.4.2)
%decodeURI% decodeURI The decodeURI function ([Link])
%decodeURIComponent% decodeURIComponent The decodeURIComponent function ([Link])
%encodeURI% encodeURI The encodeURI function ([Link])
%encodeURIComponent% encodeURIComponent The encodeURIComponent function ([Link])
%Error% Error The Error constructor (20.5.1)
%eval% eval The eval function (19.2.1)
%EvalError% EvalError The EvalError constructor ([Link])
%FinalizationRegistry% FinalizationRegistry The FinalizationRegistry constructor (26.2.1)
%Float16Array% Float16Array The Float16Array constructor (23.2)
%Float32Array% Float32Array The Float32Array constructor (23.2)

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Intrinsic Name Global Name ECMAScript Language Association

%Float64Array% Float64Array The Float64Array constructor (23.2)
%ForInIteratorPrototype% The prototype of For-In Iterator objects ([Link])
%Function% Function The Function constructor (20.2.1)
%GeneratorFunction% The constructor of generator function objects
(27.3.1)
%GeneratorPrototype% The prototype of generator objects (27.5)
%Int8Array% Int8Array The Int8Array constructor (23.2)
%Int16Array% Int16Array The Int16Array constructor (23.2)
%Int32Array% Int32Array The Int32Array constructor (23.2)
%isFinite% isFinite The isFinite function (19.2.2)
%isNaN% isNaN The isNaN function (19.2.3)
%Iterator% Iterator The Iterator constructor ([Link])
%IteratorHelperPrototype% The prototype of Iterator Helper objects ([Link])
%JSON% JSON The JSON object (25.5)
%Map% Map The Map constructor (24.1.1)
%MapIteratorPrototype% The prototype of Map Iterator objects (24.1.5)
%Math% Math The Math object (21.3)
%Number% Number The Number constructor (21.1.1)
%Object% Object The Object constructor (20.1.1)
%parseFloat% parseFloat The parseFloat function (19.2.4)
%parseInt% parseInt The parseInt function (19.2.5)
%Promise% Promise The Promise constructor (27.2.3)
%Proxy% Proxy The Proxy constructor (28.2.1)
%RangeError% RangeError The RangeError constructor ([Link])
%ReferenceError% ReferenceError The ReferenceError constructor ([Link])
%Reflect% Reflect The Reflect object (28.1)
%RegExp% RegExp The RegExp constructor (22.2.4)
%RegExpStringIteratorPrototype% The prototype of RegExp String Iterator objects
(22.2.9)
%Set% Set The Set constructor (24.2.2)
%SetIteratorPrototype% The prototype of Set Iterator objects (24.2.6)
%SharedArrayBuffer% SharedArrayBuffer The SharedArrayBuffer constructor (25.2.3)
%String% String The String constructor (22.1.1)
%StringIteratorPrototype% The prototype of String Iterator objects (22.1.5)
%Symbol% Symbol The Symbol constructor (20.4.1)
%SyntaxError% SyntaxError The SyntaxError constructor ([Link])

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Intrinsic Name Global Name ECMAScript Language Association

%ThrowTypeError% A function object that unconditionally throws a
new instance of %TypeError%
%TypedArray% The super class of all typed Array constructors
(23.2.1)
%TypeError% TypeError The TypeError constructor ([Link])
%Uint8Array% Uint8Array The Uint8Array constructor (23.2)
%Uint8ClampedArray% Uint8ClampedArray The Uint8ClampedArray constructor (23.2)
%Uint16Array% Uint16Array The Uint16Array constructor (23.2)
%Uint32Array% Uint32Array The Uint32Array constructor (23.2)
%URIError% URIError The URIError constructor ([Link])
%WeakMap% WeakMap The WeakMap constructor (24.3.1)
%WeakRef% WeakRef The WeakRef constructor (26.1.1)
%WeakSet% WeakSet The WeakSet constructor (24.4.1)
%WrapForValidIteratorPrototype% The prototype of wrapped iterator objects returned
by [Link] ([Link].1.1)

NOTE Additional entries in Table 102.

6.2 ECMAScript Specification Types

A specification type corresponds to meta-values that are used within algorithms to describe the semantics of
ECMAScript language constructs and ECMAScript language types. The specification types include Reference Record,
List, Completion Record, Property Descriptor, Environment Record, Abstract Closure, and Data Block. Specification type
values are specification artefacts that do not necessarily correspond to any specific entity within an ECMAScript imple-
mentation. Specification type values may be used to describe intermediate results of ECMAScript expression evaluation
but such values cannot be stored as properties of objects or values of ECMAScript language variables.

6.2.1 The Enum Specification Type

Enums are values which are internal to the specification and not directly observable from ECMAScript code. Enums are
denoted using a SANS-SERIF typeface. For instance, a Completion Record's ⁠[[Type]] field takes on values like NORMAL,
RETURN, or THROW. Enums have no characteristics other than their name. The name of an enum serves no purpose
other than to distinguish it from other enums, and implies nothing about its usage or meaning in context.

6.2.2 The List and Record Specification Types

The List type is used to explain the evaluation of argument lists (see 13.3.8) in new expressions, in function calls, and in
other algorithms where a simple ordered list of values is needed. Values of the List type are simply ordered sequences
of list elements containing the individual values. These sequences may be of any length. The elements of a list may be
randomly accessed using 0-origin indices. For notational convenience an array-like syntax can be used to access List
elements. For example, arguments[2] is shorthand for saying the 3rd element of the List arguments.

When an algorithm iterates over the elements of a List without specifying an order, the order used is the order of the ele-
ments in the List.

For notational convenience within this specification, a literal syntax can be used to express a new List value. For ex-
ample, « 1, 2 » defines a List value that has two elements each of which is initialized to a specific value. A new empty
List can be expressed as « ».

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

In this specification, the phrase "the list-concatenation of A, B, ..." (where each argument is a possibly empty List)
denotes a new List value whose elements are the concatenation of the elements (in order) of each of the arguments
(in order).

As applied to a List of Strings, the phrase "sorted according to lexicographic code unit order" means sorting by the nu-
meric value of each code unit up to the length of the shorter string, and sorting the shorter string before the longer string
if all are equal, as described in the abstract operation IsLessThan.

The Record type is used to describe data aggregations within the algorithms of this specification. A Record type value
consists of one or more named fields. The value of each field is an ECMAScript language value or specification value.
Field names are always enclosed in double brackets, for example ⁠[[Value]].

For notational convenience within this specification, an object literal-like syntax can be used to express a Record value.
For example, { ⁠[[Field1]]: 42, ⁠[[Field2]]: false, ⁠[[Field3]]: EMPTY } defines a Record value that has three fields, each of
which is initialized to a specific value. Field name order is not significant. Any fields that are not explicitly listed are con-
sidered to be absent.

In specification text and algorithms, dot notation may be used to refer to a specific field of a Record value. For example,
if R is the record shown in the previous paragraph then R.⁠[[Field2]] is shorthand for “the field of R named ⁠[[Field2]]”.

Schema for commonly used Record field combinations may be named, and that name may be used as a prefix to a lit-
eral Record value to identify the specific kind of aggregations that is being described. For example: PropertyDescriptor {
[[Value]]: 42, ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

6.2.3 The Set and Relation Specification Types

The Set type is used to explain a collection of unordered elements for use in the memory model. It is distinct from the
ECMAScript collection type of the same name. To disambiguate, instances of the ECMAScript collection are consistently
referred to as "Set objects" within this specification. Values of the Set type are simple collections of elements, where no
element appears more than once. Elements may be added to and removed from Sets. Sets may be unioned, intersec-
ted, or subtracted from each other.

The Relation type is used to explain constraints on Sets. Values of the Relation type are Sets of ordered pairs of values
from its value domain. For example, a Relation on events is a set of ordered pairs of events. For a Relation R and
two values a and b in the value domain of R, a R b is shorthand for saying the ordered pair (a, b) is a member of
R. A Relation is the least Relation with respect to some conditions when it is the smallest Relation that satisfies
those conditions.

A strict partial order is a Relation value R that satisfies the following.

For all a, b, and c in R's domain:

It is not the case that a R a, and
If a R b and b R c, then a R c.

NOTE 1 The two properties above are called irreflexivity and transitivity, respectively.

A strict total order is a Relation value R that satisfies the following.

For all a, b, and c in R's domain:

a is b or a R b or b R a, and
It is not the case that a R a, and
If a R b and b R c, then a R c.

NOTE 2 The three properties above are called totality, irreflexivity, and transitivity, respectively.

6.2.4 The Completion Record Specification Type

The Completion Record specification type is used to explain the runtime propagation of values and control flow such as

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

the behaviour of statements (break, continue, return and throw) that perform nonlocal transfers of control.

Completion Records have the fields defined in Table 7.

Table 7: Completion Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[Type]] NORMAL, BREAK, CONTINUE, RETURN, or THROW The type of completion that occurred.
⁠[[Value]] any value except a Completion Record The value that was produced.
⁠[[Target]] a String or EMPTY The target label for directed control transfers.

The following shorthand terms are sometimes used to refer to Completion Records.

normal completion refers to any Completion Record with a ⁠[[Type]] value of NORMAL.
break completion refers to any Completion Record with a ⁠[[Type]] value of BREAK.
continue completion refers to any Completion Record with a ⁠[[Type]] value of CONTINUE.
return completion refers to any Completion Record with a ⁠[[Type]] value of RETURN.
throw completion refers to any Completion Record with a ⁠[[Type]] value of THROW.
abrupt completion refers to any Completion Record with a ⁠[[Type]] value other than NORMAL.
a normal completion containing some type of value refers to a normal completion that has a value of that type in its
⁠[[Value]] field.

Callable objects that are defined in this specification only return a normal completion or a throw completion. Returning
any other kind of Completion Record is considered an editorial error.

Implementation-defined callable objects must return either a normal completion or a throw completion.

[Link] NormalCompletion ( value )

The abstract operation NormalCompletion takes argument value (any value except a Completion Record) and returns a
normal completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return Completion Record { ⁠[[Type]]: NORMAL, ⁠[[Value]]: value, ⁠[[Target]]: EMPTY }.

[Link] ThrowCompletion ( value )

The abstract operation ThrowCompletion takes argument value (an ECMAScript language value) and returns a throw
completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return Completion Record { ⁠[[Type]]: THROW, ⁠[[Value]]: value, ⁠[[Target]]: EMPTY }.

[Link] ReturnCompletion ( value )

The abstract operation ReturnCompletion takes argument value (an ECMAScript language value) and returns a return
completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return Completion Record { ⁠[[Type]]: RETURN, ⁠[[Value]]: value, ⁠[[Target]]: EMPTY }.

[Link] UpdateEmpty ( completionRecord, value )

The abstract operation UpdateEmpty takes arguments completionRecord (a Completion Record) and value (any value
except a Completion Record) and returns a Completion Record. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: If completionRecord is either a return completion or a throw completion, then completionRecord.⁠[[Value]] is

not EMPTY.
2. If completionRecord.⁠[[Value]] is not EMPTY, return ? completionRecord.
3. Return Completion Record { ⁠[[Type]]: completionRecord.⁠[[Type]], ⁠[[Value]]: value, ⁠[[Target]]:
completionRecord.⁠[[Target]] }.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

6.2.5 The Reference Record Specification Type

The Reference Record type is used to explain the behaviour of such operators as delete, typeof, the assignment
operators, the super keyword and other language features. For example, the left-hand operand of an assignment is
expected to produce a Reference Record.

A Reference Record is a resolved name or (possibly not-yet-resolved) property binding; its fields are defined by Table 8.

Table 8: Reference Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[Base]] an ECMAScript language The value or Environment Record which holds the binding. A
value, an Environment ⁠[[Base]] of UNRESOLVABLE indicates that the binding could not be
Record, or resolved.
UNRESOLVABLE
⁠[[ReferencedName]] an ECMAScript language The name of the binding. Always a String if ⁠[[Base]] value is an
value or a Private Name Environment Record. Otherwise, may be an ECMAScript language
value other than a String or a Symbol until ToPropertyKey is
performed.
⁠[[Strict]] a Boolean true if the Reference Record originated in strict mode code, false
otherwise.
⁠[[ThisValue]] an ECMAScript language If not EMPTY, the Reference Record represents a property binding
value or EMPTY that was expressed using the super keyword; it is called a Super
Reference Record and its ⁠[[Base]] value will never be an
Environment Record. In that case, the ⁠[[ThisValue]] field holds the
this value at the time the Reference Record was created.

The following abstract operations are used in this specification to operate upon Reference Records:

[Link] IsPropertyReference ( V )

The abstract operation IsPropertyReference takes argument V (a Reference Record) and returns a Boolean. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. If V.⁠[[Base]] is UNRESOLVABLE, return false.

2. If V.⁠[[Base]] is an Environment Record, return false; otherwise return true.

[Link] IsUnresolvableReference ( V )

The abstract operation IsUnresolvableReference takes argument V (a Reference Record) and returns a Boolean. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. If V.⁠[[Base]] is UNRESOLVABLE, return true; otherwise return false.

[Link] IsSuperReference ( V )

The abstract operation IsSuperReference takes argument V (a Reference Record) and returns a Boolean. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. If V.⁠[[ThisValue]] is not EMPTY, return true; otherwise return false.

[Link] IsPrivateReference ( V )

The abstract operation IsPrivateReference takes argument V (a Reference Record) and returns a Boolean. It performs

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

the following steps when called:

1. If V.⁠[[ReferencedName]] is a Private Name, return true; otherwise return false.

[Link] GetValue ( V )

The abstract operation GetValue takes argument V (a Reference Record or an ECMAScript language value) and returns
either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or an abrupt completion. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. If V is not a Reference Record, return V.

2. If IsUnresolvableReference(V) is true, throw a ReferenceError exception.
3. If IsPropertyReference(V) is true, then
a. Let baseObj be ? ToObject(V.⁠[[Base]]).
b. If IsPrivateReference(V) is true, then
i. Return ? PrivateGet(baseObj, V.⁠[[ReferencedName]]).
c. If V.⁠[[ReferencedName]] is not a property key, then
i. Set V.⁠[[ReferencedName]] to ? ToPropertyKey(V.⁠[[ReferencedName]]).
d. Return ? baseObj.⁠[[Get]](V.⁠[[ReferencedName]], GetThisValue(V)).
4. Else,
a. Let base be V.⁠[[Base]].
b. Assert: base is an Environment Record.
c. Return ? [Link](V.⁠[[ReferencedName]], V.⁠[[Strict]]) (see 9.1).

NOTE The object that may be created in step 3.a is not accessible outside of the above abstract operation and
the ordinary object ⁠[[Get]] internal method. An implementation might choose to avoid the actual creation of
the object.

[Link] PutValue ( V, W )

The abstract operation PutValue takes arguments V (a Reference Record or an ECMAScript language value) and W (an
ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or an abrupt completion. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. If V is not a Reference Record, throw a ReferenceError exception.

2. If IsUnresolvableReference(V) is true, then
a. If V.⁠[[Strict]] is true, throw a ReferenceError exception.
b. Let globalObj be GetGlobalObject().
c. Perform ? Set(globalObj, V.⁠[[ReferencedName]], W, false).
d. Return UNUSED.
3. If IsPropertyReference(V) is true, then
a. Let baseObj be ? ToObject(V.⁠[[Base]]).
b. If IsPrivateReference(V) is true, then
i. Return ? PrivateSet(baseObj, V.⁠[[ReferencedName]], W).
c. If V.⁠[[ReferencedName]] is not a property key, then
i. Set V.⁠[[ReferencedName]] to ? ToPropertyKey(V.⁠[[ReferencedName]]).
d. Let succeeded be ? baseObj.⁠[[Set]](V.⁠[[ReferencedName]], W, GetThisValue(V)).
e. If succeeded is false and V.⁠[[Strict]] is true, throw a TypeError exception.
f. Return UNUSED.
4. Else,
a. Let base be V.⁠[[Base]].
b. Assert: base is an Environment Record.
c. Return ? [Link](V.⁠[[ReferencedName]], W, V.⁠[[Strict]]) (see 9.1).

NOTE The object that may be created in step 3.a is not accessible outside of the above abstract operation and
the ordinary object ⁠[[Set]] internal method. An implementation might choose to avoid the actual creation of
that object.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] GetThisValue ( V )

The abstract operation GetThisValue takes argument V (a Reference Record) and returns an ECMAScript language
value. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyReference(V) is true.

2. If IsSuperReference(V) is true, return V.⁠[[ThisValue]]; otherwise return V.⁠[[Base]].

[Link] InitializeReferencedBinding ( V, W )

The abstract operation InitializeReferencedBinding takes arguments V (a Reference Record) and W (an ECMAScript
language value) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or an abrupt completion. It performs the fol-
lowing steps when called:

1. Assert: IsUnresolvableReference(V) is false.

2. Let base be V.⁠[[Base]].
3. Assert: base is an Environment Record.
4. Return ? [Link](V.⁠[[ReferencedName]], W).

[Link] MakePrivateReference ( baseValue, privateIdentifier )

The abstract operation MakePrivateReference takes arguments baseValue (an ECMAScript language value) and
privateIdentifier (a String) and returns a Reference Record. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.

2. Assert: privateEnv is not null.
3. Let privateName be ResolvePrivateIdentifier(privateEnv, privateIdentifier).
4. Return the Reference Record { ⁠[[Base]]: baseValue, ⁠[[ReferencedName]]: privateName, ⁠[[Strict]]: true, ⁠[[ThisValue]]:
EMPTY }.

6.2.6 The Property Descriptor Specification Type

The Property Descriptor type is used to explain the manipulation and reification of Object property attributes. A Property
Descriptor is a Record with zero or more fields, where each field's name is an attribute name and its value is a corres-
ponding attribute value as specified in [Link]. The schema name used within this specification to tag literal descriptions
of Property Descriptor records is “PropertyDescriptor”.

Property Descriptor values may be further classified as data Property Descriptors and accessor Property Descriptors
based upon the existence or use of certain fields. A data Property Descriptor is one that includes any fields named either
[[Value]] or ⁠[[Writable]]. An accessor Property Descriptor is one that includes any fields named either ⁠[[Get]] or ⁠[[Set]].
Any Property Descriptor may have fields named ⁠[[Enumerable]] and ⁠[[Configurable]]. A Property Descriptor value may
not be both a data Property Descriptor and an accessor Property Descriptor; however, it may be neither (in which case it
is a generic Property Descriptor). A fully populated Property Descriptor is one that is either an accessor Property
Descriptor or a data Property Descriptor and that has all of the corresponding fields defined in Table 3.

The following abstract operations are used in this specification to operate upon Property Descriptor values:

[Link] IsAccessorDescriptor ( Desc )

The abstract operation IsAccessorDescriptor takes argument Desc (a Property Descriptor) and returns a Boolean. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. If Desc has a ⁠[[Get]] field, return true.

2. If Desc has a ⁠[[Set]] field, return true.
3. Return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] IsDataDescriptor ( Desc )

The abstract operation IsDataDescriptor takes argument Desc (a Property Descriptor) and returns a Boolean. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. If Desc has a ⁠[[Value]] field, return true.

2. If Desc has a ⁠[[Writable]] field, return true.
3. Return false.

[Link] IsGenericDescriptor ( Desc )

The abstract operation IsGenericDescriptor takes argument Desc (a Property Descriptor) and returns a Boolean. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. If IsAccessorDescriptor(Desc) is true, return false.

2. If IsDataDescriptor(Desc) is true, return false.
3. Return true.

[Link] FromPropertyDescriptor ( Desc )

The abstract operation FromPropertyDescriptor takes argument Desc (a Property Descriptor or undefined) and returns
an Object or undefined. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If Desc is undefined, return undefined.

2. Let obj be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%).
3. Assert: obj is an extensible ordinary object with no own properties.
4. If Desc has a ⁠[[Value]] field, then
a. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "value", Desc.⁠[[Value]]).
5. If Desc has a ⁠[[Writable]] field, then
a. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "writable", Desc.⁠[[Writable]]).
6. If Desc has a ⁠[[Get]] field, then
a. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "get", Desc.⁠[[Get]]).
7. If Desc has a ⁠[[Set]] field, then
a. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "set", Desc.⁠[[Set]]).
8. If Desc has an ⁠[[Enumerable]] field, then
a. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "enumerable", Desc.⁠[[Enumerable]]).
9. If Desc has a ⁠[[Configurable]] field, then
a. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "configurable", Desc.⁠[[Configurable]]).
10. Return obj.

[Link] ToPropertyDescriptor ( Obj )

The abstract operation ToPropertyDescriptor takes argument Obj (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a
normal completion containing a Property Descriptor or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If Obj is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let desc be a new Property Descriptor that initially has no fields.
3. Let hasEnumerable be ? HasProperty(Obj, "enumerable").
4. If hasEnumerable is true, then
a. Let enumerable be ToBoolean(? Get(Obj, "enumerable")).
b. Set desc.⁠[[Enumerable]] to enumerable.
5. Let hasConfigurable be ? HasProperty(Obj, "configurable").
6. If hasConfigurable is true, then
a. Let configurable be ToBoolean(? Get(Obj, "configurable")).
b. Set desc.⁠[[Configurable]] to configurable.
7. Let hasValue be ? HasProperty(Obj, "value").
8. If hasValue is true, then
a. Let value be ? Get(Obj, "value").
b. Set desc.⁠[[Value]] to value.
9. Let hasWritable be ? HasProperty(Obj, "writable").

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

10. If hasWritable is true, then

a. Let writable be ToBoolean(? Get(Obj, "writable")).
b. Set desc.⁠[[Writable]] to writable.
11. Let hasGet be ? HasProperty(Obj, "get").
12. If hasGet is true, then
a. Let getter be ? Get(Obj, "get").
b. If IsCallable(getter) is false and getter is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
c. Set desc.⁠[[Get]] to getter.
13. Let hasSet be ? HasProperty(Obj, "set").
14. If hasSet is true, then
a. Let setter be ? Get(Obj, "set").
b. If IsCallable(setter) is false and setter is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
c. Set desc.⁠[[Set]] to setter.
15. If desc has a ⁠[[Get]] field or desc has a ⁠[[Set]] field, then
a. If desc has a ⁠[[Value]] field or desc has a ⁠[[Writable]] field, throw a TypeError exception.
16. Return desc.

[Link] CompletePropertyDescriptor ( Desc )

The abstract operation CompletePropertyDescriptor takes argument Desc (a Property Descriptor) and returns UNUSED.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let like be the Record { ⁠[[Value]]: undefined, ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Get]]: undefined, ⁠[[Set]]: undefined,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.
2. If IsGenericDescriptor(Desc) is true or IsDataDescriptor(Desc) is true, then
a. If Desc does not have a ⁠[[Value]] field, set Desc.⁠[[Value]] to like.⁠[[Value]].
b. If Desc does not have a ⁠[[Writable]] field, set Desc.⁠[[Writable]] to like.⁠[[Writable]].
3. Else,
a. If Desc does not have a ⁠[[Get]] field, set Desc.⁠[[Get]] to like.⁠[[Get]].
b. If Desc does not have a ⁠[[Set]] field, set Desc.⁠[[Set]] to like.⁠[[Set]].
4. If Desc does not have an ⁠[[Enumerable]] field, set Desc.⁠[[Enumerable]] to like.⁠[[Enumerable]].
5. If Desc does not have a ⁠[[Configurable]] field, set Desc.⁠[[Configurable]] to like.⁠[[Configurable]].
6. Return UNUSED.

6.2.7 The Environment Record Specification Type

The Environment Record type is used to explain the behaviour of name resolution in nested functions and blocks. This
type and the operations upon it are defined in 9.1.

6.2.8 The Abstract Closure Specification Type

The Abstract Closure specification type is used to refer to algorithm steps together with a collection of values. Abstract
Closures are meta-values and are invoked using function application style such as closure(arg1, arg2). Like abstract op-
erations, invocations perform the algorithm steps described by the Abstract Closure.

In algorithm steps that create an Abstract Closure, values are captured with the verb "capture" followed by a list of ali-
ases. When an Abstract Closure is created, it captures the value that is associated with each alias at that time. In steps
that specify the algorithm to be performed when an Abstract Closure is called, each captured value is referred to by the
alias that was used to capture the value.

If an Abstract Closure returns a Completion Record, that Completion Record must be either a normal completion or a
throw completion.

Abstract Closures are created inline as part of other algorithms, shown in the following example.

1. Let addend be 41.

2. Let closure be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (x) that captures addend and performs the following steps
when called:
a. Return x + addend.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Let val be closure(1).

4. Assert: val is 42.

6.2.9 Data Blocks

The Data Block specification type is used to describe a distinct and mutable sequence of byte-sized (8 bit) numeric val-
ues. A byte value is an integer in the inclusive interval from 0 to 255. A Data Block value is created with a fixed number
of bytes that each have the initial value 0.

For notational convenience within this specification, an array-like syntax can be used to access the individual bytes of a
Data Block value. This notation presents a Data Block value as a 0-based integer-indexed sequence of bytes. For ex-
ample, if db is a 5 byte Data Block value then db[2] can be used to access its 3rd byte.

A data block that resides in memory that can be referenced from multiple agents concurrently is designated a Shared
Data Block. A Shared Data Block has an identity (for the purposes of equality testing Shared Data Block values) that is
address-free: it is tied not to the virtual addresses the block is mapped to in any process, but to the set of locations in
memory that the block represents. Two data blocks are equal only if the sets of the locations they contain are equal; oth-
erwise, they are not equal and the intersection of the sets of locations they contain is empty. Finally, Shared Data Blocks
can be distinguished from Data Blocks.

The semantics of Shared Data Blocks is defined using Shared Data Block events by the memory model. Abstract opera-
tions below introduce Shared Data Block events and act as the interface between evaluation semantics and the event
semantics of the memory model. The events form a candidate execution, on which the memory model acts as a filter.
Please consult the memory model for full semantics.

Shared Data Block events are modelled by Records, defined in the memory model.

The following abstract operations are used in this specification to operate upon Data Block values:

[Link] CreateByteDataBlock ( size )

The abstract operation CreateByteDataBlock takes argument size (a non-negative integer) and returns either a normal
completion containing a Data Block or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If size > 253 - 1, throw a RangeError exception.

2. Let db be a new Data Block value consisting of size bytes. If it is impossible to create such a Data Block, throw a
RangeError exception.
3. Set all of the bytes of db to 0.
4. Return db.

[Link] CreateSharedByteDataBlock ( size )

The abstract operation CreateSharedByteDataBlock takes argument size (a non-negative integer) and returns either a
normal completion containing a Shared Data Block or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let db be a new Shared Data Block value consisting of size bytes. If it is impossible to create such a Shared Data
Block, throw a RangeError exception.
2. Let execution be the ⁠[[CandidateExecution]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
3. Let eventsRecord be the Agent Events Record of execution.⁠[[EventsRecords]] whose ⁠[[AgentSignifier]] is
AgentSignifier().
4. Let zero be « 0 ».
5. For each index i of db, do
a. Append WriteSharedMemory { ⁠[[Order]]: INIT, ⁠[[NoTear]]: true, ⁠[[Block]]: db, ⁠[[ByteIndex]]: i, ⁠[[ElementSize]]: 1,
⁠[[Payload]]: zero } to eventsRecord.[[EventList]].
6. Return db.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] CopyDataBlockBytes ( toBlock, toIndex, fromBlock, fromIndex, count )

The abstract operation CopyDataBlockBytes takes arguments toBlock (a Data Block or a Shared Data Block), toIndex (a
non-negative integer), fromBlock (a Data Block or a Shared Data Block), fromIndex (a non-negative integer), and count
(a non-negative integer) and returns UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: fromBlock and toBlock are distinct values.

2. Let fromSize be the number of bytes in fromBlock.
3. Assert: fromIndex + count ≤ fromSize.
4. Let toSize be the number of bytes in toBlock.
5. Assert: toIndex + count ≤ toSize.
6. Repeat, while count > 0,
a. If fromBlock is a Shared Data Block, then
i. Let execution be the ⁠[[CandidateExecution]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
ii. Let eventsRecord be the Agent Events Record of execution.⁠[[EventsRecords]] whose ⁠[[AgentSignifier]] is
AgentSignifier().
iii. Let bytes be a List whose sole element is a nondeterministically chosen byte value.
iv. NOTE: In implementations, bytes is the result of a non-atomic read instruction on the underlying hardware.
The nondeterminism is a semantic prescription of the memory model to describe observable behaviour of
hardware with weak consistency.
v. Let readEvent be ReadSharedMemory { ⁠[[Order]]: UNORDERED, ⁠[[NoTear]]: true, ⁠[[Block]]: fromBlock,
⁠[[ByteIndex]]: fromIndex, ⁠[[ElementSize]]: 1 }.
vi. Append readEvent to eventsRecord.⁠[[EventList]].
vii. Append Chosen Value Record { ⁠[[Event]]: readEvent, ⁠[[ChosenValue]]: bytes } to
execution.⁠[[ChosenValues]].
viii. If toBlock is a Shared Data Block, then
1. Append WriteSharedMemory { ⁠[[Order]]: UNORDERED, ⁠[[NoTear]]: true, ⁠[[Block]]: toBlock,
⁠[[ByteIndex]]: toIndex, ⁠[[ElementSize]]: 1, ⁠[[Payload]]: bytes } to eventsRecord.⁠[[EventList]].
ix. Else,
1. Set toBlock[toIndex] to bytes[0].
b. Else,
i. Assert: toBlock is not a Shared Data Block.
ii. Set toBlock[toIndex] to fromBlock[fromIndex].
c. Set toIndex to toIndex + 1.
d. Set fromIndex to fromIndex + 1.
e. Set count to count - 1.
7. Return UNUSED.

6.2.10 The PrivateElement Specification Type

The PrivateElement type is a Record used in the specification of private class fields, methods, and accessors. Although
Property Descriptors are not used for private elements, private fields behave similarly to non-configurable, non-enumer-
able, writable data properties, private methods behave similarly to non-configurable, non-enumerable, non-writable data
properties, and private accessors behave similarly to non-configurable, non-enumerable accessor properties.

Values of the PrivateElement type are Record values whose fields are defined by Table 9. Such values are referred to
as PrivateElements.

Table 9: PrivateElement Fields

Field Values of the ⁠[[Kind]] field for which it Value Meaning
Name is present
⁠[[Key]] All a Private Name The name of the field, method, or
accessor.
⁠[[Kind]] All FIELD, METHOD, or The kind of the element.
ACCESSOR
⁠[[Value]] FIELD and METHOD an ECMAScript language The value of the field.
value

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Field Values of the ⁠[[Kind]] field for which it Value Meaning

Name is present
⁠[[Get]] ACCESSOR a function object or The getter for a private accessor.
undefined
⁠[[Set]] ACCESSOR a function object or The setter for a private accessor.
undefined

6.2.11 The ClassFieldDefinition Record Specification Type

The ClassFieldDefinition type is a Record used in the specification of class fields.

Values of the ClassFieldDefinition type are Record values whose fields are defined by Table 10. Such values are re-
ferred to as ClassFieldDefinition Records.

Table 10: ClassFieldDefinition Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[Name]] a Private Name, a String, or a Symbol The name of the field.
⁠[[Initializer]] an ECMAScript function object or EMPTY The initializer of the field, if any.

6.2.12 Private Names

The Private Name specification type is used to describe a globally unique value (one which differs from any other
Private Name, even if they are otherwise indistinguishable) which represents the key of a private class element (field,
method, or accessor). Each Private Name has an associated immutable ⁠[[Description]] which is a String value. A Private
Name may be installed on any ECMAScript object with PrivateFieldAdd or PrivateMethodOrAccessorAdd, and then read
or written using PrivateGet and PrivateSet.

6.2.13 The ClassStaticBlockDefinition Record Specification Type

A ClassStaticBlockDefinition Record is a Record value used to encapsulate the executable code for a class static initial-
ization block.

ClassStaticBlockDefinition Records have the fields listed in Table 11.

Table 11: ClassStaticBlockDefinition Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[BodyFunction]] an ECMAScript function object The function object to be called during static initialization of a class.

7 Abstract Operations
These operations are not a part of the ECMAScript language; they are defined here solely to aid the specification
of the semantics of the ECMAScript language. Other, more specialized abstract operations are defined throughout
this specification.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7.1 Type Conversion

The ECMAScript language implicitly performs automatic type conversion as needed. To clarify the semantics of certain
constructs it is useful to define a set of conversion abstract operations. The conversion abstract operations are poly-
morphic; they can accept a value of any ECMAScript language type. But no other specification types are used with
these operations.

The BigInt type has no implicit conversions in the ECMAScript language; programmers must call BigInt explicitly to con-
vert values from other types.

7.1.1 ToPrimitive ( input [ , preferredType ] )

The abstract operation ToPrimitive takes argument input (an ECMAScript language value) and optional argument pre-
ferredType (STRING or NUMBER) and returns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or
a throw completion. It converts its input argument to a non-Object type. If an object is capable of converting to more
than one primitive type, it may use the optional hint preferredType to favour that type. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. If input is an Object, then

a. Let exoticToPrim be ? GetMethod(input, %[Link]%).
b. If exoticToPrim is not undefined, then
i. If preferredType is not present, then
1. Let hint be "default".
ii. Else if preferredType is STRING, then
1. Let hint be "string".
iii. Else,
1. Assert: preferredType is NUMBER.
2. Let hint be "number".
iv. Let result be ? Call(exoticToPrim, input, « hint »).
v. If result is not an Object, return result.
vi. Throw a TypeError exception.
c. If preferredType is not present, let preferredType be NUMBER.
d. Return ? OrdinaryToPrimitive(input, preferredType).
2. Return input.

NOTE When ToPrimitive is called without a hint, then it generally behaves as if the hint were NUMBER. However,
objects may over-ride this behaviour by defining a %[Link]% method. Of the objects defined in
this specification only Dates (see [Link]) and Symbol objects (see [Link]) over-ride the default
ToPrimitive behaviour. Dates treat the absence of a hint as if the hint were STRING.

[Link] OrdinaryToPrimitive ( O, hint )

The abstract operation OrdinaryToPrimitive takes arguments O (an Object) and hint (STRING or NUMBER) and returns
either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. If hint is STRING, then

a. Let methodNames be « "toString", "valueOf" ».
2. Else,
a. Let methodNames be « "valueOf", "toString" ».
3. For each element name of methodNames, do
a. Let method be ? Get(O, name).
b. If IsCallable(method) is true, then
i. Let result be ? Call(method, O).
ii. If result is not an Object, return result.
4. Throw a TypeError exception.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7.1.2 ToBoolean ( argument )

The abstract operation ToBoolean takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns a Boolean. It
converts argument to a value of type Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If argument is a Boolean, return argument.

2. If argument is one of undefined, null, +0𝔽, -0𝔽, NaN, 0ℤ, or the empty String, return false.
3. NOTE: This step is replaced in section B.3.6.1.
4. Return true.

7.1.3 ToNumeric ( value )

The abstract operation ToNumeric takes argument value (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal
completion containing either a Number or a BigInt, or a throw completion. It returns value converted to a Number or a
BigInt. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let primValue be ? ToPrimitive(value, NUMBER).

2. If primValue is a BigInt, return primValue.
3. Return ? ToNumber(primValue).

7.1.4 ToNumber ( argument )

The abstract operation ToNumber takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a nor-
mal completion containing a Number or a throw completion. It converts argument to a value of type Number. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. If argument is a Number, return argument.

2. If argument is either a Symbol or a BigInt, throw a TypeError exception.
3. If argument is undefined, return NaN.
4. If argument is either null or false, return +0𝔽.
5. If argument is true, return 1𝔽.
6. If argument is a String, return StringToNumber(argument).
7. Assert: argument is an Object.
8. Let primValue be ? ToPrimitive(argument, NUMBER).
9. Assert: primValue is not an Object.
10. Return ? ToNumber(primValue).

[Link] ToNumber Applied to the String Type

The abstract operation StringToNumber specifies how to convert a String value to a Number value, using the
following grammar.
Syntax

StringNumericLiteral :::
StrWhiteSpaceopt
StrWhiteSpaceopt StrNumericLiteral StrWhiteSpaceopt

StrWhiteSpace :::
StrWhiteSpaceChar StrWhiteSpaceopt

StrWhiteSpaceChar :::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator

StrNumericLiteral :::
StrDecimalLiteral
NonDecimalIntegerLiteral[~Sep]

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

StrDecimalLiteral :::
StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral
+ StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral
- StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral

StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral :::
Infinity
DecimalDigits[~Sep] . DecimalDigits[~Sep] opt ExponentPart[~Sep] opt
. DecimalDigits[~Sep] ExponentPart[~Sep] opt
DecimalDigits[~Sep] ExponentPart[~Sep] opt

All grammar symbols not explicitly defined above have the definitions used in the Lexical Grammar for numeric
literals (12.9.3)

NOTE Some differences should be noted between the syntax of a StringNumericLiteral and a NumericLiteral:

A StringNumericLiteral may include leading and/or trailing white space and/or line terminators.
A StringNumericLiteral that is decimal may have any number of leading 0 digits.
A StringNumericLiteral that is decimal may include a + or - to indicate its sign.
A StringNumericLiteral that is empty or contains only white space is converted to +0𝔽.
Infinity and -Infinity are recognized as a StringNumericLiteral but not as a NumericLiteral.
A StringNumericLiteral cannot include a BigIntLiteralSuffix.
A StringNumericLiteral cannot include a NumericLiteralSeparator.

[Link].1 StringToNumber ( str )

The abstract operation StringToNumber takes argument str (a String) and returns a Number. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let literal be ParseText(str, StringNumericLiteral).

2. If literal is a List of errors, return NaN.
3. Return the StringNumericValue of literal.

[Link].2 Runtime Semantics: StringNumericValue

The syntax-directed operation StringNumericValue takes no arguments and returns a Number.

NOTE The conversion of a StringNumericLiteral to a Number value is similar overall to the determination of the
NumericValue of a NumericLiteral (see 12.9.3), but some of the details are different.

It is defined piecewise over the following productions:

StringNumericLiteral ::: StrWhiteSpaceopt

1. Return +0𝔽.

StringNumericLiteral ::: StrWhiteSpaceopt StrNumericLiteral StrWhiteSpaceopt

1. Return the StringNumericValue of StrNumericLiteral.

StrNumericLiteral ::: NonDecimalIntegerLiteral

1. Return 𝔽(MV of NonDecimalIntegerLiteral).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

StrDecimalLiteral ::: - StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral

1. Let a be the StringNumericValue of StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral.

2. If a is +0𝔽, return -0𝔽.
3. Return -a.

StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral ::: Infinity

1. Return +∞𝔽.

StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral ::: DecimalDigits . DecimalDigitsopt ExponentPartopt

1. Let a be the MV of the first DecimalDigits.

2. If the second DecimalDigits is present, then
a. Let b be the MV of the second DecimalDigits.
b. Let n be the number of code points in the second DecimalDigits.
3. Else,
a. Let b be 0.
b. Let n be 0.
4. If ExponentPart is present, let e be the MV of ExponentPart; otherwise let e be 0.
5. Return RoundMVResult((a + (b × 10-n)) × 10e).

StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral ::: . DecimalDigits ExponentPartopt

1. Let b be the MV of DecimalDigits.

2. If ExponentPart is present, let e be the MV of ExponentPart; otherwise let e be 0.
3. Let n be the number of code points in DecimalDigits.
4. Return RoundMVResult(b × 10e - n).

StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral ::: DecimalDigits ExponentPartopt

1. Let a be the MV of DecimalDigits.

2. If ExponentPart is present, let e be the MV of ExponentPart; otherwise let e be 0.
3. Return RoundMVResult(a × 10e).

[Link].3 RoundMVResult ( n )

The abstract operation RoundMVResult takes argument n (a mathematical value) and returns a Number. It converts n to
a Number in an implementation-defined manner. For the purposes of this abstract operation, a digit is significant if it is
not zero or there is a non-zero digit to its left and there is a non-zero digit to its right. For the purposes of this abstract
operation, "the mathematical value denoted by" a representation of a mathematical value is the inverse of "the decimal
representation of" a mathematical value. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If the decimal representation of n has 20 or fewer significant digits, return 𝔽(n).

2. Let option1 be the mathematical value denoted by the result of replacing each significant digit in the decimal
representation of n after the 20th with a 0 digit.
3. Let option2 be the mathematical value denoted by the result of replacing each significant digit in the decimal
representation of n after the 20th with a 0 digit and then incrementing it at the 20th position (with carrying as
necessary).
4. Let chosen be an implementation-defined choice of either option1 or option2.
5. Return 𝔽(chosen).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7.1.5 ToIntegerOrInfinity ( argument )

The abstract operation ToIntegerOrInfinity takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either
a normal completion containing either an integer, +∞, or -∞, or a throw completion. It converts argument to an integer
representing its Number value with fractional part truncated, or to +∞ or -∞ when that Number value is infinite. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).

2. If number is one of NaN, +0𝔽, or -0𝔽, return 0.
3. If number is +∞𝔽, return +∞.
4. If number is -∞𝔽, return -∞.
5. Return truncate(ℝ(number)).

NOTE 𝔽(ToIntegerOrInfinity(x)) never returns -0𝔽 for any value of x. The truncation of the fractional part is
performed after converting x to a mathematical value.

7.1.6 ToInt32 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToInt32 takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal
completion containing an integral Number or a throw completion. It converts argument to one of 232 integral Number val-
ues in the inclusive interval from 𝔽(-231) to 𝔽(231 - 1). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).

2. If number is not finite or number is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return +0𝔽.
3. Let int be truncate(ℝ(number)).
4. Let int32bit be int modulo 232.
5. If int32bit ≥ 231, return 𝔽(int32bit - 232); otherwise return 𝔽(int32bit).

NOTE Given the above definition of ToInt32:

The ToInt32 abstract operation is idempotent: if applied to a result that it produced, the second
application leaves that value unchanged.
ToInt32(ToUint32(x)) is the same value as ToInt32(x) for all values of x. (It is to preserve this latter
property that +∞𝔽 and -∞𝔽 are mapped to +0𝔽.)
ToInt32 maps -0𝔽 to +0𝔽.

7.1.7 ToUint32 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToUint32 takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal
completion containing an integral Number or a throw completion. It converts argument to one of 232 integral Number val-
ues in the inclusive interval from +0𝔽 to 𝔽(232 - 1). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).

2. If number is not finite or number is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return +0𝔽.
3. Let int be truncate(ℝ(number)).
4. Let int32bit be int modulo 232.
5. Return 𝔽(int32bit).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE Given the above definition of ToUint32:

Step 5 is the only difference between ToUint32 and ToInt32.

The ToUint32 abstract operation is idempotent: if applied to a result that it produced, the second
application leaves that value unchanged.
ToUint32(ToInt32(x)) is the same value as ToUint32(x) for all values of x. (It is to preserve this latter
property that +∞𝔽 and -∞𝔽 are mapped to +0𝔽.)
ToUint32 maps -0𝔽 to +0𝔽.

7.1.8 ToInt16 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToInt16 takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal
completion containing an integral Number or a throw completion. It converts argument to one of 216 integral Number val-
ues in the inclusive interval from 𝔽(-215) to 𝔽(215 - 1). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).

2. If number is not finite or number is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return +0𝔽.
3. Let int be truncate(ℝ(number)).
4. Let int16bit be int modulo 216.
5. If int16bit ≥ 215, return 𝔽(int16bit - 216); otherwise return 𝔽(int16bit).

7.1.9 ToUint16 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToUint16 takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal
completion containing an integral Number or a throw completion. It converts argument to one of 216 integral Number val-
ues in the inclusive interval from +0𝔽 to 𝔽(216 - 1). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).

2. If number is not finite or number is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return +0𝔽.
3. Let int be truncate(ℝ(number)).
4. Let int16bit be int modulo 216.
5. Return 𝔽(int16bit).

NOTE Given the above definition of ToUint16:

The substitution of 216 for 232 in step 4 is the only difference between ToUint32 and ToUint16.
ToUint16 maps -0𝔽 to +0𝔽.

7.1.10 ToInt8 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToInt8 takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal
completion containing an integral Number or a throw completion. It converts argument to one of 28 integral Number val-
ues in the inclusive interval from -128𝔽 to 127𝔽. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).

2. If number is not finite or number is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return +0𝔽.
3. Let int be truncate(ℝ(number)).
4. Let int8bit be int modulo 28.
5. If int8bit ≥ 27, return 𝔽(int8bit - 28); otherwise return 𝔽(int8bit).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7.1.11 ToUint8 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToUint8 takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal
completion containing an integral Number or a throw completion. It converts argument to one of 28 integral Number val-
ues in the inclusive interval from +0𝔽 to 255𝔽. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).

2. If number is not finite or number is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return +0𝔽.
3. Let int be truncate(ℝ(number)).
4. Let int8bit be int modulo 28.
5. Return 𝔽(int8bit).

7.1.12 ToUint8Clamp ( argument )

The abstract operation ToUint8Clamp takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a
normal completion containing an integral Number or a throw completion. It clamps and rounds argument to one of 28 in-
tegral Number values in the inclusive interval from +0𝔽 to 255𝔽. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).

2. If number is NaN, return +0𝔽.
3. Let mv be the extended mathematical value of number.
4. Let clamped be the result of clamping mv between 0 and 255.
5. Let f be floor(clamped).
6. If clamped < f + 0.5, return 𝔽(f).
7. If clamped > f + 0.5, return 𝔽(f + 1).
8. If f is even, return 𝔽(f); otherwise return 𝔽(f + 1).

NOTE Unlike most other ECMAScript integer conversion operations, ToUint8Clamp rounds rather than truncates
non-integral values. It also uses “round half to even” tie-breaking, which differs from the “round half up” tie-
breaking of [Link].

7.1.13 ToBigInt ( argument )

The abstract operation ToBigInt takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal
completion containing a BigInt or a throw completion. It converts argument to a BigInt value, or throws if an implicit con-
version from Number would be required. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let prim be ? ToPrimitive(argument, NUMBER).

2. Return the value that prim corresponds to in Table 12.

Table 12: BigInt Conversions

Argument Type Result
Undefined Throw a TypeError exception.
Null Throw a TypeError exception.
Boolean Return 1n if prim is true and 0n if prim is false.
BigInt Return prim.
Number Throw a TypeError exception.
String
1. Let n be StringToBigInt(prim).
2. If n is undefined, throw a SyntaxError exception.
3. Return n.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Argument Type Result

Symbol Throw a TypeError exception.

7.1.14 StringToBigInt ( str )

The abstract operation StringToBigInt takes argument str (a String) and returns a BigInt or undefined. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let literal be ParseText(str, StringIntegerLiteral).

2. If literal is a List of errors, return undefined.
3. Let mv be the MV of literal.
4. Assert: mv is an integer.
5. Return ℤ(mv).

[Link] StringIntegerLiteral Grammar

StringToBigInt uses the following grammar.

Syntax

StringIntegerLiteral :::
StrWhiteSpaceopt
StrWhiteSpaceopt StrIntegerLiteral StrWhiteSpaceopt

StrIntegerLiteral :::
SignedInteger[~Sep]
NonDecimalIntegerLiteral[~Sep]

[Link] Runtime Semantics: MV

The MV of StringIntegerLiteral ::: StrWhiteSpaceopt is 0.

The MV of StringIntegerLiteral ::: StrWhiteSpaceopt StrIntegerLiteral StrWhiteSpaceopt is the MV of
StrIntegerLiteral.

7.1.15 ToBigInt64 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToBigInt64 takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a
normal completion containing a BigInt or a throw completion. It converts argument to one of 264 BigInt values in the
inclusive interval from ℤ(-263) to ℤ(263 - 1). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToBigInt(argument).
2. Let int64bit be ℝ(n) modulo 264.
3. If int64bit ≥ 263, return ℤ(int64bit - 264); otherwise return ℤ(int64bit).

7.1.16 ToBigUint64 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToBigUint64 takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a
normal completion containing a BigInt or a throw completion. It converts argument to one of 264 BigInt values in the
inclusive interval from 0ℤ to ℤ(264 - 1). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToBigInt(argument).
2. Let int64bit be ℝ(n) modulo 264.
3. Return ℤ(int64bit).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7.1.17 ToString ( argument )

The abstract operation ToString takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal
completion containing a String or a throw completion. It converts argument to a value of type String. It performs the fol-
lowing steps when called:

1. If argument is a String, return argument.

2. If argument is a Symbol, throw a TypeError exception.
3. If argument is undefined, return "undefined".
4. If argument is null, return "null".
5. If argument is true, return "true".
6. If argument is false, return "false".
7. If argument is a Number, return Number::toString(argument, 10).
8. If argument is a BigInt, return BigInt::toString(argument, 10).
9. Assert: argument is an Object.
10. Let primValue be ? ToPrimitive(argument, STRING).
11. Assert: primValue is not an Object.
12. Return ? ToString(primValue).

7.1.18 ToObject ( argument )

The abstract operation ToObject takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal
completion containing an Object or a throw completion. It converts argument to a value of type Object according to
Table 13:

Table 13: ToObject Conversions

Argument Result
Type
Undefined Throw a TypeError exception.
Null Throw a TypeError exception.
Boolean Return a new Boolean object whose ⁠[[BooleanData]] internal slot is set to argument. See 20.3 for a
description of Boolean objects.
Number Return a new Number object whose ⁠[[NumberData]] internal slot is set to argument. See 21.1 for a
description of Number objects.
String Return a new String object whose ⁠[[StringData]] internal slot is set to argument. See 22.1 for a
description of String objects.
Symbol Return a new Symbol object whose ⁠[[SymbolData]] internal slot is set to argument. See 20.4 for a
description of Symbol objects.
BigInt Return a new BigInt object whose ⁠[[BigIntData]] internal slot is set to argument. See 21.2 for a
description of BigInt objects.
Object Return argument.

7.1.19 ToPropertyKey ( argument )

The abstract operation ToPropertyKey takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a
normal completion containing a property key or a throw completion. It converts argument to a value that can be used as
a property key. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let key be ? ToPrimitive(argument, STRING).

2. If key is a Symbol, then
a. Return key.
3. Return ! ToString(key).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7.1.20 ToLength ( argument )

The abstract operation ToLength takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a
normal completion containing a non-negative integral Number or a throw completion. It clamps and truncates argument
to a non-negative integral Number suitable for use as the length of an array-like object. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let len be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(argument).

2. If len ≤ 0, return +0𝔽.
3. Return 𝔽(min(len, 253 - 1)).

7.1.21 CanonicalNumericIndexString ( argument )

The abstract operation CanonicalNumericIndexString takes argument argument (a String) and returns a Number or un-
defined. If argument is either "-0" or exactly matches ToString(n) for some Number value n, it returns the respective
Number value. Otherwise, it returns undefined. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If argument is "-0", return -0𝔽.

2. Let n be ! ToNumber(argument).
3. If ! ToString(n) is argument, return n.
4. Return undefined.

A canonical numeric string is any String for which the CanonicalNumericIndexString abstract operation does not
return undefined.

7.1.22 ToIndex ( value )

The abstract operation ToIndex takes argument value (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal
completion containing a non-negative integer or a throw completion. It converts value to an integer and returns that
integer if it is non-negative and corresponds with an integer index. Otherwise, it throws an exception. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let integer be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(value).

2. If integer is not in the inclusive interval from 0 to 253 - 1, throw a RangeError exception.
3. Return integer.

7.2 Testing and Comparison Operations

7.2.1 RequireObjectCoercible ( argument )

The abstract operation RequireObjectCoercible takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns
either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It throws an error if argu-
ment is a value that cannot be converted to an Object using ToObject. It is defined by Table 14:

Table 14: RequireObjectCoercible Results

Argument Type Result
Undefined Throw a TypeError exception.
Null Throw a TypeError exception.
Boolean Return argument.
Number Return argument.
String Return argument.
Symbol Return argument.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Argument Type Result

BigInt Return argument.
Object Return argument.

7.2.2 IsArray ( argument )

The abstract operation IsArray takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal
completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If argument is not an Object, return false.

2. If argument is an Array exotic object, return true.
3. If argument is a Proxy exotic object, then
a. Perform ? ValidateNonRevokedProxy(argument).
b. Let proxyTarget be argument.⁠[[ProxyTarget]].
c. Return ? IsArray(proxyTarget).
4. Return false.

7.2.3 IsCallable ( argument )

The abstract operation IsCallable takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns a Boolean. It
determines if argument is a callable function with a ⁠[[Call]] internal method. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If argument is not an Object, return false.

2. If argument has a ⁠[[Call]] internal method, return true.
3. Return false.

7.2.4 IsConstructor ( argument )

The abstract operation IsConstructor takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns a Boolean.
It determines if argument is a function object with a ⁠[[Construct]] internal method. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. If argument is not an Object, return false.

2. If argument has a ⁠[[Construct]] internal method, return true.
3. Return false.

7.2.5 IsExtensible ( O )

The abstract operation IsExtensible takes argument O (an Object) and returns either a normal completion containing a
Boolean or a throw completion. It is used to determine whether additional properties can be added to O. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Return ? O.⁠[[IsExtensible]]().

7.2.6 IsRegExp ( argument )

The abstract operation IsRegExp takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a nor-
mal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If argument is not an Object, return false.

2. Let matcher be ? Get(argument, %[Link]%).
3. If matcher is not undefined, return ToBoolean(matcher).
4. If argument has a ⁠[[RegExpMatcher]] internal slot, return true.
5. Return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7.2.7 Static Semantics: IsStringWellFormedUnicode ( string )

The abstract operation IsStringWellFormedUnicode takes argument string (a String) and returns a Boolean. It interprets
string as a sequence of UTF-16 encoded code points, as described in 6.1.4, and determines whether it is a well formed
UTF-16 sequence. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let len be the length of string.

2. Let k be 0.
3. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let cp be CodePointAt(string, k).
b. If cp.⁠[[IsUnpairedSurrogate]] is true, return false.
c. Set k to k + cp.⁠[[CodeUnitCount]].
4. Return true.

7.2.8 SameType ( x, y )

The abstract operation SameType takes arguments x (an ECMAScript language value) and y (an ECMAScript language
value) and returns a Boolean. It determines whether or not the two arguments are the same type. It performs the follow-
ing steps when called:

1. If x is undefined and y is undefined, return true.

2. If x is null and y is null, return true.
3. If x is a Boolean and y is a Boolean, return true.
4. If x is a Number and y is a Number, return true.
5. If x is a BigInt and y is a BigInt, return true.
6. If x is a Symbol and y is a Symbol, return true.
7. If x is a String and y is a String, return true.
8. If x is an Object and y is an Object, return true.
9. Return false.

7.2.9 SameValue ( x, y )

The abstract operation SameValue takes arguments x (an ECMAScript language value) and y (an ECMAScript lan-
guage value) and returns a Boolean. It determines whether or not the two arguments are the same value. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. If SameType(x, y) is false, return false.

2. If x is a Number, then
a. Return Number::sameValue(x, y).
3. Return SameValueNonNumber(x, y).

NOTE This algorithm differs from the IsStrictlyEqual Algorithm by treating all NaN values as equivalent and by
differentiating +0𝔽 from -0𝔽.

7.2.10 SameValueZero ( x, y )

The abstract operation SameValueZero takes arguments x (an ECMAScript language value) and y (an ECMAScript lan-
guage value) and returns a Boolean. It determines whether or not the two arguments are the same value (ignoring the
difference between +0𝔽 and -0𝔽). It performs the following steps when called:

1. If SameType(x, y) is false, return false.

2. If x is a Number, then
a. Return Number::sameValueZero(x, y).
3. Return SameValueNonNumber(x, y).

NOTE SameValueZero differs from SameValue only in that it treats +0𝔽 and -0𝔽 as equivalent.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7.2.11 SameValueNonNumber ( x, y )

The abstract operation SameValueNonNumber takes arguments x (an ECMAScript language value, but not a Number)
and y (an ECMAScript language value, but not a Number) and returns a Boolean. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Assert: SameType(x, y) is true.

2. If x is either undefined or null, return true.
3. If x is a BigInt, then
a. Return BigInt::equal(x, y).
4. If x is a String, then
a. If x and y have the same length and the same code units in the same positions, return true; otherwise return
false.
5. If x is a Boolean, then
a. If x and y are both true or both false, return true; otherwise return false.
6. NOTE: All other ECMAScript language values are compared by identity.
7. If x is y, return true; otherwise return false.

NOTE 1 For expository purposes, some cases are handled separately within this algorithm even if it is unnecessary
to do so.

NOTE 2 The specifics of what "x is y" means are detailed in 5.2.7.

7.2.12 IsLessThan ( x, y, LeftFirst )

The abstract operation IsLessThan takes arguments x (an ECMAScript language value), y (an ECMAScript language
value), and LeftFirst (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing either a Boolean or undefined, or a
throw completion. It provides the semantics for the comparison x < y, returning true, false, or undefined (which indic-
ates that at least one operand is NaN). The LeftFirst flag is used to control the order in which operations with potentially
visible side-effects are performed upon x and y. It is necessary because ECMAScript specifies left to right evaluation of
expressions. If LeftFirst is true, the x parameter corresponds to an expression that occurs to the left of the y parameter's
corresponding expression. If LeftFirst is false, the reverse is the case and operations must be performed upon y before
x. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If LeftFirst is true, then

a. Let px be ? ToPrimitive(x, NUMBER).
b. Let py be ? ToPrimitive(y, NUMBER).
2. Else,
a. NOTE: The order of evaluation needs to be reversed to preserve left to right evaluation.
b. Let py be ? ToPrimitive(y, NUMBER).
c. Let px be ? ToPrimitive(x, NUMBER).
3. If px is a String and py is a String, then
a. Let lx be the length of px.
b. Let ly be the length of py.
c. For each integer i such that 0 ≤ i < min(lx, ly), in ascending order, do
i. Let cx be the numeric value of the code unit at index i within px.
ii. Let cy be the numeric value of the code unit at index i within py.
iii. If cx < cy, return true.
iv. If cx > cy, return false.
d. If lx < ly, return true; otherwise return false.
4. Else,
a. If px is a BigInt and py is a String, then
i. Let ny be StringToBigInt(py).
ii. If ny is undefined, return undefined.
iii. Return BigInt::lessThan(px, ny).
b. If px is a String and py is a BigInt, then
i. Let nx be StringToBigInt(px).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ii. If nx is undefined, return undefined.

iii. Return BigInt::lessThan(nx, py).
c. NOTE: Because px and py are primitive values, evaluation order is not important.
d. Let nx be ? ToNumeric(px).
e. Let ny be ? ToNumeric(py).
f. If SameType(nx, ny) is true, then
i. If nx is a Number, then
1. Return Number::lessThan(nx, ny).
ii. Else,
1. Assert: nx is a BigInt.
2. Return BigInt::lessThan(nx, ny).
g. Assert: nx is a BigInt and ny is a Number, or nx is a Number and ny is a BigInt.
h. If nx or ny is NaN, return undefined.
i. If nx is -∞𝔽 or ny is +∞𝔽, return true.
j. If nx is +∞𝔽 or ny is -∞𝔽, return false.
k. If ℝ(nx) < ℝ(ny), return true; otherwise return false.

NOTE 1 Step 3 differs from step 1.c in the algorithm that handles the addition operator + (13.15.3) by using the
logical-and operation instead of the logical-or operation.

NOTE 2 The comparison of Strings uses a simple lexicographic ordering on sequences of UTF-16 code unit values.
There is no attempt to use the more complex, semantically oriented definitions of character or string equality
and collating order defined in the Unicode specification. Therefore String values that are canonically equal
according to the Unicode Standard but not in the same normalization form could test as unequal. Also
note that lexicographic ordering by code unit differs from ordering by code point for Strings containing
surrogate pairs.

7.2.13 IsLooselyEqual ( x, y )

The abstract operation IsLooselyEqual takes arguments x (an ECMAScript language value) and y (an ECMAScript
language value) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It provides the
semantics for the == operator. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If SameType(x, y) is true, then

a. Return IsStrictlyEqual(x, y).
2. If x is null and y is undefined, return true.
3. If x is undefined and y is null, return true.
4. NOTE: This step is replaced in section B.3.6.2.
5. If x is a Number and y is a String, return ! IsLooselyEqual(x, ! ToNumber(y)).
6. If x is a String and y is a Number, return ! IsLooselyEqual(! ToNumber(x), y).
7. If x is a BigInt and y is a String, then
a. Let n be StringToBigInt(y).
b. If n is undefined, return false.
c. Return ! IsLooselyEqual(x, n).
8. If x is a String and y is a BigInt, return ! IsLooselyEqual(y, x).
9. If x is a Boolean, return ! IsLooselyEqual(! ToNumber(x), y).
10. If y is a Boolean, return ! IsLooselyEqual(x, ! ToNumber(y)).
11. If x is either a String, a Number, a BigInt, or a Symbol and y is an Object, return ! IsLooselyEqual(x,
? ToPrimitive(y)).
12. If x is an Object and y is either a String, a Number, a BigInt, or a Symbol, return ! IsLooselyEqual(? ToPrimitive(x),
y).
13. If x is a BigInt and y is a Number, or if x is a Number and y is a BigInt, then
a. If x is not finite or y is not finite, return false.
b. If ℝ(x) = ℝ(y), return true; otherwise return false.
14. Return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7.2.14 IsStrictlyEqual ( x, y )

The abstract operation IsStrictlyEqual takes arguments x (an ECMAScript language value) and y (an ECMAScript
language value) and returns a Boolean. It provides the semantics for the === operator. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. If SameType(x, y) is false, return false.

2. If x is a Number, then
a. Return Number::equal(x, y).
3. Return SameValueNonNumber(x, y).

NOTE This algorithm differs from the SameValue Algorithm in its treatment of signed zeroes and NaNs.

7.3 Operations on Objects

7.3.1 MakeBasicObject ( internalSlotsList )

The abstract operation MakeBasicObject takes argument internalSlotsList (a List of internal slot names) and returns an
Object. It is the source of all ECMAScript objects that are created algorithmically, including both ordinary objects and
exotic objects. It factors out common steps used in creating all objects, and centralizes object creation. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Set internalSlotsList to the list-concatenation of internalSlotsList and « ⁠[[PrivateElements]] ».

2. Let obj be a newly created object with an internal slot for each name in internalSlotsList.
3. NOTE: As described in Object Internal Methods and Internal Slots, the initial value of each such internal slot is
undefined unless specified otherwise.
4. Set obj.⁠[[PrivateElements]] to a new empty List.
5. Set obj's essential internal methods to the default ordinary object definitions specified in 10.1.
6. Assert: If the caller will not be overriding both obj's ⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] and ⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]] essential internal
methods, then internalSlotsList contains ⁠[[Prototype]].
7. Assert: If the caller will not be overriding all of obj's ⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]], ⁠[[IsExtensible]], and ⁠[[PreventExtensions]]
essential internal methods, then internalSlotsList contains ⁠[[Extensible]].
8. If internalSlotsList contains ⁠[[Extensible]], set obj.⁠[[Extensible]] to true.
9. Return obj.

NOTE Within this specification, exotic objects are created in abstract operations such as ArrayCreate and
BoundFunctionCreate by first calling MakeBasicObject to obtain a basic, foundational object, and then
overriding some or all of that object's internal methods. In order to encapsulate exotic object creation, the
object's essential internal methods are never modified outside those operations.

7.3.2 Get ( O, P )

The abstract operation Get takes arguments O (an Object) and P (a property key) and returns either a normal
completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It is used to retrieve the value of a specific
property of an object. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? O.⁠[[Get]](P, O).

7.3.3 GetV ( V, P )

The abstract operation GetV takes arguments V (an ECMAScript language value) and P (a property key) and returns
either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It is used to retrieve the
value of a specific property of an ECMAScript language value. If the value is not an object, the property lookup is per-
formed using a wrapper object appropriate for the type of the value. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(V).
2. Return ? O.⁠[[Get]](P, V).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7.3.4 Set ( O, P, V, Throw )

The abstract operation Set takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property key), V (an ECMAScript language value),
and Throw (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It is used
to set the value of a specific property of an object. V is the new value for the property. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let success be ? O.⁠[[Set]](P, V, O).

2. If success is false and Throw is true, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Return UNUSED.

7.3.5 CreateDataProperty ( O, P, V )

The abstract operation CreateDataProperty takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property key), and V (an ECMAScript
language value) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It is used to create
a new own property of an object. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let newDesc be the PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: V, ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: true, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.
2. Return ? O.⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]](P, newDesc).

NOTE This abstract operation creates a property whose attributes are set to the same defaults used for properties
created by the ECMAScript language assignment operator. Normally, the property will not already exist. If it
does exist and is not configurable or if O is not extensible, ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] will return false.

7.3.6 CreateDataPropertyOrThrow ( O, P, V )

The abstract operation CreateDataPropertyOrThrow takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property key), and V (an
ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It is
used to create a new own property of an object. It throws a TypeError exception if the requested property update can-
not be performed. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let success be ? CreateDataProperty(O, P, V).

2. If success is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Return UNUSED.

7.3.7 CreateNonEnumerableDataPropertyOrThrow ( O, P, V )

The abstract operation CreateNonEnumerableDataPropertyOrThrow takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property key),
and V (an ECMAScript language value) and returns UNUSED. It is used to create a new non-enumerable own property
of an ordinary object. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: O is an ordinary, extensible object with no non-configurable properties.

2. Let newDesc be the PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: V, ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]:
true }.
3. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(O, P, newDesc).
4. Return UNUSED.

NOTE This abstract operation creates a property whose attributes are set to the same defaults used for properties
created by the ECMAScript language assignment operator except it is not enumerable. Normally, the
property will not already exist. If it does exist, DefinePropertyOrThrow is guaranteed to complete normally.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7.3.8 DefinePropertyOrThrow ( O, P, desc )

The abstract operation DefinePropertyOrThrow takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property key), and desc (a Property
Descriptor) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It is used to call the
[[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method of an object in a manner that will throw a TypeError exception if the requested
property update cannot be performed. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let success be ? O.⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]](P, desc).

2. If success is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Return UNUSED.

7.3.9 DeletePropertyOrThrow ( O, P )

The abstract operation DeletePropertyOrThrow takes arguments O (an Object) and P (a property key) and returns either
a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It is used to remove a specific own property of an ob-
ject. It throws an exception if the property is not configurable. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let success be ? O.⁠[[Delete]](P).

2. If success is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Return UNUSED.

7.3.10 GetMethod ( V, P )

The abstract operation GetMethod takes arguments V (an ECMAScript language value) and P (a property key) and re-
turns either a normal completion containing either a function object or undefined, or a throw completion. It is used to get
the value of a specific property of an ECMAScript language value when the value of the property is expected to be a
function. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let func be ? GetV(V, P).

2. If func is either undefined or null, return undefined.
3. If IsCallable(func) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Return func.

7.3.11 HasProperty ( O, P )

The abstract operation HasProperty takes arguments O (an Object) and P (a property key) and returns either a normal
completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It is used to determine whether an object has a property with
the specified property key. The property may be either own or inherited. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? O.⁠[[HasProperty]](P).

7.3.12 HasOwnProperty ( O, P )

The abstract operation HasOwnProperty takes arguments O (an Object) and P (a property key) and returns either a
normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It is used to determine whether an object has an own
property with the specified property key. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let desc be ? O.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](P).

2. If desc is undefined, return false.
3. Return true.

7.3.13 Call ( F, V [ , argumentsList ] )

The abstract operation Call takes arguments F (an ECMAScript language value) and V (an ECMAScript language value)
and optional argument argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns either a normal completion
containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It is used to call the ⁠[[Call]] internal method of a func-
tion object. F is the function object, V is an ECMAScript language value that is the this value of the ⁠[[Call]], and argu-

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

mentsList is the value passed to the corresponding argument of the internal method. If argumentsList is not present, a
new empty List is used as its value. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If argumentsList is not present, set argumentsList to a new empty List.

2. If IsCallable(F) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Return ? F.⁠[[Call]](V, argumentsList).

7.3.14 Construct ( F [ , argumentsList [ , newTarget ] ] )

The abstract operation Construct takes argument F (a constructor) and optional arguments argumentsList (a List of
ECMAScript language values) and newTarget (a constructor) and returns either a normal completion containing an
Object or a throw completion. It is used to call the ⁠[[Construct]] internal method of a function object. argumentsList and
newTarget are the values to be passed as the corresponding arguments of the internal method. If argumentsList is not
present, a new empty List is used as its value. If newTarget is not present, F is used as its value. It performs the follow-
ing steps when called:

1. If newTarget is not present, set newTarget to F.

2. If argumentsList is not present, set argumentsList to a new empty List.
3. Return ? F.⁠[[Construct]](argumentsList, newTarget).

NOTE If newTarget is not present, this operation is equivalent to: new F(...argumentsList)

7.3.15 SetIntegrityLevel ( O, level )

The abstract operation SetIntegrityLevel takes arguments O (an Object) and level (SEALED or FROZEN) and returns
either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It is used to fix the set of own properties of an
object. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let status be ? O.⁠[[PreventExtensions]]().

2. If status is false, return false.
3. Let keys be ? O.⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
4. If level is SEALED, then
a. For each element k of keys, do
i. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(O, k, PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
5. Else,
a. Assert: level is FROZEN.
b. For each element k of keys, do
i. Let currentDesc be ? O.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](k).
ii. If currentDesc is not undefined, then
1. If IsAccessorDescriptor(currentDesc) is true, then
a. Let desc be the PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.
2. Else,
a. Let desc be the PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Configurable]]: false, ⁠[[Writable]]: false }.
3. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(O, k, desc).
6. Return true.

7.3.16 TestIntegrityLevel ( O, level )

The abstract operation TestIntegrityLevel takes arguments O (an Object) and level (SEALED or FROZEN) and returns
either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It is used to determine if the set of own proper-
ties of an object are fixed. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let extensible be ? IsExtensible(O).

2. If extensible is true, return false.
3. NOTE: If the object is extensible, none of its properties are examined.
4. Let keys be ? O.⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
5. For each element k of keys, do
a. Let currentDesc be ? O.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](k).
b. If currentDesc is not undefined, then

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

i. If currentDesc.⁠[[Configurable]] is true, return false.

ii. If level is FROZEN and IsDataDescriptor(currentDesc) is true, then
1. If currentDesc.[[Writable]] is true, return false.
6. Return true.

7.3.17 CreateArrayFromList ( elements )

The abstract operation CreateArrayFromList takes argument elements (a List of ECMAScript language values) and re-
turns an Array. It is used to create an Array whose elements are provided by elements. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let array be ! ArrayCreate(0).

2. Let n be 0.
3. For each element e of elements, do
a. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(array, ! ToString(𝔽(n)), e).
b. Set n to n + 1.
4. Return array.

7.3.18 LengthOfArrayLike ( obj )

The abstract operation LengthOfArrayLike takes argument obj (an Object) and returns either a normal completion con-
taining a non-negative integer or a throw completion. It returns the value of the "length" property of an array-like object.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ℝ(? ToLength(? Get(obj, "length"))).

An array-like object is any object for which this operation returns a normal completion.

NOTE 1 Typically, an array-like object would also have some properties with integer index names. However, that is
not a requirement of this definition.

NOTE 2 Arrays and String objects are examples of array-like objects.

7.3.19 CreateListFromArrayLike ( obj [ , validElementTypes ] )

The abstract operation CreateListFromArrayLike takes argument obj (an ECMAScript language value) and optional ar-
gument validElementTypes (ALL or PROPERTY-KEY) and returns either a normal completion containing a List of
ECMAScript language values or a throw completion. It is used to create a List value whose elements are provided by
the indexed properties of obj. validElementTypes indicates the types of values that are allowed as elements. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. If validElementTypes is not present, set validElementTypes to ALL.

2. If obj is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(obj).
4. Let list be a new empty List.
5. Let index be 0.
6. Repeat, while index < len,
a. Let indexName be ! ToString(𝔽(index)).
b. Let next be ? Get(obj, indexName).
c. If validElementTypes is PROPERTY-KEY and next is not a property key, throw a TypeError exception.
d. Append next to list.
e. Set index to index + 1.
7. Return list.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7.3.20 Invoke ( V, P [ , argumentsList ] )

The abstract operation Invoke takes arguments V (an ECMAScript language value) and P (a property key) and optional
argument argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns either a normal completion containing an
ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It is used to call a method property of an ECMAScript language
value. V serves as both the lookup point for the property and the this value of the call. argumentsList is the list of argu-
ments values passed to the method. If argumentsList is not present, a new empty List is used as its value. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. If argumentsList is not present, set argumentsList to a new empty List.

2. Let func be ? GetV(V, P).
3. Return ? Call(func, V, argumentsList).

7.3.21 OrdinaryHasInstance ( C, O )

The abstract operation OrdinaryHasInstance takes arguments C (an ECMAScript language value) and O (an
ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It im-
plements the default algorithm for determining if O inherits from the instance object inheritance path provided by C. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. If IsCallable(C) is false, return false.

2. If C has a ⁠[[BoundTargetFunction]] internal slot, then
a. Let BC be C.⁠[[BoundTargetFunction]].
b. Return ? InstanceofOperator(O, BC).
3. If O is not an Object, return false.
4. Let P be ? Get(C, "prototype").
5. If P is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
6. Repeat,
a. Set O to ? O.⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
b. If O is null, return false.
c. If SameValue(P, O) is true, return true.

7.3.22 SpeciesConstructor ( O, defaultConstructor )

The abstract operation SpeciesConstructor takes arguments O (an Object) and defaultConstructor (a constructor) and
returns either a normal completion containing a constructor or a throw completion. It is used to retrieve the constructor
that should be used to create new objects that are derived from O. defaultConstructor is the constructor to use if a con-
structor %[Link]% property cannot be found starting from O. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let C be ? Get(O, "constructor").

2. If C is undefined, return defaultConstructor.
3. If C is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Let S be ? Get(C, %[Link]%).
5. If S is either undefined or null, return defaultConstructor.
6. If IsConstructor(S) is true, return S.
7. Throw a TypeError exception.

7.3.23 EnumerableOwnProperties ( O, kind )

The abstract operation EnumerableOwnProperties takes arguments O (an Object) and kind (KEY, VALUE, or
KEY+VALUE) and returns either a normal completion containing a List of ECMAScript language values or a throw com-
pletion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let ownKeys be ? O.⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().

2. Let results be a new empty List.
3. For each element key of ownKeys, do
a. If key is a String, then
i. Let desc be ? O.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](key).
ii. If desc is not undefined and desc.⁠[[Enumerable]] is true, then

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

1. If kind is KEY, then

a. Append key to results.
2. Else,
a. Let value be ? Get(O, key).
b. If kind is VALUE, then
i. Append value to results.
c. Else,
i. Assert: kind is KEY+VALUE.
ii. Let entry be CreateArrayFromList(« key, value »).
iii. Append entry to results.
4. Return results.

7.3.24 GetFunctionRealm ( obj )

The abstract operation GetFunctionRealm takes argument obj (a function object) and returns either a normal completion
containing a Realm Record or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If obj has a ⁠[[Realm]] internal slot, then

a. Return obj.⁠[[Realm]].
2. If obj is a bound function exotic object, then
a. Let boundTargetFunction be obj.⁠[[BoundTargetFunction]].
b. Return ? GetFunctionRealm(boundTargetFunction).
3. If obj is a Proxy exotic object, then
a. Perform ? ValidateNonRevokedProxy(obj).
b. Let proxyTarget be obj.⁠[[ProxyTarget]].
c. Assert: proxyTarget is a function object.
d. Return ? GetFunctionRealm(proxyTarget).
4. Return the current Realm Record.

NOTE Step 4 will only be reached if obj is a non-standard function exotic object that does not have a ⁠[[Realm]]
internal slot.

7.3.25 CopyDataProperties ( target, source, excludedItems )

The abstract operation CopyDataProperties takes arguments target (an Object), source (an ECMAScript language
value), and excludedItems (a List of property keys) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a
throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If source is either undefined or null, return UNUSED.

2. Let from be ! ToObject(source).
3. Let keys be ? from.⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
4. For each element nextKey of keys, do
a. Let excluded be false.
b. For each element e of excludedItems, do
i. If SameValue(e, nextKey) is true, then
1. Set excluded to true.
c. If excluded is false, then
i. Let desc be ? from.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](nextKey).
ii. If desc is not undefined and desc.⁠[[Enumerable]] is true, then
1. Let propValue be ? Get(from, nextKey).
2. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(target, nextKey, propValue).
5. Return UNUSED.

NOTE The target passed in here is always a newly created object which is not directly accessible in case of an
error being thrown.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7.3.26 PrivateElementFind ( O, P )

The abstract operation PrivateElementFind takes arguments O (an Object) and P (a Private Name) and returns a
PrivateElement or EMPTY. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If O.⁠[[PrivateElements]] contains a PrivateElement pe such that pe.⁠[[Key]] is P, then

a. Return pe.
2. Return EMPTY.

7.3.27 PrivateFieldAdd ( O, P, value )

The abstract operation PrivateFieldAdd takes arguments O (an Object), P (a Private Name), and value (an ECMAScript
language value) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It performs the fol-
lowing steps when called:

1. If the host is a web browser, then

a. Perform ? HostEnsureCanAddPrivateElement(O).
2. Let entry be PrivateElementFind(O, P).
3. If entry is not EMPTY, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Append PrivateElement { ⁠[[Key]]: P, ⁠[[Kind]]: FIELD, ⁠[[Value]]: value } to O.⁠[[PrivateElements]].
5. Return UNUSED.

7.3.28 PrivateMethodOrAccessorAdd ( O, method )

The abstract operation PrivateMethodOrAccessorAdd takes arguments O (an Object) and method (a PrivateElement)
and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Assert: method.⁠[[Kind]] is either METHOD or ACCESSOR.

2. If the host is a web browser, then
a. Perform ? HostEnsureCanAddPrivateElement(O).
3. Let entry be PrivateElementFind(O, method.⁠[[Key]]).
4. If entry is not EMPTY, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Append method to O.⁠[[PrivateElements]].
6. Return UNUSED.

NOTE The values for private methods and accessors are shared across instances. This operation does not create
a new copy of the method or accessor.

7.3.29 HostEnsureCanAddPrivateElement ( O )

The host-defined abstract operation HostEnsureCanAddPrivateElement takes argument O (an Object) and returns
either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It allows host environments to prevent the addi-
tion of private elements to particular host-defined exotic objects.

An implementation of HostEnsureCanAddPrivateElement must conform to the following requirements:

If O is not a host-defined exotic object, this abstract operation must return NormalCompletion(UNUSED) and perform
no other steps.
Any two calls of this abstract operation with the same argument must return the same kind of Completion Record.

The default implementation of HostEnsureCanAddPrivateElement is to return NormalCompletion(UNUSED).

This abstract operation is only invoked by ECMAScript hosts that are web browsers.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7.3.30 PrivateGet ( O, P )

The abstract operation PrivateGet takes arguments O (an Object) and P (a Private Name) and returns either a
normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let entry be PrivateElementFind(O, P).

2. If entry is EMPTY, throw a TypeError exception.
3. If entry.⁠[[Kind]] is either FIELD or METHOD, then
a. Return entry.⁠[[Value]].
4. Assert: entry.⁠[[Kind]] is ACCESSOR.
5. If entry.⁠[[Get]] is undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
6. Let getter be entry.⁠[[Get]].
7. Return ? Call(getter, O).

7.3.31 PrivateSet ( O, P, value )

The abstract operation PrivateSet takes arguments O (an Object), P (a Private Name), and value (an ECMAScript
language value) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let entry be PrivateElementFind(O, P).

2. If entry is EMPTY, throw a TypeError exception.
3. If entry.⁠[[Kind]] is FIELD, then
a. Set entry.⁠[[Value]] to value.
4. Else if entry.⁠[[Kind]] is METHOD, then
a. Throw a TypeError exception.
5. Else,
a. Assert: entry.⁠[[Kind]] is ACCESSOR.
b. If entry.⁠[[Set]] is undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
c. Let setter be entry.⁠[[Set]].
d. Perform ? Call(setter, O, « value »).
6. Return UNUSED.

7.3.32 DefineField ( receiver, fieldRecord )

The abstract operation DefineField takes arguments receiver (an Object) and fieldRecord (a ClassFieldDefinition
Record) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let fieldName be fieldRecord.⁠[[Name]].

2. Let initializer be fieldRecord.⁠[[Initializer]].
3. If initializer is not EMPTY, then
a. Let initValue be ? Call(initializer, receiver).
4. Else,
a. Let initValue be undefined.
5. If fieldName is a Private Name, then
a. Perform ? PrivateFieldAdd(receiver, fieldName, initValue).
6. Else,
a. Assert: fieldName is a property key.
b. Perform ? CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(receiver, fieldName, initValue).
7. Return UNUSED.

7.3.33 InitializeInstanceElements ( O, constructor )

The abstract operation InitializeInstanceElements takes arguments O (an Object) and constructor (an ECMAScript func-
tion object) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It performs the following

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

steps when called:

1. Let methods be constructor.⁠[[PrivateMethods]].

2. For each PrivateElement method of methods, do
a. Perform ? PrivateMethodOrAccessorAdd(O, method).
3. Let fields be constructor.⁠[[Fields]].
4. For each element fieldRecord of fields, do
a. Perform ? DefineField(O, fieldRecord).
5. Return UNUSED.

7.3.34 AddValueToKeyedGroup ( groups, key, value )

The abstract operation AddValueToKeyedGroup takes arguments groups (a List of Records with fields ⁠[[Key]] (an
ECMAScript language value) and ⁠[[Elements]] (a List of ECMAScript language values)), key (an ECMAScript language
value), and value (an ECMAScript language value) and returns UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. For each Record { ⁠[[Key]], ⁠[[Elements]] } g of groups, do

a. If SameValue(g.⁠[[Key]], key) is true, then
i. Assert: Exactly one element of groups meets this criterion.
ii. Append value to g.⁠[[Elements]].
iii. Return UNUSED.
2. Let group be the Record { ⁠[[Key]]: key, ⁠[[Elements]]: « value » }.
3. Append group to groups.
4. Return UNUSED.

7.3.35 GroupBy ( items, callback, keyCoercion )

The abstract operation GroupBy takes arguments items (an ECMAScript language value), callback (an ECMAScript lan-
guage value), and keyCoercion (PROPERTY or COLLECTION) and returns either a normal completion containing a List of
Records with fields ⁠[[Key]] (an ECMAScript language value) and ⁠[[Elements]] (a List of ECMAScript language values), or
a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Perform ? RequireObjectCoercible(items).
2. If IsCallable(callback) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let groups be a new empty List.
4. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(items, SYNC).
5. Let k be 0.
6. Repeat,
a. If k ≥ 253 - 1, then
i. Let error be ThrowCompletion(a newly created TypeError object).
ii. Return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, error).
b. Let next be ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
c. If next is DONE, then
i. Return groups.
d. Let value be next.
e. Let key be Completion(Call(callback, undefined, « value, 𝔽(k) »)).
f. IfAbruptCloseIterator(key, iteratorRecord).
g. If keyCoercion is PROPERTY, then
i. Set key to Completion(ToPropertyKey(key)).
ii. IfAbruptCloseIterator(key, iteratorRecord).
h. Else,
i. Assert: keyCoercion is COLLECTION.
ii. Set key to CanonicalizeKeyedCollectionKey(key).
i. Perform AddValueToKeyedGroup(groups, key, value).
j. Set k to k + 1.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7.3.36 SetterThatIgnoresPrototypeProperties ( thisValue, home, p, v )

The abstract operation SetterThatIgnoresPrototypeProperties takes arguments thisValue (an ECMAScript language
value), home (an Object), p (a property key), and v (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal com-
pletion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If thisValue is not an Object, then

a. Throw a TypeError exception.
2. If SameValue(thisValue, home) is true, then
a. NOTE: Throwing here emulates assignment to a non-writable data property on the home object in strict mode
code.
b. Throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let desc be ? thisValue.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](p).
4. If desc is undefined, then
a. Perform ? CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(thisValue, p, v).
5. Else,
a. Perform ? Set(thisValue, p, v, true).
6. Return UNUSED.

7.4 Operations on Iterator Objects

See Common Iteration Interfaces (27.1).

7.4.1 Iterator Records

An Iterator Record is a Record value used to encapsulate an iterator or async iterator along with the next method.

Iterator Records have the fields listed in Table 15.

Table 15: Iterator Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[Iterator]] an Object An object that conforms to the iterator interface or the async iterator
interface.
⁠[[NextMethod]] an ECMAScript language The next method of the ⁠[[Iterator]] object.
value
⁠[[Done]] a Boolean Whether the iterator has completed or been closed.

7.4.2 GetIteratorDirect ( obj )

The abstract operation GetIteratorDirect takes argument obj (an Object) and returns either a normal completion contain-
ing an Iterator Record or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let nextMethod be ? Get(obj, "next").

2. Let iteratorRecord be the Iterator Record { ⁠[[Iterator]]: obj, ⁠[[NextMethod]]: nextMethod, ⁠[[Done]]: false }.
3. Return iteratorRecord.

7.4.3 GetIteratorFromMethod ( obj, method )

The abstract operation GetIteratorFromMethod takes arguments obj (an ECMAScript language value) and method (a
function object) and returns either a normal completion containing an Iterator Record or a throw completion. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Let iterator be ? Call(method, obj).

2. If iterator is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Return ? GetIteratorDirect(iterator).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7.4.4 GetIterator ( obj, kind )

The abstract operation GetIterator takes arguments obj (an ECMAScript language value) and kind (SYNC or ASYNC)
and returns either a normal completion containing an Iterator Record or a throw completion. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. If kind is ASYNC, then

a. Let method be ? GetMethod(obj, %[Link]%).
b. If method is undefined, then
i. Let syncMethod be ? GetMethod(obj, %[Link]%).
ii. If syncMethod is undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
iii. Let syncIteratorRecord be ? GetIteratorFromMethod(obj, syncMethod).
iv. Return CreateAsyncFromSyncIterator(syncIteratorRecord).
2. Else,
a. Let method be ? GetMethod(obj, %[Link]%).
3. If method is undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Return ? GetIteratorFromMethod(obj, method).

7.4.5 GetIteratorFlattenable ( obj, primitiveHandling )

The abstract operation GetIteratorFlattenable takes arguments obj (an ECMAScript language value) and primitiveHand-
ling (ITERATE-STRING-PRIMITIVES or REJECT-PRIMITIVES) and returns either a normal completion containing an
Iterator Record or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If obj is not an Object, then

a. If primitiveHandling is REJECT-PRIMITIVES, throw a TypeError exception.
b. Assert: primitiveHandling is ITERATE-STRING-PRIMITIVES.
c. If obj is not a String, throw a TypeError exception.
2. Let method be ? GetMethod(obj, %[Link]%).
3. If method is undefined, then
a. Let iterator be obj.
4. Else,
a. Let iterator be ? Call(method, obj).
5. If iterator is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
6. Return ? GetIteratorDirect(iterator).

7.4.6 IteratorNext ( iteratorRecord [ , value ] )

The abstract operation IteratorNext takes argument iteratorRecord (an Iterator Record) and optional argument value (an
ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing an Object or a throw completion. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. If value is not present, then

a. Let result be Completion(Call(iteratorRecord.⁠[[NextMethod]], iteratorRecord.⁠[[Iterator]])).
2. Else,
a. Let result be Completion(Call(iteratorRecord.⁠[[NextMethod]], iteratorRecord.⁠[[Iterator]], « value »)).
3. If result is a throw completion, then
a. Set iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] to true.
b. Return ? result.
4. Set result to ! result.
5. If result is not an Object, then
a. Set iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] to true.
b. Throw a TypeError exception.
6. Return result.

7.4.7 IteratorComplete ( iteratorResult )

The abstract operation IteratorComplete takes argument iteratorResult (an Object) and returns either a normal comple-

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

tion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ToBoolean(? Get(iteratorResult, "done")).

7.4.8 IteratorValue ( iteratorResult )

The abstract operation IteratorValue takes argument iteratorResult (an Object) and returns either a normal completion
containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? Get(iteratorResult, "value").

7.4.9 IteratorStep ( iteratorRecord )

The abstract operation IteratorStep takes argument iteratorRecord (an Iterator Record) and returns either a normal com-
pletion containing either an Object or DONE, or a throw completion. It requests the next value from
iteratorRecord.⁠[[Iterator]] by calling iteratorRecord.⁠[[NextMethod]] and returns either DONE indicating that the iterator
has reached its end or the IteratorResult object if a next value is available. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let result be ? IteratorNext(iteratorRecord).

2. Let done be Completion(IteratorComplete(result)).
3. If done is a throw completion, then
a. Set iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] to true.
b. Return ? done.
4. Set done to ! done.
5. If done is true, then
a. Set iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] to true.
b. Return DONE.
6. Return result.

7.4.10 IteratorStepValue ( iteratorRecord )

The abstract operation IteratorStepValue takes argument iteratorRecord (an Iterator Record) and returns either a normal
completion containing either an ECMAScript language value or DONE, or a throw completion. It requests the next value
from iteratorRecord.⁠[[Iterator]] by calling iteratorRecord.⁠[[NextMethod]] and returns either DONE indicating that the iter-
ator has reached its end or the value from the IteratorResult object if a next value is available. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let result be ? IteratorStep(iteratorRecord).

2. If result is DONE, then
a. Return DONE.
3. Let value be Completion(IteratorValue(result)).
4. If value is a throw completion, then
a. Set iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] to true.
5. Return ? value.

7.4.11 IteratorClose ( iteratorRecord, completion )

The abstract operation IteratorClose takes arguments iteratorRecord (an Iterator Record) and completion (a Completion
Record) and returns a Completion Record. It is used to notify an iterator that it should perform any actions it would nor-
mally perform when it has reached its completed state. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: iteratorRecord.⁠[[Iterator]] is an Object.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7. If innerResult.⁠[[Value]] is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

8. Return ? completion.

7.4.12 IfAbruptCloseIterator ( value, iteratorRecord )

IfAbruptCloseIterator is a shorthand for a sequence of algorithm steps that use an Iterator Record. An algorithm step of
the form:

1. IfAbruptCloseIterator(value, iteratorRecord).

means the same thing as:

1. Assert: value is a Completion Record.

2. If value is an abrupt completion, return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, value).
3. Else, set value to ! value.

7.4.13 AsyncIteratorClose ( iteratorRecord, completion )

The abstract operation AsyncIteratorClose takes arguments iteratorRecord (an Iterator Record) and completion (a
Completion Record) and returns a Completion Record. It is used to notify an async iterator that it should perform any ac-
tions it would normally perform when it has reached its completed state. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: iteratorRecord.⁠[[Iterator]] is an Object.

2. Let iterator be iteratorRecord.⁠[[Iterator]].
3. Let innerResult be Completion(GetMethod(iterator, "return")).
4. If innerResult is a normal completion, then
a. Let return be innerResult.⁠[[Value]].
b. If return is undefined, return ? completion.
c. Set innerResult to Completion(Call(return, iterator)).
d. If innerResult is a normal completion, set innerResult to Completion(Await(innerResult.⁠[[Value]])).
5. If completion is a throw completion, return ? completion.
6. If innerResult is a throw completion, return ? innerResult.
7. If innerResult.⁠[[Value]] is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
8. Return ? completion.

7.4.14 CreateIteratorResultObject ( value, done )

The abstract operation CreateIteratorResultObject takes arguments value (an ECMAScript language value) and done (a
Boolean) and returns an Object that conforms to the IteratorResult interface. It creates an object that conforms to the
IteratorResult interface. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let obj be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%).

2. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "value", value).
3. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "done", done).
4. Return obj.

7.4.15 CreateListIteratorRecord ( list )

The abstract operation CreateListIteratorRecord takes argument list (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns
an Iterator Record. It creates an Iterator Record whose ⁠[[NextMethod]] returns the successive elements of list. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Let closure be a new Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures list and performs the following steps when
called:
a. For each element E of list, do
i. Perform ? GeneratorYield(CreateIteratorResultObject(E, false)).
b. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).
2. Let iterator be CreateIteratorFromClosure(closure, EMPTY, %[Link]%).
3. Return the Iterator Record { ⁠[[Iterator]]: iterator, ⁠[[NextMethod]]: %[Link]%, ⁠[[Done]]: false }.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE The list iterator object is never directly accessible to ECMAScript code.

7.4.16 IteratorToList ( iteratorRecord )

The abstract operation IteratorToList takes argument iteratorRecord (an Iterator Record) and returns either a normal
completion containing a List of ECMAScript language values or a throw completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let values be a new empty List.

2. Repeat,
a. Let next be ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is DONE, then
i. Return values.
c. Append next to values.

8 Syntax-Directed Operations
In addition to those defined in this section, specialized syntax-directed operations are defined throughout
this specification.

8.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

The syntax-directed operation Evaluation takes no arguments and returns a Completion Record.

NOTE The definitions for this operation are distributed over the "ECMAScript Language" sections of this
specification. Each definition appears after the defining occurrence of the relevant productions.

8.2 Scope Analysis

8.2.1 Static Semantics: BoundNames

The syntax-directed operation BoundNames takes no arguments and returns a List of Strings.

NOTE "*default*" is used within this specification as a synthetic name for a module's default export when it does
not have another name. An entry in the module's ⁠[[Environment]] is created with that name and holds the
corresponding value, and resolving the export named "default" by calling ResolveExport ( exportName [ ,
resolveSet ] ) for the module will return a ResolvedBinding Record whose ⁠[[BindingName]] is "*default*",
which will then resolve in the module's ⁠[[Environment]] to the above-mentioned value. This is done only for
ease of specification, so that anonymous default exports can be resolved like any other export. This
"*default*" string is never accessible to ECMAScript code or to the module linking algorithm.

It is defined piecewise over the following productions:

BindingIdentifier : Identifier

1. Return a List whose sole element is the StringValue of Identifier.

BindingIdentifier : yield

1. Return « "yield" ».

BindingIdentifier : await

1. Return « "await" ».

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

LexicalDeclaration : LetOrConst BindingList ;

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingList.

BindingList : BindingList , LexicalBinding

1. Let names1 be the BoundNames of BindingList.

2. Let names2 be the BoundNames of LexicalBinding.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

LexicalBinding : BindingIdentifier Initializeropt

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingIdentifier.

LexicalBinding : BindingPattern Initializer

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingPattern.

VariableDeclarationList : VariableDeclarationList , VariableDeclaration

1. Let names1 be the BoundNames of VariableDeclarationList.

2. Let names2 be the BoundNames of VariableDeclaration.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

VariableDeclaration : BindingIdentifier Initializeropt

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingIdentifier.

VariableDeclaration : BindingPattern Initializer

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingPattern.

ObjectBindingPattern : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

ObjectBindingPattern : { BindingPropertyList , BindingRestProperty }

1. Let names1 be the BoundNames of BindingPropertyList.

2. Let names2 be the BoundNames of BindingRestProperty.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ Elisionopt ]

1. Return a new empty List.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ Elisionopt BindingRestElement ]

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingRestElement.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ BindingElementList , Elisionopt ]

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingElementList.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ BindingElementList , Elisionopt BindingRestElement ]

1. Let names1 be the BoundNames of BindingElementList.

2. Let names2 be the BoundNames of BindingRestElement.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

BindingPropertyList : BindingPropertyList , BindingProperty

1. Let names1 be the BoundNames of BindingPropertyList.

2. Let names2 be the BoundNames of BindingProperty.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

BindingElementList : BindingElementList , BindingElisionElement

1. Let names1 be the BoundNames of BindingElementList.

2. Let names2 be the BoundNames of BindingElisionElement.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

BindingElisionElement : Elisionopt BindingElement

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingElement.

BindingProperty : PropertyName : BindingElement

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingElement.

SingleNameBinding : BindingIdentifier Initializeropt

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingIdentifier.

BindingElement : BindingPattern Initializeropt

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingPattern.

ForDeclaration : LetOrConst ForBinding

1. Return the BoundNames of ForBinding.

FunctionDeclaration : function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingIdentifier.

FunctionDeclaration : function ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return « "*default*" ».

FormalParameters : [empty]

1. Return a new empty List.

FormalParameters : FormalParameterList , FunctionRestParameter

1. Let names1 be the BoundNames of FormalParameterList.

2. Let names2 be the BoundNames of FunctionRestParameter.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

FormalParameterList : FormalParameterList , FormalParameter

1. Let names1 be the BoundNames of FormalParameterList.

2. Let names2 be the BoundNames of FormalParameter.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

ArrowParameters : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let formals be the ArrowFormalParameters that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return the BoundNames of formals.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

GeneratorDeclaration : function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingIdentifier.

GeneratorDeclaration : function * ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. Return « "*default*" ».

AsyncGeneratorDeclaration : async function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) {

AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingIdentifier.

AsyncGeneratorDeclaration : async function * ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Return « "*default*" ».

ClassDeclaration : class BindingIdentifier ClassTail

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingIdentifier.

ClassDeclaration : class ClassTail

1. Return « "*default*" ».

ExportDeclaration : export Declaration

1. Return the BoundNames of Declaration.

ExportDeclaration : export default HoistableDeclaration

1. Let declarationNames be the BoundNames of HoistableDeclaration.

2. If declarationNames does not include the element "*default*", append "*default*" to declarationNames.
3. Return declarationNames.

ExportDeclaration : export default ClassDeclaration

1. Let declarationNames be the BoundNames of ClassDeclaration.

2. If declarationNames does not include the element "*default*", append "*default*" to declarationNames.
3. Return declarationNames.

ExportDeclaration : export default AssignmentExpression ;

1. Return « "*default*" ».

8.2.2 Static Semantics: DeclarationPart

The syntax-directed operation DeclarationPart takes no arguments and returns a Parse Node. It is defined piecewise
over the following productions:
HoistableDeclaration : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return FunctionDeclaration.

HoistableDeclaration : GeneratorDeclaration

1. Return GeneratorDeclaration.

HoistableDeclaration : AsyncFunctionDeclaration

1. Return AsyncFunctionDeclaration.

HoistableDeclaration : AsyncGeneratorDeclaration

1. Return AsyncGeneratorDeclaration.

Declaration : ClassDeclaration

1. Return ClassDeclaration.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Declaration : LexicalDeclaration

1. Return LexicalDeclaration.

8.2.3 Static Semantics: IsConstantDeclaration

The syntax-directed operation IsConstantDeclaration takes no arguments and returns a Boolean. It is defined piecewise
over the following productions:
LexicalDeclaration : LetOrConst BindingList ;

1. Return IsConstantDeclaration of LetOrConst.

LetOrConst : let

1. Return false.

LetOrConst : const

1. Return true.

FunctionDeclaration :
function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
function ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
GeneratorDeclaration :
function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
function * ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration :
async function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
async function * ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncFunctionDeclaration :
async function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
async function ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Return false.

ClassDeclaration :
class BindingIdentifier ClassTail
class ClassTail

1. Return false.

ExportDeclaration :
export ExportFromClause FromClause ;
export NamedExports ;
export default AssignmentExpression ;

1. Return false.

NOTE It is not necessary to treat export default AssignmentExpression as a constant declaration because
there is no syntax that permits assignment to the internal bound name used to reference a module's
default object.

8.2.4 Static Semantics: LexicallyDeclaredNames

The syntax-directed operation LexicallyDeclaredNames takes no arguments and returns a List of Strings. It is defined
piecewise over the following productions:
Block : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let names1 be the LexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementList.

2. Let names2 be the LexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementListItem.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

StatementListItem : Statement

1. Return the LexicallyDeclaredNames of LabelledItem.

LabelledItem : Statement

1. Return the TopLevelLexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementList.

NOTE 1 At the top level of a Script, function declarations are treated like var declarations rather than like
lexical declarations.

NOTE 2 The LexicallyDeclaredNames of a Module includes the names of all of its imported bindings.

ModuleItemList : ModuleItemList ModuleItem

1. Let names1 be the LexicallyDeclaredNames of ModuleItemList.

2. Let names2 be the LexicallyDeclaredNames of ModuleItem.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

ModuleItem : ImportDeclaration

1. Return the BoundNames of ImportDeclaration.

ModuleItem : ExportDeclaration

1. If ExportDeclaration is export VariableStatement, return a new empty List.

2. Return the BoundNames of ExportDeclaration.

ModuleItem : StatementListItem

1. Return the LexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementListItem.

NOTE 3 At the top level of a Module, function declarations are treated like lexical declarations rather than like
var declarations.

8.2.5 Static Semantics: LexicallyScopedDeclarations

The syntax-directed operation LexicallyScopedDeclarations takes no arguments and returns a List of Parse Nodes. It is
defined piecewise over the following productions:
StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let declarations1 be the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

2. Let declarations2 be the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of StatementListItem.
3. Return the list-concatenation of declarations1 and declarations2.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

StatementListItem : Statement

ModuleItem : ImportDeclaration

1. Return a new empty List.

ExportDeclaration :
export ExportFromClause FromClause WithClauseopt ;
export NamedExports ;
export VariableStatement

1. Return a new empty List.

ExportDeclaration : export Declaration

1. Return a List whose sole element is the DeclarationPart of Declaration.

ExportDeclaration : export default HoistableDeclaration

1. Return a List whose sole element is the DeclarationPart of HoistableDeclaration.

ExportDeclaration : export default ClassDeclaration

1. Return a List whose sole element is ClassDeclaration.

ExportDeclaration : export default AssignmentExpression ;

1. Return a List whose sole element is this ExportDeclaration.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

8.2.6 Static Semantics: VarDeclaredNames

The syntax-directed operation VarDeclaredNames takes no arguments and returns a List of Strings. It is defined piece-
wise over the following productions:
Statement :
EmptyStatement
ExpressionStatement
ContinueStatement
BreakStatement
ReturnStatement
ThrowStatement
DebuggerStatement

1. Return a new empty List.

Block : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let names1 be the VarDeclaredNames of StatementList.

2. Let names2 be the VarDeclaredNames of StatementListItem.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

StatementListItem : Declaration

1. Return a new empty List.

VariableStatement : var VariableDeclarationList ;

1. Return the BoundNames of VariableDeclarationList.

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement else Statement

1. Let names1 be the VarDeclaredNames of the first Statement.

2. Let names2 be the VarDeclaredNames of the second Statement.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

DoWhileStatement : do Statement while ( Expression ) ;

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

WhileStatement : while ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

ForStatement : for ( Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

ForStatement : for ( var VariableDeclarationList ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. Let names1 be the BoundNames of VariableDeclarationList.

2. Let names2 be the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ForStatement : for ( LexicalDeclaration Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

ForInOfStatement :
for ( LeftHandSideExpression in Expression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration in Expression ) Statement
for ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

ForInOfStatement :
for ( var ForBinding in Expression ) Statement
for ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Let names1 be the BoundNames of ForBinding.

2. Let names2 be the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

NOTE This section is extended by Annex B.3.5.

WithStatement : with ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

SwitchStatement : switch ( Expression ) CaseBlock

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of CaseBlock.

CaseBlock : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

CaseBlock : { CaseClausesopt DefaultClause CaseClausesopt }

1. If the first CaseClauses is present, let names1 be the VarDeclaredNames of the first CaseClauses.
2. Else, let names1 be a new empty List.
3. Let names2 be the VarDeclaredNames of DefaultClause.
4. If the second CaseClauses is present, let names3 be the VarDeclaredNames of the second CaseClauses.
5. Else, let names3 be a new empty List.
6. Return the list-concatenation of names1, names2, and names3.

CaseClauses : CaseClauses CaseClause

1. Let names1 be the VarDeclaredNames of CaseClauses.

2. Let names2 be the VarDeclaredNames of CaseClause.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

CaseClause : case Expression : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return the VarDeclaredNames of StatementList.

2. Return a new empty List.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

DefaultClause : default : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return the VarDeclaredNames of StatementList.

2. Return a new empty List.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of LabelledItem.

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return a new empty List.

TryStatement : try Block Catch

1. Let names1 be the VarDeclaredNames of Block.

2. Let names2 be the VarDeclaredNames of Catch.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

TryStatement : try Block Finally

1. Let names1 be the VarDeclaredNames of Block.

2. Let names2 be the VarDeclaredNames of Finally.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

TryStatement : try Block Catch Finally

1. Let names1 be the VarDeclaredNames of Block.

2. Let names2 be the VarDeclaredNames of Catch.
3. Let names3 be the VarDeclaredNames of Finally.
4. Return the list-concatenation of names1, names2, and names3.

Catch : catch ( CatchParameter ) Block

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ScriptBody : StatementList

1. Return the TopLevelVarDeclaredNames of StatementList.

ModuleItemList : ModuleItemList ModuleItem

1. Let names1 be the VarDeclaredNames of ModuleItemList.

2. Let names2 be the VarDeclaredNames of ModuleItem.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

2. Let declarations2 be the VarScopedDeclarations of StatementListItem.
3. Return the list-concatenation of declarations1 and declarations2.

StatementListItem : Declaration

1. Return a new empty List.

VariableDeclarationList : VariableDeclaration

1. Return « VariableDeclaration ».

VariableDeclarationList : VariableDeclarationList , VariableDeclaration

1. Let declarations1 be the VarScopedDeclarations of VariableDeclarationList.

2. Return the list-concatenation of declarations1 and « VariableDeclaration ».

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement else Statement

1. Let declarations1 be the VarScopedDeclarations of the first Statement.

2. Let declarations2 be the VarScopedDeclarations of the second Statement.
3. Return the list-concatenation of declarations1 and declarations2.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

DoWhileStatement : do Statement while ( Expression ) ;

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

WhileStatement : while ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

ForStatement : for ( Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

ForStatement : for ( var VariableDeclarationList ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. Let declarations1 be the VarScopedDeclarations of VariableDeclarationList.

2. Let declarations2 be the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.
3. Return the list-concatenation of declarations1 and declarations2.

ForStatement : for ( LexicalDeclaration Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

ForInOfStatement :
for ( var ForBinding in Expression ) Statement
for ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Let declarations1 be « ForBinding ».

2. Let declarations2 be the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.
3. Return the list-concatenation of declarations1 and declarations2.

NOTE This section is extended by Annex B.3.5.

WithStatement : with ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

SwitchStatement : switch ( Expression ) CaseBlock

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of CaseBlock.

CaseBlock : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

CaseBlock : { CaseClausesopt DefaultClause CaseClausesopt }

1. If the first CaseClauses is present, let declarations1 be the VarScopedDeclarations of the first CaseClauses.
2. Else, let declarations1 be a new empty List.
3. Let declarations2 be the VarScopedDeclarations of DefaultClause.
4. If the second CaseClauses is present, let declarations3 be the VarScopedDeclarations of the second CaseClauses.
5. Else, let declarations3 be a new empty List.
6. Return the list-concatenation of declarations1, declarations2, and declarations3.

CaseClauses : CaseClauses CaseClause

1. Let declarations1 be the VarScopedDeclarations of CaseClauses.

2. Let declarations2 be the VarScopedDeclarations of CaseClause.
3. Return the list-concatenation of declarations1 and declarations2.

CaseClause : case Expression : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return the VarScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

2. Return a new empty List.

DefaultClause : default : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return the VarScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

2. Return a new empty List.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of LabelledItem.

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return a new empty List.

TryStatement : try Block Catch

1. Let declarations1 be the VarScopedDeclarations of Block.

2. Let declarations2 be the VarScopedDeclarations of Catch.
3. Return the list-concatenation of declarations1 and declarations2.

TryStatement : try Block Finally

1. Let declarations1 be the VarScopedDeclarations of Block.

2. Let declarations2 be the VarScopedDeclarations of Finally.
3. Return the list-concatenation of declarations1 and declarations2.

TryStatement : try Block Catch Finally

1. Let declarations1 be the VarScopedDeclarations of Block.

2. Let declarations2 be the VarScopedDeclarations of Catch.
3. Let declarations3 be the VarScopedDeclarations of Finally.
4. Return the list-concatenation of declarations1, declarations2, and declarations3.

Catch : catch ( CatchParameter ) Block

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of Block.

FunctionStatementList : [empty]

1. Return a new empty List.

FunctionStatementList : StatementList

1. Return the TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

2. Let declarations2 be the VarScopedDeclarations of ModuleItem.
3. Return the list-concatenation of declarations1 and declarations2.

ModuleItem : ImportDeclaration

1. Return a new empty List.

ModuleItem : ExportDeclaration

1. If ExportDeclaration is export VariableStatement, return the VarScopedDeclarations of VariableStatement.

2. Return a new empty List.

8.2.8 Static Semantics: TopLevelLexicallyDeclaredNames

The syntax-directed operation TopLevelLexicallyDeclaredNames takes no arguments and returns a List of Strings. It is
defined piecewise over the following productions:
StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let names1 be the TopLevelLexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementList.

2. Let names2 be the TopLevelLexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementListItem.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

StatementListItem : Statement

1. Return a new empty List.

StatementListItem : Declaration

1. If Declaration is Declaration : HoistableDeclaration , then

a. Return a new empty List.
2. Return the BoundNames of Declaration.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE At the top level of a function, or script, function declarations are treated like var declarations rather than like
lexical declarations.

8.2.9 Static Semantics: TopLevelLexicallyScopedDeclarations

The syntax-directed operation TopLevelLexicallyScopedDeclarations takes no arguments and returns a List of Parse
Nodes. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let declarations1 be the TopLevelLexicallyScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

2. Let declarations2 be the TopLevelLexicallyScopedDeclarations of StatementListItem.
3. Return the list-concatenation of declarations1 and declarations2.

StatementListItem : Statement

1. Return a new empty List.

StatementListItem : Declaration

1. If Declaration is Declaration : HoistableDeclaration , then

a. Return a new empty List.
2. Return « Declaration ».

8.2.10 Static Semantics: TopLevelVarDeclaredNames

The syntax-directed operation TopLevelVarDeclaredNames takes no arguments and returns a List of Strings. It is
defined piecewise over the following productions:
StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let names1 be the TopLevelVarDeclaredNames of StatementList.

2. Let names2 be the TopLevelVarDeclaredNames of StatementListItem.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

StatementListItem : Declaration

1. If Declaration is Declaration : HoistableDeclaration , then

a. Return the BoundNames of HoistableDeclaration.
2. Return a new empty List.

StatementListItem : Statement

1. If Statement is Statement : LabelledStatement , return the TopLevelVarDeclaredNames of Statement.

2. Return the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

NOTE At the top level of a function or script, inner function declarations are treated like var declarations.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Return the TopLevelVarDeclaredNames of LabelledItem.

LabelledItem : Statement

1. If Statement is Statement : LabelledStatement , return the TopLevelVarDeclaredNames of Statement.

2. Return the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return the BoundNames of FunctionDeclaration.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

8.2.11 Static Semantics: TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations

The syntax-directed operation TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations takes no arguments and returns a List of Parse Nodes.
It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let declarations1 be the TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

2. Let declarations2 be the TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations of StatementListItem.
3. Return the list-concatenation of declarations1 and declarations2.

StatementListItem : Statement

1. If Statement is Statement : LabelledStatement , return the TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

2. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

StatementListItem : Declaration

1. If Declaration is Declaration : HoistableDeclaration , then

a. Let declaration be the DeclarationPart of HoistableDeclaration.
b. Return « declaration ».
2. Return a new empty List.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Return the TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations of LabelledItem.

LabelledItem : Statement

1. If Statement is Statement : LabelledStatement , return the TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

2. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return « FunctionDeclaration ».

8.3 Labels

8.3.1 Static Semantics: ContainsDuplicateLabels

The syntax-directed operation ContainsDuplicateLabels takes argument labelSet (a List of Strings) and returns a
Boolean. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
Statement :
VariableStatement
EmptyStatement
ExpressionStatement
ContinueStatement
BreakStatement
ReturnStatement
ThrowStatement
DebuggerStatement
Block :
{ }
StatementListItem :
Declaration

1. Return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let hasDuplicates be ContainsDuplicateLabels of StatementList with argument labelSet.

2. If hasDuplicates is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of StatementListItem with argument labelSet.

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement else Statement

1. Let hasDuplicate be ContainsDuplicateLabels of the first Statement with argument labelSet.

2. If hasDuplicate is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of the second Statement with argument labelSet.

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Statement with argument labelSet.

DoWhileStatement : do Statement while ( Expression ) ;

1. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Statement with argument labelSet.

WhileStatement : while ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Statement with argument labelSet.

ForStatement :
for ( Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( var VariableDeclarationList ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( LexicalDeclaration Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Statement with argument labelSet.

ForInOfStatement :
for ( LeftHandSideExpression in Expression ) Statement
for ( var ForBinding in Expression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration in Expression ) Statement
for ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Statement with argument labelSet.

NOTE This section is extended by Annex B.3.5.

WithStatement : with ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Statement with argument labelSet.

SwitchStatement : switch ( Expression ) CaseBlock

1. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of CaseBlock with argument labelSet.

CaseBlock : { }

1. Return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

CaseBlock : { CaseClausesopt DefaultClause CaseClausesopt }

1. If the first CaseClauses is present, then

a. If ContainsDuplicateLabels of the first CaseClauses with argument labelSet is true, return true.
2. If ContainsDuplicateLabels of DefaultClause with argument labelSet is true, return true.
3. If the second CaseClauses is not present, return false.
4. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of the second CaseClauses with argument labelSet.

CaseClauses : CaseClauses CaseClause

1. Let hasDuplicates be ContainsDuplicateLabels of CaseClauses with argument labelSet.

2. If hasDuplicates is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of CaseClause with argument labelSet.

CaseClause : case Expression : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return ContainsDuplicateLabels of StatementList with argument labelSet.

2. Return false.

DefaultClause : default : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return ContainsDuplicateLabels of StatementList with argument labelSet.

2. Return false.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Let label be the StringValue of LabelIdentifier.

2. If labelSet contains label, return true.
3. Let newLabelSet be the list-concatenation of labelSet and « label ».
4. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of LabelledItem with argument newLabelSet.

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return false.

TryStatement : try Block Catch

1. Let hasDuplicates be ContainsDuplicateLabels of Block with argument labelSet.

2. If hasDuplicates is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Catch with argument labelSet.

TryStatement : try Block Finally

1. Let hasDuplicates be ContainsDuplicateLabels of Block with argument labelSet.

2. If hasDuplicates is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Finally with argument labelSet.

TryStatement : try Block Catch Finally

1. If ContainsDuplicateLabels of Block with argument labelSet is true, return true.

2. If ContainsDuplicateLabels of Catch with argument labelSet is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Finally with argument labelSet.

Catch : catch ( CatchParameter ) Block

1. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Block with argument labelSet.

FunctionStatementList : [empty]

1. Return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ClassStaticBlockStatementList : [empty]

1. Return false.

ModuleItemList : ModuleItemList ModuleItem

1. Let hasDuplicates be ContainsDuplicateLabels of ModuleItemList with argument labelSet.

2. If hasDuplicates is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of ModuleItem with argument labelSet.

ModuleItem :
ImportDeclaration
ExportDeclaration

1. Return false.

8.3.2 Static Semantics: ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget

The syntax-directed operation ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget takes argument labelSet (a List of Strings) and returns a
Boolean. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
Statement :
VariableStatement
EmptyStatement
ExpressionStatement
ContinueStatement
ReturnStatement
ThrowStatement
DebuggerStatement
Block :
{ }
StatementListItem :
Declaration

1. Return false.

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of StatementList with argument labelSet.

2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of StatementListItem with argument labelSet.

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement else Statement

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of the first Statement with argument labelSet.

2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of the second Statement with argument labelSet.

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Statement with argument labelSet.

DoWhileStatement : do Statement while ( Expression ) ;

1. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Statement with argument labelSet.

WhileStatement : while ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Statement with argument labelSet.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

1. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Statement with argument labelSet.

NOTE This section is extended by Annex B.3.5.

BreakStatement : break ;

1. Return false.

BreakStatement : break LabelIdentifier ;

1. If labelSet does not contain the StringValue of LabelIdentifier, return true.

2. Return false.

WithStatement : with ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Statement with argument labelSet.

SwitchStatement : switch ( Expression ) CaseBlock

1. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of CaseBlock with argument labelSet.

CaseBlock : { }

1. Return false.

CaseBlock : { CaseClausesopt DefaultClause CaseClausesopt }

1. If the first CaseClauses is present, then

a. If ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of the first CaseClauses with argument labelSet is true, return true.
2. If ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of DefaultClause with argument labelSet is true, return true.
3. If the second CaseClauses is not present, return false.
4. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of the second CaseClauses with argument labelSet.

CaseClauses : CaseClauses CaseClause

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of CaseClauses with argument labelSet.

2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of CaseClause with argument labelSet.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

CaseClause : case Expression : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of StatementList with argument labelSet.

2. Return false.

DefaultClause : default : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of StatementList with argument labelSet.

2. Return false.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Let label be the StringValue of LabelIdentifier.

2. Let newLabelSet be the list-concatenation of labelSet and « label ».
3. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of LabelledItem with argument newLabelSet.

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return false.

TryStatement : try Block Catch

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Block with argument labelSet.

2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Catch with argument labelSet.

TryStatement : try Block Finally

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Block with argument labelSet.

2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Finally with argument labelSet.

TryStatement : try Block Catch Finally

1. If ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Block with argument labelSet is true, return true.

2. If ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Catch with argument labelSet is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Finally with argument labelSet.

Catch : catch ( CatchParameter ) Block

1. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Block with argument labelSet.

FunctionStatementList : [empty]

1. Return false.

ClassStaticBlockStatementList : [empty]

1. Return false.

ModuleItemList : ModuleItemList ModuleItem

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of ModuleItemList with argument labelSet.

2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of ModuleItem with argument labelSet.

ModuleItem :
ImportDeclaration
ExportDeclaration

1. Return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

8.3.3 Static Semantics: ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget

The syntax-directed operation ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget takes arguments iterationSet (a List of Strings) and la-
belSet (a List of Strings) and returns a Boolean. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
Statement :
VariableStatement
EmptyStatement
ExpressionStatement
BreakStatement
ReturnStatement
ThrowStatement
DebuggerStatement
Block :
{ }
StatementListItem :
Declaration

1. Return false.

Statement : BlockStatement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of BlockStatement with arguments iterationSet and « ».

BreakableStatement : IterationStatement

1. Let newIterationSet be the list-concatenation of iterationSet and labelSet.

2. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of IterationStatement with arguments newIterationSet and « ».

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of StatementList with arguments iterationSet and

« ».
2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of StatementListItem with arguments iterationSet and « ».

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement else Statement

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of the first Statement with arguments iterationSet

and « ».
2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of the second Statement with arguments iterationSet and « ».

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Statement with arguments iterationSet and « ».

DoWhileStatement : do Statement while ( Expression ) ;

1. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Statement with arguments iterationSet and « ».

WhileStatement : while ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Statement with arguments iterationSet and « ».

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

1. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Statement with arguments iterationSet and « ».

NOTE This section is extended by Annex B.3.5.

ContinueStatement : continue ;

1. Return false.

ContinueStatement : continue LabelIdentifier ;

1. If iterationSet does not contain the StringValue of LabelIdentifier, return true.

2. Return false.

WithStatement : with ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Statement with arguments iterationSet and « ».

SwitchStatement : switch ( Expression ) CaseBlock

1. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of CaseBlock with arguments iterationSet and « ».

CaseBlock : { }

1. Return false.

CaseBlock : { CaseClausesopt DefaultClause CaseClausesopt }

1. If the first CaseClauses is present, then

a. If ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of the first CaseClauses with arguments iterationSet and « » is true, return
true.
2. If ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of DefaultClause with arguments iterationSet and « » is true, return true.
3. If the second CaseClauses is not present, return false.
4. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of the second CaseClauses with arguments iterationSet and « ».

CaseClauses : CaseClauses CaseClause

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of CaseClauses with arguments iterationSet and « ».

2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of CaseClause with arguments iterationSet and « ».

CaseClause : case Expression : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of StatementList with arguments

iterationSet and « ».
2. Return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

DefaultClause : default : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of StatementList with arguments

iterationSet and « ».
2. Return false.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Let label be the StringValue of LabelIdentifier.

2. Let newLabelSet be the list-concatenation of labelSet and « label ».
3. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of LabelledItem with arguments iterationSet and newLabelSet.

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return false.

TryStatement : try Block Catch

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Block with arguments iterationSet and « ».

2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Catch with arguments iterationSet and « ».

TryStatement : try Block Finally

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Block with arguments iterationSet and « ».

2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Finally with arguments iterationSet and « ».

TryStatement : try Block Catch Finally

1. If ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Block with arguments iterationSet and « » is true, return true.

2. If ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Catch with arguments iterationSet and « » is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Finally with arguments iterationSet and « ».

Catch : catch ( CatchParameter ) Block

1. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Block with arguments iterationSet and « ».

FunctionStatementList : [empty]

1. Return false.

ClassStaticBlockStatementList : [empty]

FunctionExpression :
function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
GeneratorExpression :
function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorExpression :
async function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncFunctionExpression :
async function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
ClassExpression :
class BindingIdentifier ClassTail

1. Return true.

8.4.2 Static Semantics: IsFunctionDefinition

The syntax-directed operation IsFunctionDefinition takes no arguments and returns a Boolean. It is defined piecewise
over the following productions:
PrimaryExpression : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let expr be the ParenthesizedExpression that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return IsFunctionDefinition of expr.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

PrimaryExpression :
this
IdentifierReference
Literal
ArrayLiteral
ObjectLiteral
RegularExpressionLiteral
TemplateLiteral
MemberExpression :
MemberExpression [ Expression ]
MemberExpression . IdentifierName
MemberExpression TemplateLiteral
SuperProperty
MetaProperty
new MemberExpression Arguments
MemberExpression . PrivateIdentifier
NewExpression :
new NewExpression
LeftHandSideExpression :
CallExpression
OptionalExpression
UpdateExpression :
LeftHandSideExpression ++
LeftHandSideExpression --
++ UnaryExpression
-- UnaryExpression
UnaryExpression :
delete UnaryExpression
void UnaryExpression
typeof UnaryExpression
+ UnaryExpression
- UnaryExpression
~ UnaryExpression
! UnaryExpression
AwaitExpression
ExponentiationExpression :
UpdateExpression ** ExponentiationExpression
MultiplicativeExpression :
MultiplicativeExpression MultiplicativeOperator ExponentiationExpression
AdditiveExpression :
AdditiveExpression + MultiplicativeExpression
AdditiveExpression - MultiplicativeExpression
ShiftExpression :
ShiftExpression << AdditiveExpression
ShiftExpression >> AdditiveExpression
ShiftExpression >>> AdditiveExpression
RelationalExpression :
RelationalExpression < ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression > ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression <= ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression >= ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression instanceof ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression in ShiftExpression
PrivateIdentifier in ShiftExpression

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

EqualityExpression :
EqualityExpression == RelationalExpression
EqualityExpression != RelationalExpression
EqualityExpression === RelationalExpression
EqualityExpression !== RelationalExpression
BitwiseANDExpression :
BitwiseANDExpression & EqualityExpression
BitwiseXORExpression :
BitwiseXORExpression ^ BitwiseANDExpression
BitwiseORExpression :
BitwiseORExpression | BitwiseXORExpression
LogicalANDExpression :
LogicalANDExpression && BitwiseORExpression
LogicalORExpression :
LogicalORExpression || LogicalANDExpression
CoalesceExpression :
CoalesceExpressionHead ?? BitwiseORExpression
ConditionalExpression :
ShortCircuitExpression ? AssignmentExpression : AssignmentExpression
AssignmentExpression :
YieldExpression
LeftHandSideExpression = AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression AssignmentOperator AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression &&= AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression ||= AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression ??= AssignmentExpression
Expression :
Expression , AssignmentExpression

1. Return false.

AssignmentExpression :
ArrowFunction
AsyncArrowFunction
FunctionExpression :
function BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
GeneratorExpression :
function * BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorExpression :
async function * BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncFunctionExpression :
async function BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
ClassExpression :
class BindingIdentifieropt ClassTail

1. Return true.

8.4.3 Static Semantics: IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition ( expr )

The abstract operation IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition takes argument expr (an AssignmentExpression Parse Node, an
Initializer Parse Node, or an Expression Parse Node) and returns a Boolean. It determines if its argument is a function
definition that does not bind a name. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If IsFunctionDefinition of expr is false, return false.

2. Let hasName be HasName of expr.
3. If hasName is true, return false.
4. Return true.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

8.4.4 Static Semantics: IsIdentifierRef

The syntax-directed operation IsIdentifierRef takes no arguments and returns a Boolean. It is defined piecewise over the
following productions:
PrimaryExpression : IdentifierReference

1. Return true.

PrimaryExpression :
this
Literal
ArrayLiteral
ObjectLiteral
FunctionExpression
ClassExpression
GeneratorExpression
AsyncFunctionExpression
AsyncGeneratorExpression
RegularExpressionLiteral
TemplateLiteral
CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList
MemberExpression :
MemberExpression [ Expression ]
MemberExpression . IdentifierName
MemberExpression TemplateLiteral
SuperProperty
MetaProperty
new MemberExpression Arguments
MemberExpression . PrivateIdentifier
NewExpression :
new NewExpression
LeftHandSideExpression :
CallExpression
OptionalExpression

1. Return false.

8.4.5 Runtime Semantics: NamedEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation NamedEvaluation takes argument name (a property key or a Private Name) and returns
either a normal completion containing a function object or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise over the follow-
ing productions:
PrimaryExpression : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let expr be the ParenthesizedExpression that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return ? NamedEvaluation of expr with argument name.

ParenthesizedExpression : ( Expression )

1. Assert: IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(Expression) is true.

2. Return ? NamedEvaluation of Expression with argument name.

FunctionExpression : function ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return InstantiateOrdinaryFunctionExpression of FunctionExpression with argument name.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

GeneratorExpression : function * ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. Return InstantiateGeneratorFunctionExpression of GeneratorExpression with argument name.

AsyncGeneratorExpression : async function * ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Return InstantiateAsyncGeneratorFunctionExpression of AsyncGeneratorExpression with argument name.

AsyncFunctionExpression : async function ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Return InstantiateAsyncFunctionExpression of AsyncFunctionExpression with argument name.

ArrowFunction : ArrowParameters => ConciseBody

1. Return InstantiateArrowFunctionExpression of ArrowFunction with argument name.

AsyncArrowFunction :
async AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier => AsyncConciseBody
CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead => AsyncConciseBody

1. Return InstantiateAsyncArrowFunctionExpression of AsyncArrowFunction with argument name.

ClassExpression : class ClassTail

1. Let value be ? ClassDefinitionEvaluation of ClassTail with arguments undefined and name.

2. Set value.⁠[[SourceText]] to the source text matched by ClassExpression.
3. Return value.

8.5 Contains

8.5.1 Static Semantics: Contains

The syntax-directed operation Contains takes argument symbol (a grammar symbol) and returns a Boolean.

Every grammar production alternative in this specification which is not listed below implicitly has the following default
definition of Contains:

1. For each child node child of this Parse Node, do

a. If child is an instance of symbol, return true.
b. If child is an instance of a nonterminal, then
i. Let contained be the result of child Contains symbol.
ii. If contained is true, return true.
2. Return false.

FunctionDeclaration :
function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
function ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
FunctionExpression :
function BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
GeneratorDeclaration :
function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
function * ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
GeneratorExpression :
function * BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration :
async function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
async function * ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorExpression :
async function * BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

AsyncFunctionDeclaration :
async function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
async function ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
AsyncFunctionExpression :
async function BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Return false.

NOTE 1 Static semantic rules that depend upon substructure generally do not look into function definitions.

ClassTail : ClassHeritageopt { ClassBody }

1. If symbol is ClassBody, return true.

2. If symbol is ClassHeritage, then
a. If ClassHeritage is present, return true; otherwise return false.
3. If ClassHeritage is present, then
a. If ClassHeritage Contains symbol is true, return true.
4. Return the result of ComputedPropertyContains of ClassBody with argument symbol.

NOTE 2 Static semantic rules that depend upon substructure generally do not look into class bodies except
for PropertyNames.

ClassStaticBlock : static { ClassStaticBlockBody }

1. Return false.

NOTE 3 Static semantic rules that depend upon substructure generally do not look into static initialization blocks.

ArrowFunction : ArrowParameters => ConciseBody

1. If symbol is not one of NewTarget, SuperProperty, SuperCall, super, or this, return false.
2. If ArrowParameters Contains symbol is true, return true.
3. Return ConciseBody Contains symbol.

ArrowParameters : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let formals be the ArrowFormalParameters that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return formals Contains symbol.

AsyncArrowFunction : async AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier => AsyncConciseBody

1. If symbol is not one of NewTarget, SuperProperty, SuperCall, super, or this, return false.
2. Return AsyncConciseBody Contains symbol.

AsyncArrowFunction : CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead => AsyncConciseBody

1. If symbol is not one of NewTarget, SuperProperty, SuperCall, super, or this, return false.
2. Let head be the AsyncArrowHead that is covered by CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead.
3. If head Contains symbol is true, return true.
4. Return AsyncConciseBody Contains symbol.

NOTE 4 Contains is used to detect [Link], this, and super usage within an
ArrowFunction or AsyncArrowFunction.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

PropertyDefinition : MethodDefinition

1. If symbol is MethodDefinition, return true.

2. Return the result of ComputedPropertyContains of MethodDefinition with argument symbol.

LiteralPropertyName : IdentifierName

1. Return false.

MemberExpression : MemberExpression . IdentifierName

1. If MemberExpression Contains symbol is true, return true.

2. Return false.

SuperProperty : super . IdentifierName

1. If symbol is the ReservedWord super, return true.

2. Return false.

CallExpression : CallExpression . IdentifierName

1. If CallExpression Contains symbol is true, return true.

2. Return false.

OptionalChain : ?. IdentifierName

1. Return false.

OptionalChain : OptionalChain . IdentifierName

1. If OptionalChain Contains symbol is true, return true.

2. Return false.

8.5.2 Static Semantics: ComputedPropertyContains

The syntax-directed operation ComputedPropertyContains takes argument symbol (a grammar symbol) and returns a
Boolean. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
ClassElementName : PrivateIdentifier
PropertyName : LiteralPropertyName

1. Return false.

PropertyName : ComputedPropertyName

1. Return the result of ComputedPropertyName Contains symbol.

MethodDefinition :
ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
get ClassElementName ( ) { FunctionBody }
set ClassElementName ( PropertySetParameterList ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return the result of ComputedPropertyContains of ClassElementName with argument symbol.

GeneratorMethod : * ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. Return the result of ComputedPropertyContains of ClassElementName with argument symbol.

AsyncGeneratorMethod : async * ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Return the result of ComputedPropertyContains of ClassElementName with argument symbol.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ClassElementList : ClassElementList ClassElement

1. Let inList be ComputedPropertyContains of ClassElementList with argument symbol.

2. If inList is true, return true.
3. Return the result of ComputedPropertyContains of ClassElement with argument symbol.

ClassElement : ClassStaticBlock

1. Return false.

ClassElement : ;

1. Return false.

AsyncMethod : async ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Return the result of ComputedPropertyContains of ClassElementName with argument symbol.

FieldDefinition : ClassElementName Initializeropt

1. Return the result of ComputedPropertyContains of ClassElementName with argument symbol.

8.6 Miscellaneous

These operations are used in multiple places throughout the specification.

8.6.1 Runtime Semantics: InstantiateFunctionObject

The syntax-directed operation InstantiateFunctionObject takes arguments env (an Environment Record) and privateEnv
(a PrivateEnvironment Record or null) and returns an ECMAScript function object. It is defined piecewise over the fol-
lowing productions:
FunctionDeclaration :
function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
function ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return InstantiateOrdinaryFunctionObject of FunctionDeclaration with arguments env and privateEnv.

GeneratorDeclaration :
function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
function * ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. Return InstantiateGeneratorFunctionObject of GeneratorDeclaration with arguments env and privateEnv.

AsyncGeneratorDeclaration :
async function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
async function * ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Return InstantiateAsyncGeneratorFunctionObject of AsyncGeneratorDeclaration with arguments env and

privateEnv.

AsyncFunctionDeclaration :
async function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
async function ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Return InstantiateAsyncFunctionObject of AsyncFunctionDeclaration with arguments env and privateEnv.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

8.6.2 Runtime Semantics: BindingInitialization

The syntax-directed operation BindingInitialization takes arguments value (an ECMAScript language value) and
environment (an Environment Record or undefined) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or an
abrupt completion.

NOTE undefined is passed for environment to indicate that a PutValue operation should be used to assign
the initialization value. This is the case for var statements and formal parameter lists of some non-strict
functions (See 10.2.11). In those cases a lexical binding is hoisted and preinitialized prior to evaluation of
its initializer.

It is defined piecewise over the following productions:

BindingIdentifier : Identifier

1. Let name be the StringValue of Identifier.

2. Return ? InitializeBoundName(name, value, environment).

BindingIdentifier : yield

1. Return ? InitializeBoundName("yield", value, environment).

BindingIdentifier : await

1. Return ? InitializeBoundName("await", value, environment).

BindingPattern : ObjectBindingPattern

1. Perform ? RequireObjectCoercible(value).
2. Return ? BindingInitialization of ObjectBindingPattern with arguments value and environment.

BindingPattern : ArrayBindingPattern

1. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(value, SYNC).

2. Let result be Completion(IteratorBindingInitialization of ArrayBindingPattern with arguments iteratorRecord and
environment).
3. If iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false, return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, result).
4. Return ? result.

ObjectBindingPattern : { }

1. Return UNUSED.

ObjectBindingPattern :
{ BindingPropertyList }
{ BindingPropertyList , }

1. Perform ? PropertyBindingInitialization of BindingPropertyList with arguments value and environment.

2. Return UNUSED.

ObjectBindingPattern : { BindingRestProperty }

1. Let excludedNames be a new empty List.

2. Return ? RestBindingInitialization of BindingRestProperty with arguments value, environment, and excludedNames.

ObjectBindingPattern : { BindingPropertyList , BindingRestProperty }

1. Let excludedNames be ? PropertyBindingInitialization of BindingPropertyList with arguments value and

environment.
2. Return ? RestBindingInitialization of BindingRestProperty with arguments value, environment, and excludedNames.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] InitializeBoundName ( name, value, environment )

The abstract operation InitializeBoundName takes arguments name (a String), value (an ECMAScript language value),
and environment (an Environment Record or undefined) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or
an abrupt completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If environment is not undefined, then

a. Perform ! [Link](name, value).
b. Return UNUSED.
2. Else,
a. Let lhs be ? ResolveBinding(name).
b. Return ? PutValue(lhs, value).

8.6.3 Runtime Semantics: IteratorBindingInitialization

The syntax-directed operation IteratorBindingInitialization takes arguments iteratorRecord (an Iterator Record) and
environment (an Environment Record or undefined) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or an
abrupt completion.

NOTE When undefined is passed for environment it indicates that a PutValue operation should be used to assign
the initialization value. This is the case for formal parameter lists of non-strict functions. In that case the
formal parameter bindings are preinitialized in order to deal with the possibility of multiple parameters with
the same name.

It is defined piecewise over the following productions:

ArrayBindingPattern : [ ]

1. Return UNUSED.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ Elision ]

1. Return ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with argument iteratorRecord.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ Elisionopt BindingRestElement ]

1. If Elision is present, then

a. Perform ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with argument iteratorRecord.
2. Return ? IteratorBindingInitialization of BindingRestElement with arguments iteratorRecord and environment.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ BindingElementList , Elision ]

1. Perform ? IteratorBindingInitialization of BindingElementList with arguments iteratorRecord and environment.

2. Return ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with argument iteratorRecord.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ BindingElementList , Elisionopt BindingRestElement ]

1. Perform ? IteratorBindingInitialization of BindingElementList with arguments iteratorRecord and environment.

2. If Elision is present, then
a. Perform ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with argument iteratorRecord.
3. Return ? IteratorBindingInitialization of BindingRestElement with arguments iteratorRecord and environment.

BindingElementList : BindingElementList , BindingElisionElement

1. Perform ? IteratorBindingInitialization of BindingElementList with arguments iteratorRecord and environment.

2. Return ? IteratorBindingInitialization of BindingElisionElement with arguments iteratorRecord and environment.

BindingElisionElement : Elision BindingElement

1. Perform ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with argument iteratorRecord.

2. Return ? IteratorBindingInitialization of BindingElement with arguments iteratorRecord and environment.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

SingleNameBinding : BindingIdentifier Initializeropt

1. Let bindingId be the StringValue of BindingIdentifier.

2. Let lhs be ? ResolveBinding(bindingId, environment).
3. Let v be undefined.
4. If iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false, then
a. Let next be ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is not DONE, then
i. Set v to next.
5. If Initializer is present and v is undefined, then
a. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(Initializer) is true, then
i. Set v to ? NamedEvaluation of Initializer with argument bindingId.
b. Else,
i. Let defaultValue be ? Evaluation of Initializer.
ii. Set v to ? GetValue(defaultValue).
6. If environment is undefined, return ? PutValue(lhs, v).
7. Return ? InitializeReferencedBinding(lhs, v).

BindingElement : BindingPattern Initializeropt

1. Let v be undefined.
2. If iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false, then
a. Let next be ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is not DONE, then
i. Set v to next.
3. If Initializer is present and v is undefined, then
a. Let defaultValue be ? Evaluation of Initializer.
b. Set v to ? GetValue(defaultValue).
4. Return ? BindingInitialization of BindingPattern with arguments v and environment.

BindingRestElement : ... BindingIdentifier

1. Let lhs be ? ResolveBinding(StringValue of BindingIdentifier, environment).

2. Let A be ! ArrayCreate(0).
3. Let n be 0.
4. Repeat,
a. Let next be DONE.
b. If iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false, then
i. Set next to ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
c. If next is DONE, then
i. If environment is undefined, return ? PutValue(lhs, A).
ii. Return ? InitializeReferencedBinding(lhs, A).
d. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(n)), next).
e. Set n to n + 1.

BindingRestElement : ... BindingPattern

1. Let A be ! ArrayCreate(0).
2. Let n be 0.
3. Repeat,
a. Let next be DONE.
b. If iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false, then
i. Set next to ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
c. If next is DONE, then
i. Return ? BindingInitialization of BindingPattern with arguments A and environment.
d. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(n)), next).
e. Set n to n + 1.

FormalParameters : [empty]

1. Return UNUSED.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

FormalParameters : FormalParameterList , FunctionRestParameter

1. Perform ? IteratorBindingInitialization of FormalParameterList with arguments iteratorRecord and environment.

2. Return ? IteratorBindingInitialization of FunctionRestParameter with arguments iteratorRecord and environment.

FormalParameterList : FormalParameterList , FormalParameter

1. Perform ? IteratorBindingInitialization of FormalParameterList with arguments iteratorRecord and environment.

2. Return ? IteratorBindingInitialization of FormalParameter with arguments iteratorRecord and environment.

ArrowParameters : BindingIdentifier

1. Let v be undefined.
2. Assert: iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false.
3. Let next be ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
4. If next is not DONE, then
a. Set v to next.
5. Return ? BindingInitialization of BindingIdentifier with arguments v and environment.

ArrowParameters : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let formals be the ArrowFormalParameters that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return ? IteratorBindingInitialization of formals with arguments iteratorRecord and environment.

AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier : BindingIdentifier

8.6.4 Static Semantics: AssignmentTargetType

The syntax-directed operation AssignmentTargetType takes no arguments and returns SIMPLE, WEB-COMPAT, or
INVALID. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
IdentifierReference : Identifier

1. If IsStrict(this IdentifierReference) is true and the StringValue of Identifier is either "eval" or "arguments", return
INVALID.
2. Return SIMPLE.

IdentifierReference :
yield
await
CallExpression :
CallExpression [ Expression ]
CallExpression . IdentifierName
CallExpression . PrivateIdentifier
MemberExpression :
MemberExpression [ Expression ]
MemberExpression . IdentifierName
SuperProperty
MemberExpression . PrivateIdentifier

1. Return SIMPLE.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

PrimaryExpression :
CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let expr be the ParenthesizedExpression that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return the AssignmentTargetType of expr.

CallExpression :
CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead
CallExpression Arguments

1. NORMATIVE OPTIONAL
If the host is a web browser or otherwise supports Runtime Errors for Function Call Assignment Targets and
IsStrict(this CallExpression) is false, then
a. Return WEB-COMPAT.
2. Return INVALID.

PrimaryExpression :
this
Literal
ArrayLiteral
ObjectLiteral
FunctionExpression
ClassExpression
GeneratorExpression
AsyncFunctionExpression
AsyncGeneratorExpression
RegularExpressionLiteral
TemplateLiteral
CallExpression :
SuperCall
ImportCall
CallExpression TemplateLiteral
NewExpression :
new NewExpression
MemberExpression :
MemberExpression TemplateLiteral
new MemberExpression Arguments
NewTarget :
new . target
ImportMeta :
import . meta
LeftHandSideExpression :
OptionalExpression
UpdateExpression :
LeftHandSideExpression ++
LeftHandSideExpression --
++ UnaryExpression
-- UnaryExpression

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

UnaryExpression :
delete UnaryExpression
void UnaryExpression
typeof UnaryExpression
+ UnaryExpression
- UnaryExpression
~ UnaryExpression
! UnaryExpression
AwaitExpression
ExponentiationExpression :
UpdateExpression ** ExponentiationExpression
MultiplicativeExpression :
MultiplicativeExpression MultiplicativeOperator ExponentiationExpression
AdditiveExpression :
AdditiveExpression + MultiplicativeExpression
AdditiveExpression - MultiplicativeExpression
ShiftExpression :
ShiftExpression << AdditiveExpression
ShiftExpression >> AdditiveExpression
ShiftExpression >>> AdditiveExpression
RelationalExpression :
RelationalExpression < ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression > ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression <= ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression >= ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression instanceof ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression in ShiftExpression
PrivateIdentifier in ShiftExpression
EqualityExpression :
EqualityExpression == RelationalExpression
EqualityExpression != RelationalExpression
EqualityExpression === RelationalExpression
EqualityExpression !== RelationalExpression
BitwiseANDExpression :
BitwiseANDExpression & EqualityExpression
BitwiseXORExpression :
BitwiseXORExpression ^ BitwiseANDExpression
BitwiseORExpression :
BitwiseORExpression | BitwiseXORExpression
LogicalANDExpression :
LogicalANDExpression && BitwiseORExpression
LogicalORExpression :
LogicalORExpression || LogicalANDExpression
CoalesceExpression :
CoalesceExpressionHead ?? BitwiseORExpression
ConditionalExpression :
ShortCircuitExpression ? AssignmentExpression : AssignmentExpression
AssignmentExpression :
YieldExpression
ArrowFunction
AsyncArrowFunction
LeftHandSideExpression = AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression AssignmentOperator AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression &&= AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression ||= AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression ??= AssignmentExpression

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Expression :
Expression , AssignmentExpression

1. Return INVALID.

8.6.5 Static Semantics: PropName

The syntax-directed operation PropName takes no arguments and returns a String or EMPTY. It is defined piecewise
over the following productions:
PropertyDefinition : IdentifierReference

1. Return the StringValue of IdentifierReference.

PropertyDefinition : ... AssignmentExpression

1. Return EMPTY.

PropertyDefinition : PropertyName : AssignmentExpression

1. Return the PropName of PropertyName.

LiteralPropertyName : IdentifierName
AttributeKey : IdentifierName

1. Return the StringValue of IdentifierName.

LiteralPropertyName : StringLiteral
AttributeKey : StringLiteral

1. Return the SV of StringLiteral.

LiteralPropertyName : NumericLiteral

1. Let nbr be the NumericValue of NumericLiteral.

2. Return ! ToString(nbr).

ComputedPropertyName : [ AssignmentExpression ]

1. Return EMPTY.

MethodDefinition :
ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
get ClassElementName ( ) { FunctionBody }
set ClassElementName ( PropertySetParameterList ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return the PropName of ClassElementName.

GeneratorMethod : * ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. Return the PropName of ClassElementName.

AsyncGeneratorMethod : async * ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Return the PropName of ClassElementName.

ClassElement : ClassStaticBlock

1. Return EMPTY.

ClassElement : ;

1. Return EMPTY.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

AsyncMethod : async ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Return the PropName of ClassElementName.

FieldDefinition : ClassElementName Initializeropt

1. Return the PropName of ClassElementName.

ClassElementName : PrivateIdentifier

1. Return EMPTY.

9 Executable Code and Execution Contexts

9.1 Environment Records

Environment Record is a specification type used to define the association of Identifiers to specific variables and func-
tions, based upon the lexical nesting structure of ECMAScript code. Usually an Environment Record is associated with
some specific syntactic structure of ECMAScript code such as a FunctionDeclaration, a BlockStatement, or a Catch
clause of a TryStatement. Each time such code is evaluated, a new Environment Record is created to record the identi-
fier bindings that are created by that code.

Every Environment Record has an ⁠[[OuterEnv]] field, which is either null or a reference to an outer Environment Record.
This is used to model the logical nesting of Environment Record values. The outer reference of an (inner) Environment
Record is a reference to the Environment Record that logically surrounds the inner Environment Record. An outer
Environment Record may, of course, have its own outer Environment Record. An Environment Record may serve as the
outer environment for multiple inner Environment Records. For example, if a FunctionDeclaration contains two nested
FunctionDeclarations then the Environment Records of each of the nested functions will have as their outer
Environment Record the Environment Record of the current evaluation of the surrounding function.

Environment Records are purely specification mechanisms and need not correspond to any specific artefact of an
ECMAScript implementation. It is impossible for an ECMAScript program to directly access or manipulate such values.

9.1.1 The Environment Record Type Hierarchy

Environment Records can be thought of as existing in a simple object-oriented hierarchy where Environment Record is
an abstract class with three concrete subclasses: Declarative Environment Record, Object Environment Record, and
Global Environment Record. Function Environment Records and Module Environment Records are subclasses of
Declarative Environment Record.

Environment Record (abstract)

A Declarative Environment Record is used to define the effect of ECMAScript language syntactic elements such
as FunctionDeclarations, VariableDeclarations, and Catch clauses that directly associate identifier bindings with
ECMAScript language values.

A Function Environment Record corresponds to the invocation of an ECMAScript function object, and con-
tains bindings for the top-level declarations within that function. It may establish a new this binding. It also
captures the state necessary to support super method invocations.

A Module Environment Record contains the bindings for the top-level declarations of a Module. It
also contains the bindings that are explicitly imported by the Module. Its ⁠[[OuterEnv]] is a Global
Environment Record.

An Object Environment Record is used to define the effect of ECMAScript elements such as WithStatement that
associate identifier bindings with the properties of some object.

A Global Environment Record is used for Script global declarations. It does not have an outer environment; its
⁠[[OuterEnv]] is null. It may be prepopulated with identifier bindings and it includes an associated global object
whose properties provide some of the global environment's identifier bindings. As ECMAScript code is ex-

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ecuted, additional properties may be added to the global object and the initial properties may be modified.

The Environment Record abstract class includes the abstract specification methods defined in Table 16. These abstract
methods have distinct concrete algorithms for each of the concrete subclasses.

Table 16: Abstract Methods of Environment Records

Method Purpose
HasBinding(N) Determine if an Environment Record has a binding for the String value N. Return true if
it does and false if it does not.
CreateMutableBinding(N, D) Create a new but uninitialized mutable binding in an Environment Record. The String
value N is the text of the bound name. If the Boolean argument D is true the binding
may be subsequently deleted.
CreateImmutableBinding(N, Create a new but uninitialized immutable binding in an Environment Record. The String
S) value N is the text of the bound name. If S is true then attempts to set it after it has
been initialized will always throw an exception, regardless of the strict mode setting of
operations that reference that binding.
InitializeBinding(N, V) Set the value of an already existing but uninitialized binding in an Environment Record.
The String value N is the text of the bound name. V is the value for the binding and is a
value of any ECMAScript language type.
SetMutableBinding(N, V, S) Set the value of an already existing mutable binding in an Environment Record. The
String value N is the text of the bound name. V is the value for the binding and may be a
value of any ECMAScript language type. S is a Boolean flag. If S is true and the binding
cannot be set throw a TypeError exception.
GetBindingValue(N, S) Returns the value of an already existing binding from an Environment Record. The
String value N is the text of the bound name. S is used to identify references originating
in strict mode code or that otherwise require strict mode reference semantics. If S is
true and the binding does not exist throw a ReferenceError exception. If the binding
exists but is uninitialized a ReferenceError is thrown, regardless of the value of S.
DeleteBinding(N) Delete a binding from an Environment Record. The String value N is the text of the
bound name. If a binding for N exists, remove the binding and return true. If the binding
exists but cannot be removed return false. If the binding does not exist return true.
HasThisBinding() Determine if an Environment Record establishes a this binding. Return true if it does
and false if it does not.
HasSuperBinding() Determine if an Environment Record establishes a super method binding. Return true
if it does and false if it does not. If it returns true it implies that the Environment Record
is a Function Environment Record, although the reverse implication does not hold.
WithBaseObject() If this Environment Record is associated with a with statement, return the with object.
Otherwise, return undefined.

[Link] Declarative Environment Records

Each Declarative Environment Record is associated with an ECMAScript program scope containing variable, constant,
let, class, module, import, and/or function declarations. A Declarative Environment Record binds the set of identifiers
defined by the declarations contained within its scope.

[Link].1 HasBinding ( N )

The HasBinding concrete method of a Declarative Environment Record envRec takes argument N (a String) and returns
a normal completion containing a Boolean. It determines if the argument identifier is one of the identifiers bound by the

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

record. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If envRec has a binding for N, return true.

2. Return false.

[Link].2 CreateMutableBinding ( N, D )

The CreateMutableBinding concrete method of a Declarative Environment Record envRec takes arguments N (a String)
and D (a Boolean) and returns a normal completion containing UNUSED. It creates a new mutable binding for the name
N that is uninitialized. A binding must not already exist in this Environment Record for N. If D is true, the new binding is
marked as being subject to deletion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: envRec does not already have a binding for N.

2. Create a mutable binding in envRec for N and record that it is uninitialized. If D is true, record that the newly created
binding may be deleted by a subsequent DeleteBinding call.
3. Return UNUSED.

[Link].3 CreateImmutableBinding ( N, S )

The CreateImmutableBinding concrete method of a Declarative Environment Record envRec takes arguments N (a
String) and S (a Boolean) and returns a normal completion containing UNUSED. It creates a new immutable binding for
the name N that is uninitialized. A binding must not already exist in this Environment Record for N. If S is true, the new
binding is marked as a strict binding. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: envRec does not already have a binding for N.

2. Create an immutable binding in envRec for N and record that it is uninitialized. If S is true, record that the newly
created binding is a strict binding.
3. Return UNUSED.

[Link].4 InitializeBinding ( N, V )

The InitializeBinding concrete method of a Declarative Environment Record envRec takes arguments N (a String) and V
(an ECMAScript language value) and returns a normal completion containing UNUSED. It is used to set the bound value
of the current binding of the identifier whose name is N to the value V. An uninitialized binding for N must already exist.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: envRec must have an uninitialized binding for N.

2. Set the bound value for N in envRec to V.
3. Record that the binding for N in envRec has been initialized.
4. Return UNUSED.

[Link].5 SetMutableBinding ( N, V, S )

The SetMutableBinding concrete method of a Declarative Environment Record envRec takes arguments N (a String), V
(an ECMAScript language value), and S (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a
throw completion. It attempts to change the bound value of the current binding of the identifier whose name is N to the
value V. A binding for N normally already exists, but in rare cases it may not. If the binding is an immutable binding, a
TypeError is thrown if S is true. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If envRec does not have a binding for N, then

a. If S is true, throw a ReferenceError exception.
b. Perform ! [Link](N, true).
c. Perform ! [Link](N, V).
d. Return UNUSED.
2. If the binding for N in envRec is a strict binding, set S to true.
3. If the binding for N in envRec has not yet been initialized, then
a. Throw a ReferenceError exception.
4. Else if the binding for N in envRec is a mutable binding, then
a. Change its bound value to V.
5. Else,

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

a. Assert: This is an attempt to change the value of an immutable binding.

b. If S is true, throw a TypeError exception.
6. Return UNUSED.

NOTE An example of ECMAScript code that results in a missing binding at step 1 is:

function f() { eval("var x; x = (delete x, 0);"); }

[Link].6 GetBindingValue ( N, S )

The GetBindingValue concrete method of a Declarative Environment Record envRec takes arguments N (a String) and
S (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion.
It returns the value of its bound identifier whose name is N. If the binding exists but is uninitialized a ReferenceError is
thrown, regardless of the value of S. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: envRec has a binding for N.

2. If the binding for N in envRec is an uninitialized binding, throw a ReferenceError exception.
3. Return the value currently bound to N in envRec.

[Link].7 DeleteBinding ( N )

The DeleteBinding concrete method of a Declarative Environment Record envRec takes argument N (a String) and
returns a normal completion containing a Boolean. It can only delete bindings that have been explicitly designated as
being subject to deletion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: envRec has a binding for N.

2. If the binding for N in envRec cannot be deleted, return false.
3. Remove the binding for N from envRec.
4. Return true.

[Link].8 HasThisBinding ( )

The HasThisBinding concrete method of a Declarative Environment Record envRec takes no arguments and returns
false. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return false.

NOTE A regular Declarative Environment Record (i.e., one that is neither a Function Environment Record nor a
Module Environment Record) does not provide a this binding.

[Link].9 HasSuperBinding ( )

The HasSuperBinding concrete method of a Declarative Environment Record envRec takes no arguments and returns
false. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return false.

NOTE A regular Declarative Environment Record (i.e., one that is neither a Function Environment Record nor a
Module Environment Record) does not provide a super binding.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 0:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].10 WithBaseObject ( )

The WithBaseObject concrete method of a Declarative Environment Record envRec takes no arguments and returns
undefined. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return undefined.

[Link] Object Environment Records

Each Object Environment Record is associated with an object called its binding object. An Object Environment Record
binds the set of string identifier names that directly correspond to the property names of its binding object. Property keys
that are not strings in the form of an IdentifierName are not included in the set of bound identifiers. Both own and inher-
ited properties are included in the set regardless of the setting of their ⁠[[Enumerable]] attribute. Because properties can
be dynamically added and deleted from objects, the set of identifiers bound by an Object Environment Record may
potentially change as a side-effect of any operation that adds or deletes properties. Any bindings that are created as a
result of such a side-effect are considered to be a mutable binding even if the Writable attribute of the corresponding
property is false. Immutable bindings do not exist for Object Environment Records.

Object Environment Records created for with statements (14.11) can provide their binding object as an implicit this
value for use in function calls. The capability is controlled by a Boolean ⁠[[IsWithEnvironment]] field.

Object Environment Records have the additional state fields listed in Table 17.

Table 17: Additional Fields of Object Environment Records

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[BindingObject]] an Object The binding object of this Environment Record.
⁠[[IsWithEnvironment]] a Boolean Indicates whether this Environment Record is created for a with statement.

[Link].1 HasBinding ( N )

The HasBinding concrete method of an Object Environment Record envRec takes argument N (a String) and returns
either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It determines if its associated binding object has
a property whose name is N. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let bindingObject be envRec.⁠[[BindingObject]].

2. Let foundBinding be ? HasProperty(bindingObject, N).
3. If foundBinding is false, return false.
4. If envRec.⁠[[IsWithEnvironment]] is false, return true.
5. Let unscopables be ? Get(bindingObject, %[Link]%).
6. If unscopables is an Object, then
a. Let blocked be ToBoolean(? Get(unscopables, N)).
b. If blocked is true, return false.
7. Return true.

[Link].2 CreateMutableBinding ( N, D )

The CreateMutableBinding concrete method of an Object Environment Record envRec takes arguments N (a String)
and D (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It creates in an
Environment Record's associated binding object a property whose name is N and initializes it to the value undefined. If
D is true, the new property's ⁠[[Configurable]] attribute is set to true; otherwise it is set to false. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let bindingObject be envRec.⁠[[BindingObject]].

2. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(bindingObject, N, PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: undefined, ⁠[[Writable]]: true,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: true, ⁠[[Configurable]]: D }).
3. Return UNUSED.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE Normally envRec will not have a binding for N but if it does, the semantics of DefinePropertyOrThrow may
result in an existing binding being replaced or shadowed or cause an abrupt completion to be returned.

[Link].3 CreateImmutableBinding ( N, S )

The CreateImmutableBinding concrete method of an Object Environment Record is never used within this specification.

[Link].4 InitializeBinding ( N, V )

The InitializeBinding concrete method of an Object Environment Record envRec takes arguments N (a String) and V (an
ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It is
used to set the bound value of the current binding of the identifier whose name is N to the value V. It performs the fol-
lowing steps when called:

1. Perform ? [Link](N, V, false).

2. Return UNUSED.

NOTE In this specification, all uses of CreateMutableBinding for Object Environment Records are immediately
followed by a call to InitializeBinding for the same name. Hence, this specification does not explicitly track
the initialization state of bindings in Object Environment Records.

[Link].5 SetMutableBinding ( N, V, S )

The SetMutableBinding concrete method of an Object Environment Record envRec takes arguments N (a String), V (an
ECMAScript language value), and S (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw
completion. It attempts to set the value of the Environment Record's associated binding object's property whose name is
N to the value V. A property named N normally already exists but if it does not or is not currently writable, error handling
is determined by S. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let bindingObject be envRec.⁠[[BindingObject]].

2. Let stillExists be ? HasProperty(bindingObject, N).
3. If stillExists is false and S is true, throw a ReferenceError exception.
4. Perform ? Set(bindingObject, N, V, S).
5. Return UNUSED.

[Link].6 GetBindingValue ( N, S )

The GetBindingValue concrete method of an Object Environment Record envRec takes arguments N (a String) and S (a
Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It re-
turns the value of its associated binding object's property whose name is N. The property should already exist but if it
does not the result depends upon S. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let bindingObject be envRec.⁠[[BindingObject]].

2. Let value be ? HasProperty(bindingObject, N).
3. If value is false, then
a. If S is false, return undefined; otherwise throw a ReferenceError exception.
4. Return ? Get(bindingObject, N).

[Link].7 DeleteBinding ( N )

The DeleteBinding concrete method of an Object Environment Record envRec takes argument N (a String) and returns
either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It can only delete bindings that correspond to
properties of the environment object whose ⁠[[Configurable]] attribute have the value true. It performs the following steps

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

when called:

1. Let bindingObject be envRec.⁠[[BindingObject]].

2. Return ? bindingObject.⁠[[Delete]](N).

[Link].8 HasThisBinding ( )

The HasThisBinding concrete method of an Object Environment Record envRec takes no arguments and returns false.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return false.

NOTE Object Environment Records do not provide a this binding.

[Link].9 HasSuperBinding ( )

The HasSuperBinding concrete method of an Object Environment Record envRec takes no arguments and returns
false. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return false.

NOTE Object Environment Records do not provide a super binding.

[Link].10 WithBaseObject ( )

The WithBaseObject concrete method of an Object Environment Record envRec takes no arguments and returns an
Object or undefined. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If envRec.⁠[[IsWithEnvironment]] is true, return envRec.⁠[[BindingObject]].

2. Otherwise, return undefined.

[Link] Function Environment Records

A Function Environment Record is a Declarative Environment Record that is used to represent the top-level scope of a
function and, if the function is not an ArrowFunction, provides a this binding. If a function is not an ArrowFunction func-
tion and references super, its Function Environment Record also contains the state that is used to perform super
method invocations from within the function.

Function Environment Records have the additional state fields listed in Table 18.

Table 18: Additional Fields of Function Environment Records

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[ThisValue]] an ECMAScript This is the this value used for this invocation of the function.
language value
⁠[[ThisBindingStatus]] LEXICAL, INITIALIZED, If the value is LEXICAL, this is an ArrowFunction and does not have
or UNINITIALIZED a local this value.
⁠[[FunctionObject]] an ECMAScript function The function object whose invocation caused this Environment
object Record to be created.
⁠[[NewTarget]] a constructor or If this Environment Record was created by the ⁠[[Construct]] internal
undefined method, [[NewTarget]] is the value of the ⁠[[Construct]] newTarget
parameter. Otherwise, its value is undefined.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Function Environment Records support all of the Declarative Environment Record methods listed in Table 16 and share
the same specifications for all of those methods except for HasThisBinding and HasSuperBinding. In addition, Function
Environment Records support the methods listed in Table 19:

Table 19: Additional Methods of Function Environment Records

Method Purpose
GetThisBinding() Return the value of this Environment Record's this binding. Throws a ReferenceError if the this
binding has not been initialized.

[Link].1 BindThisValue ( envRec, V )

The abstract operation BindThisValue takes arguments envRec (a Function Environment Record) and V (an
ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It sets
the envRec.⁠[[ThisValue]] and records that it has been initialized. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: envRec.⁠[[ThisBindingStatus]] is not LEXICAL.

2. If envRec.⁠[[ThisBindingStatus]] is INITIALIZED, throw a ReferenceError exception.
3. Set envRec.⁠[[ThisValue]] to V.
4. Set envRec.⁠[[ThisBindingStatus]] to INITIALIZED.
5. Return UNUSED.

[Link].2 HasThisBinding ( )

The HasThisBinding concrete method of a Function Environment Record envRec takes no arguments and returns a
Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If envRec.⁠[[ThisBindingStatus]] is LEXICAL, return false; otherwise return true.

[Link].3 HasSuperBinding ( )

The HasSuperBinding concrete method of a Function Environment Record envRec takes no arguments and returns a
Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If envRec.⁠[[ThisBindingStatus]] is LEXICAL, return false.

2. If envRec.⁠[[FunctionObject]].⁠[[HomeObject]] is undefined, return false; otherwise return true.

[Link].4 GetThisBinding ( )

The GetThisBinding concrete method of a Function Environment Record envRec takes no arguments and returns either
a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Assert: envRec.⁠[[ThisBindingStatus]] is not LEXICAL.

2. If envRec.⁠[[ThisBindingStatus]] is UNINITIALIZED, throw a ReferenceError exception.
3. Return envRec.⁠[[ThisValue]].

[Link].5 GetSuperBase ( envRec )

The abstract operation GetSuperBase takes argument envRec (a Function Environment Record) and returns an Object,
null, or undefined. It returns the object that is the base for super property accesses bound in envRec. The value un-
defined indicates that such accesses will produce runtime errors. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let home be envRec.⁠[[FunctionObject]].⁠[[HomeObject]].

2. If home is undefined, return undefined.
3. Assert: home is an ordinary object.
4. Return ! home.⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]]().

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Global Environment Records

A Global Environment Record is used to represent the outer most scope that is shared by all of the ECMAScript Script
elements that are processed in a common realm. A Global Environment Record provides the bindings for built-in globals
(clause 19), properties of the global object, and for all top-level declarations (8.2.9, 8.2.11) that occur within a Script.

A Global Environment Record is logically a single record but it is specified as a composite encapsulating an Object
Environment Record and a Declarative Environment Record. The Object Environment Record has as its base object the
global object of the associated Realm Record. This global object is the value returned by the Global Environment
Record's GetThisBinding concrete method. The Object Environment Record component of a Global Environment
Record contains the bindings for all built-in globals (clause 19) and all bindings introduced by a FunctionDeclaration,
GeneratorDeclaration, AsyncFunctionDeclaration, AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, or VariableStatement contained in global
code. The bindings for all other ECMAScript declarations in global code are contained in the Declarative Environment
Record component of the Global Environment Record.

Properties may be created directly on a global object. Hence, the Object Environment Record component of a Global
Environment Record may contain both bindings created explicitly by FunctionDeclaration, GeneratorDeclaration,
AsyncFunctionDeclaration, AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, or VariableDeclaration declarations and bindings created impli-
citly as properties of the global object. In order to identify which bindings were explicitly created using declarations, a
Global Environment Record maintains a list of the names bound using the CreateGlobalVarBinding and
CreateGlobalFunctionBinding abstract operations.

Global Environment Records have the additional fields listed in Table 20 and the additional methods listed in Table 21.

Table 20: Additional Fields of Global Environment Records

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[ObjectRecord]] an Object Binding object is the global object. It contains global built-in bindings as well
Environment as FunctionDeclaration, GeneratorDeclaration, AsyncFunctionDeclaration,
Record AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, and VariableDeclaration bindings in global
code for the associated realm.
⁠[[GlobalThisValue]] an Object The value returned by this in global scope. Hosts may provide any
ECMAScript Object value.
⁠[[DeclarativeRecord]] a Declarative Contains bindings for all declarations in global code for the associated realm
Environment code except for FunctionDeclaration, GeneratorDeclaration,
Record AsyncFunctionDeclaration, AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, and
VariableDeclaration bindings.

Table 21: Additional Methods of Global Environment Records

Method Purpose
GetThisBinding() Return the value of this Environment Record's this binding.

[Link].1 HasBinding ( N )

The HasBinding concrete method of a Global Environment Record envRec takes argument N (a String) and returns
either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It determines if the argument identifier is one of
the identifiers bound by the record. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let DclRec be envRec.⁠[[DeclarativeRecord]].

2. If ! [Link](N) is true, return true.
3. Let ObjRec be envRec.⁠[[ObjectRecord]].
4. Return ? [Link](N).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].2 CreateMutableBinding ( N, D )

The CreateMutableBinding concrete method of a Global Environment Record envRec takes arguments N (a String) and
D (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It creates a new mut-
able binding for the name N that is uninitialized. The binding is created in the associated DeclarativeRecord. A binding
for N must not already exist in the DeclarativeRecord. If D is true, the new binding is marked as being subject to dele-
tion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let DclRec be envRec.⁠[[DeclarativeRecord]].

2. If ! [Link](N) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Return ! [Link](N, D).

[Link].3 CreateImmutableBinding ( N, S )

The CreateImmutableBinding concrete method of a Global Environment Record envRec takes arguments N (a String)
and S (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It creates a new
immutable binding for the name N that is uninitialized. A binding must not already exist in this Environment Record for N.
If S is true, the new binding is marked as a strict binding. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let DclRec be envRec.⁠[[DeclarativeRecord]].

2. If ! [Link](N) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Return ! [Link](N, S).

[Link].4 InitializeBinding ( N, V )

The InitializeBinding concrete method of a Global Environment Record envRec takes arguments N (a String) and V (an
ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It is
used to set the bound value of the current binding of the identifier whose name is N to the value V. An uninitialized bind-
ing for N must already exist. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let DclRec be envRec.⁠[[DeclarativeRecord]].

2. If ! [Link](N) is true, then
a. Return ! [Link](N, V).
3. Assert: If the binding exists, it must be in the Object Environment Record.
4. Let ObjRec be envRec.⁠[[ObjectRecord]].
5. Return ? [Link](N, V).

[Link].5 SetMutableBinding ( N, V, S )

The SetMutableBinding concrete method of a Global Environment Record envRec takes arguments N (a String), V (an
ECMAScript language value), and S (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw
completion. It attempts to change the bound value of the current binding of the identifier whose name is N to the value
V. If the binding is an immutable binding and S is true, a TypeError is thrown. A property named N normally already
exists but if it does not or is not currently writable, error handling is determined by S. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let DclRec be envRec.⁠[[DeclarativeRecord]].

2. If ! [Link](N) is true, then
a. Return ? [Link](N, V, S).
3. Let ObjRec be envRec.⁠[[ObjectRecord]].
4. Return ? [Link](N, V, S).

[Link].6 GetBindingValue ( N, S )

The GetBindingValue concrete method of a Global Environment Record envRec takes arguments N (a String) and S (a
Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It re-
turns the value of its bound identifier whose name is N. If the binding is an uninitialized binding throw a ReferenceError

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

exception. A property named N normally already exists but if it does not or is not currently writable, error handling is de-
termined by S. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let DclRec be envRec.⁠[[DeclarativeRecord]].

2. If ! [Link](N) is true, then
a. Return ? [Link](N, S).
3. Let ObjRec be envRec.⁠[[ObjectRecord]].
4. Return ? [Link](N, S).

[Link].7 DeleteBinding ( N )

The DeleteBinding concrete method of a Global Environment Record envRec takes argument N (a String) and returns
either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It can only delete bindings that have been expli-
citly designated as being subject to deletion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let DclRec be envRec.⁠[[DeclarativeRecord]].

2. If ! [Link](N) is true, then
a. Return ! [Link](N).
3. Let ObjRec be envRec.⁠[[ObjectRecord]].
4. Let globalObject be ObjRec.⁠[[BindingObject]].
5. Let existingProp be ? HasOwnProperty(globalObject, N).
6. If existingProp is true, then
a. Return ? [Link](N).
7. Return true.

[Link].8 HasThisBinding ( )

The HasThisBinding concrete method of a Global Environment Record envRec takes no arguments and returns true. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Return true.

NOTE Global Environment Records always provide a this binding.

[Link].9 HasSuperBinding ( )

The HasSuperBinding concrete method of a Global Environment Record envRec takes no arguments and returns false.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return false.

NOTE Global Environment Records do not provide a super binding.

[Link].10 WithBaseObject ( )

The WithBaseObject concrete method of a Global Environment Record envRec takes no arguments and returns un-
defined. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return undefined.

[Link].11 GetThisBinding ( )

The GetThisBinding concrete method of a Global Environment Record envRec takes no arguments and returns a nor-
mal completion containing an Object. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return envRec.⁠[[GlobalThisValue]].

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].12 HasLexicalDeclaration ( envRec, N )

The abstract operation HasLexicalDeclaration takes arguments envRec (a Global Environment Record) and N (a String)
and returns a Boolean. It determines if the argument identifier has a binding in envRec that was created using a lexical
declaration such as a LexicalDeclaration or a ClassDeclaration. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let DclRec be envRec.⁠[[DeclarativeRecord]].

2. Return ! [Link](N).

[Link].13 HasRestrictedGlobalProperty ( envRec, N )

The abstract operation HasRestrictedGlobalProperty takes arguments envRec (a Global Environment Record) and N (a
String) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It determines if the argument
identifier is the name of a property of the global object that must not be shadowed by a global lexical binding. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Let ObjRec be envRec.⁠[[ObjectRecord]].

2. Let globalObject be ObjRec.⁠[[BindingObject]].
3. Let existingProp be ? globalObject.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](N).
4. If existingProp is undefined, return false.
5. If existingProp.⁠[[Configurable]] is true, return false.
6. Return true.

NOTE Properties may exist upon a global object that were directly created rather than being declared using
a var or function declaration. A global lexical binding may not be created that has the same name as a
non-configurable property of the global object. The global property "undefined" is an example of such
a property.

[Link].14 CanDeclareGlobalVar ( envRec, N )

The abstract operation CanDeclareGlobalVar takes arguments envRec (a Global Environment Record) and N (a String)
and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It determines if a corresponding
CreateGlobalVarBinding call would succeed if called for the same argument N. Redundant var declarations and var de-
clarations for pre-existing global object properties are allowed. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let ObjRec be envRec.⁠[[ObjectRecord]].

2. Let globalObject be ObjRec.⁠[[BindingObject]].
3. Let hasProperty be ? HasOwnProperty(globalObject, N).
4. If hasProperty is true, return true.
5. Return ? IsExtensible(globalObject).

[Link].15 CanDeclareGlobalFunction ( envRec, N )

The abstract operation CanDeclareGlobalFunction takes arguments envRec (a Global Environment Record) and N (a
String) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It determines if a corres-
ponding CreateGlobalFunctionBinding call would succeed if called for the same argument N. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let ObjRec be envRec.⁠[[ObjectRecord]].

2. Let globalObject be ObjRec.⁠[[BindingObject]].
3. Let existingProp be ? globalObject.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](N).
4. If existingProp is undefined, return ? IsExtensible(globalObject).
5. If existingProp.⁠[[Configurable]] is true, return true.
6. If IsDataDescriptor(existingProp) is true and existingProp has attribute values { ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]:
true }, return true.
7. Return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].16 CreateGlobalVarBinding ( envRec, N, D )

The abstract operation CreateGlobalVarBinding takes arguments envRec (a Global Environment Record), N (a String),
and D (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It creates and
initializes a mutable binding in the associated Object Environment Record. If a binding already exists, it is reused and
assumed to be initialized. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let ObjRec be envRec.⁠[[ObjectRecord]].

2. Let globalObject be ObjRec.⁠[[BindingObject]].
3. Let hasProperty be ? HasOwnProperty(globalObject, N).
4. Let extensible be ? IsExtensible(globalObject).
5. If hasProperty is false and extensible is true, then
a. Perform ? [Link](N, D).
b. Perform ? [Link](N, undefined).
6. Return UNUSED.

[Link].17 CreateGlobalFunctionBinding ( envRec, N, V, D )

The abstract operation CreateGlobalFunctionBinding takes arguments envRec (a Global Environment Record), N (a
String), V (an ECMAScript language value), and D (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing
UNUSED or a throw completion. It creates and initializes a mutable binding in the associated Object Environment
Record. If a binding already exists, it is replaced. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let ObjRec be envRec.⁠[[ObjectRecord]].

2. Let globalObject be ObjRec.⁠[[BindingObject]].
3. Let existingProp be ? globalObject.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](N).
4. If existingProp is undefined or existingProp.⁠[[Configurable]] is true, then
a. Let desc be the PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: V, ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: true, ⁠[[Configurable]]: D }.
5. Else,
a. Let desc be the PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: V }.
6. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(globalObject, N, desc).
7. Perform ? Set(globalObject, N, V, false).
8. Return UNUSED.

NOTE Global function declarations are always represented as own properties of the global object. If possible, an
existing own property is reconfigured to have a standard set of attribute values. Step 7 is equivalent to what
calling the InitializeBinding concrete method would do and if globalObject is a Proxy will produce the same
sequence of Proxy trap calls.

[Link] Module Environment Records

A Module Environment Record is a Declarative Environment Record that is used to represent the outer scope of an
ECMAScript Module. In additional to normal mutable and immutable bindings, Module Environment Records also
provide immutable import bindings which are bindings that provide indirect access to a target binding that exists in an-
other Environment Record.

Module Environment Records support all of the Declarative Environment Record methods listed in Table 16 and share
the same specifications for all of those methods except for GetBindingValue, DeleteBinding, HasThisBinding and
GetThisBinding. In addition, Module Environment Records support the methods listed in Table 22:

Table 22: Additional Methods of Module Environment Records

Method Purpose
GetThisBinding() Return the value of this Environment Record's this binding.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].1 GetBindingValue ( N, S )

The GetBindingValue concrete method of a Module Environment Record envRec takes arguments N (a String) and S (a
Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It re-
turns the value of its bound identifier whose name is N. However, if the binding is an indirect binding the value of the tar-
get binding is returned. If the binding exists but is uninitialized a ReferenceError is thrown. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Assert: S is true.
2. Assert: envRec has a binding for N.
3. If the binding for N is an indirect binding, then
a. Let M and N2 be the indirection values provided when this binding for N was created.
b. Let targetEnv be M.⁠[[Environment]].
c. If targetEnv is EMPTY, throw a ReferenceError exception.
d. Return ? [Link](N2, true).
4. If the binding for N in envRec is an uninitialized binding, throw a ReferenceError exception.
5. Return the value currently bound to N in envRec.

NOTE S will always be true because a Module is always strict mode code.

[Link].2 DeleteBinding ( N )

The DeleteBinding concrete method of a Module Environment Record is never used within this specification.

NOTE Module Environment Records are only used within strict code and an early error rule prevents the delete
operator, in strict code, from being applied to a Reference Record that would resolve to a Module
Environment Record binding. See [Link].

[Link].3 HasThisBinding ( )

The HasThisBinding concrete method of a Module Environment Record envRec takes no arguments and returns true. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Return true.

NOTE Module Environment Records always provide a this binding.

[Link].4 GetThisBinding ( )

The GetThisBinding concrete method of a Module Environment Record envRec takes no arguments and returns a nor-
mal completion containing undefined. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return undefined.

[Link].5 CreateImportBinding ( envRec, N, M, N2 )

The abstract operation CreateImportBinding takes arguments envRec (a Module Environment Record), N (a String), M
(a Module Record), and N2 (a String) and returns UNUSED. It creates a new initialized immutable indirect binding for the
name N. A binding must not already exist in envRec for N. N2 is the name of a binding that exists in M's Module
Environment Record. Accesses to the value of the new binding will indirectly access the bound value of the target bind-
ing. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: envRec does not already have a binding for N.

2. Assert: When M.⁠[[Environment]] is instantiated, it will have a direct binding for N2.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Create an immutable indirect binding in envRec for N that references M and N2 as its target binding and record that
the binding is initialized.
4. Return UNUSED.

9.1.2 Environment Record Operations

The following abstract operations are used in this specification to operate upon Environment Records:

[Link] GetIdentifierReference ( env, name, strict )

The abstract operation GetIdentifierReference takes arguments env (an Environment Record or null), name (a String),
and strict (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing a Reference Record or a throw completion. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. If env is null, then

a. Return the Reference Record { ⁠[[Base]]: UNRESOLVABLE, ⁠[[ReferencedName]]: name, ⁠[[Strict]]: strict,
⁠[[ThisValue]]: EMPTY }.
2. Let exists be ? [Link](name).
3. If exists is true, then
a. Return the Reference Record { ⁠[[Base]]: env, ⁠[[ReferencedName]]: name, ⁠[[Strict]]: strict, ⁠[[ThisValue]]: EMPTY }.
4. Else,
a. Let outer be env.⁠[[OuterEnv]].
b. Return ? GetIdentifierReference(outer, name, strict).

[Link] NewDeclarativeEnvironment ( E )

The abstract operation NewDeclarativeEnvironment takes argument E (an Environment Record or null) and returns a
Declarative Environment Record. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let env be a new Declarative Environment Record containing no bindings.

2. Set env.⁠[[OuterEnv]] to E.
3. Return env.

[Link] NewObjectEnvironment ( O, W, E )

The abstract operation NewObjectEnvironment takes arguments O (an Object), W (a Boolean), and E (an Environment
Record or null) and returns an Object Environment Record. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let env be a new Object Environment Record.

2. Set env.⁠[[BindingObject]] to O.
3. Set env.⁠[[IsWithEnvironment]] to W.
4. Set env.⁠[[OuterEnv]] to E.
5. Return env.

[Link] NewFunctionEnvironment ( F, newTarget )

The abstract operation NewFunctionEnvironment takes arguments F (an ECMAScript function object) and newTarget
(an Object or undefined) and returns a Function Environment Record. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let env be a new Function Environment Record containing no bindings.

2. Set env.⁠[[FunctionObject]] to F.
3. If F.⁠[[ThisMode]] is LEXICAL, set env.⁠[[ThisBindingStatus]] to LEXICAL.
4. Else, set env.⁠[[ThisBindingStatus]] to UNINITIALIZED.
5. Set env.⁠[[NewTarget]] to newTarget.
6. Set env.⁠[[OuterEnv]] to F.⁠[[Environment]].
7. Return env.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] NewGlobalEnvironment ( G, thisValue )

The abstract operation NewGlobalEnvironment takes arguments G (an Object) and thisValue (an Object) and returns a
Global Environment Record. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let objRec be NewObjectEnvironment(G, false, null).

2. Let dclRec be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(null).
3. Let env be a new Global Environment Record.
4. Set env.⁠[[ObjectRecord]] to objRec.
5. Set env.⁠[[GlobalThisValue]] to thisValue.
6. Set env.⁠[[DeclarativeRecord]] to dclRec.
7. Set env.⁠[[OuterEnv]] to null.
8. Return env.

[Link] NewModuleEnvironment ( E )

The abstract operation NewModuleEnvironment takes argument E (an Environment Record) and returns a Module
Environment Record. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let env be a new Module Environment Record containing no bindings.

2. Set env.⁠[[OuterEnv]] to E.
3. Return env.

9.2 PrivateEnvironment Records

A PrivateEnvironment Record is a specification mechanism used to track Private Names based upon the lexical nesting
structure of ClassDeclarations and ClassExpressions in ECMAScript code. They are similar to, but distinct from,
Environment Records. Each PrivateEnvironment Record is associated with a ClassDeclaration or ClassExpression.
Each time such a class is evaluated, a new PrivateEnvironment Record is created to record the Private Names declared
by that class.

Each PrivateEnvironment Record has the fields defined in Table 23.

Table 23: PrivateEnvironment Record Fields

Field Name Value Type Meaning
⁠[[OuterPrivateEnvironment]] a PrivateEnvironment The PrivateEnvironment Record of the nearest containing
Record or null class. null if the class with which this PrivateEnvironment
Record is associated is not contained in any other class.
⁠[[Names]] a List of Private Names The Private Names declared by this class.

9.2.1 PrivateEnvironment Record Operations

The following abstract operations are used in this specification to operate upon PrivateEnvironment Records:

[Link] NewPrivateEnvironment ( outerPrivateEnv )

The abstract operation NewPrivateEnvironment takes argument outerPrivateEnv (a PrivateEnvironment Record or null)
and returns a PrivateEnvironment Record. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let names be a new empty List.

2. Return the PrivateEnvironment Record { ⁠[[OuterPrivateEnvironment]]: outerPrivateEnv, ⁠[[Names]]: names }.

[Link] ResolvePrivateIdentifier ( privateEnv, identifier )

The abstract operation ResolvePrivateIdentifier takes arguments privateEnv (a PrivateEnvironment Record) and identi-

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

fier (a String) and returns a Private Name. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let names be privateEnv.⁠[[Names]].

2. For each Private Name pn of names, do
a. If pn.⁠[[Description]] is identifier, then
i. Return pn.
3. Let outerPrivateEnv be privateEnv.⁠[[OuterPrivateEnvironment]].
4. Assert: outerPrivateEnv is not null.
5. Return ResolvePrivateIdentifier(outerPrivateEnv, identifier).

9.3 Realms

Before it is evaluated, all ECMAScript code must be associated with a realm. Conceptually, a realm consists of a set of
intrinsic objects, an ECMAScript global environment, all of the ECMAScript code that is loaded within the scope of that
global environment, and other associated state and resources.

A realm is represented in this specification as a Realm Record with the fields specified in Table 24:

Table 24: Realm Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[AgentSignifier]] an agent signifier The agent that owns this realm
⁠[[Intrinsics]] a Record whose field names The intrinsic values used by code associated with this realm
are intrinsic keys and whose
values are objects
⁠[[GlobalObject]] an Object The global object for this realm
⁠[[GlobalEnv]] a Global Environment Record The global environment for this realm
⁠[[TemplateMap]] a List of Records with fields
⁠[[Site]] (a TemplateLiteral Template objects are canonicalized separately for each realm
Parse Node) and ⁠[[Array]] (an using its Realm Record's ⁠[[TemplateMap]]. Each ⁠[[Site]] value is
Array) a Parse Node that is a TemplateLiteral. The associated ⁠[[Array]]
value is the corresponding template object that is passed to a
tag function.

NOTE 1 Once a Parse Node becomes unreachable, the

corresponding ⁠[[Array]] is also unreachable, and it
would be unobservable if an implementation
removed the pair from the ⁠[[TemplateMap]] list.

⁠[[LoadedModules]] a List of
LoadedModuleRequest A map from the specifier strings imported by this realm to the
Records resolved Module Record. The list does not contain two different
Records r1 and r2 such that ModuleRequestsEqual(r1, r2)
is true.

NOTE 2 As mentioned in HostLoadImportedModule

([Link] Note 1), ⁠[[LoadedModules]] in Realm
Records is only used when running an import()
expression in a context where there is no active
script or module.

⁠[[HostDefined]] anything (default value is Field reserved for use by hosts that need to associate additional
undefined) information with a Realm Record.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

9.3.1 InitializeHostDefinedRealm ( )

The abstract operation InitializeHostDefinedRealm takes no arguments and returns either a normal completion contain-
ing UNUSED or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let realm be a new Realm Record.

2. Perform CreateIntrinsics(realm).
3. Set realm.⁠[[AgentSignifier]] to AgentSignifier().
4. Set realm.⁠[[TemplateMap]] to a new empty List.
5. Let newContext be a new execution context.
6. Set the Function of newContext to null.
7. Set the Realm of newContext to realm.
8. Set the ScriptOrModule of newContext to null.
9. Push newContext onto the execution context stack; newContext is now the running execution context.
10. If the host requires use of an exotic object to serve as realm's global object, then
a. Let global be such an object created in a host-defined manner.
11. Else,
a. Let global be OrdinaryObjectCreate(realm.⁠[[Intrinsics]].[[%[Link]%]]).
12. If the host requires that the this binding in realm's global scope return an object other than the global object, then
a. Let thisValue be such an object created in a host-defined manner.
13. Else,
a. Let thisValue be global.
14. Set realm.⁠[[GlobalObject]] to global.
15. Set realm.⁠[[GlobalEnv]] to NewGlobalEnvironment(global, thisValue).
16. Perform ? SetDefaultGlobalBindings(realm).
17. Create any host-defined global object properties on global.
18. Return UNUSED.

9.3.2 CreateIntrinsics ( realmRec )

The abstract operation CreateIntrinsics takes argument realmRec (a Realm Record) and returns UNUSED. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Set realmRec.⁠[[Intrinsics]] to a new Record.

2. Set fields of realmRec.⁠[[Intrinsics]] with the values listed in Table 6. The field names are the names listed in column
one of the table. The value of each field is a new object value fully and recursively populated with property values as
defined by the specification of each object in clauses 19 through 28. All object property values are newly created
object values. All values that are built-in function objects are created by performing CreateBuiltinFunction(steps,
length, name, slots, realmRec, prototype) where steps is the definition of that function provided by this specification,
name is the initial value of the function's "name" property, length is the initial value of the function's "length"
property, slots is a list of the names, if any, of the function's specified internal slots, and prototype is the specified
value of the function's ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot. The creation of the intrinsics and their properties must be ordered to
avoid any dependencies upon objects that have not yet been created.
3. Perform AddRestrictedFunctionProperties(realmRec.⁠[[Intrinsics]].[[%[Link]%]], realmRec).
4. Return UNUSED.

9.3.3 SetDefaultGlobalBindings ( realmRec )

The abstract operation SetDefaultGlobalBindings takes argument realmRec (a Realm Record) and returns either a nor-
mal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let global be realmRec.⁠[[GlobalObject]].

2. For each property of the Global Object specified in clause 19, do
a. Let name be the String value of the property name.
b. Let desc be the fully populated data Property Descriptor for the property, containing the specified attributes for
the property. For properties listed in 19.2, 19.3, or 19.4 the value of the ⁠[[Value]] attribute is the corresponding
intrinsic object from realmRec.
c. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(global, name, desc).
3. Return UNUSED.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

9.4 Execution Contexts

An execution context is a specification device that is used to track the runtime evaluation of code by an ECMAScript im-
plementation. At any point in time, there is at most one execution context per agent that is actually executing code. This
is known as the agent's running execution context. All references to the running execution context in this specification
denote the running execution context of the surrounding agent.

The execution context stack is used to track execution contexts. The running execution context is always the top ele-
ment of this stack. A new execution context is created whenever control is transferred from the executable code associ-
ated with the currently running execution context to executable code that is not associated with that execution context.
The newly created execution context is pushed onto the stack and becomes the running execution context.

An execution context contains whatever implementation specific state is necessary to track the execution progress of its
associated code. Each execution context has at least the state components listed in Table 25.

Table 25: State Components for All Execution Contexts

Component Purpose
code evaluation Any state needed to perform, suspend, and resume evaluation of the code associated with this
state execution context.
Function If this execution context is evaluating the code of a function object, then the value of this
component is that function object. If the context is evaluating the code of a Script or Module, the
value is null.
Realm The Realm Record from which associated code accesses ECMAScript resources.
ScriptOrModule The Module Record or Script Record from which associated code originates. If there is no
originating script or module, as is the case for the original execution context created in
InitializeHostDefinedRealm, the value is null.

Evaluation of code by the running execution context may be suspended at various points defined within this specifica-
tion. Once the running execution context has been suspended a different execution context may become the running ex-
ecution context and commence evaluating its code. At some later time a suspended execution context may again be-
come the running execution context and continue evaluating its code at the point where it had previously been suspen-
ded. Transition of the running execution context status among execution contexts usually occurs in stack-like last-in/first-
out manner. However, some ECMAScript features require non-LIFO transitions of the running execution context.

The value of the Realm component of the running execution context is also called the current Realm Record. The value
of the Function component of the running execution context is also called the active function object.

ECMAScript code execution contexts have the additional state components listed in Table 26.

Table 26: Additional State Components for ECMAScript Code Execution Contexts
Component Purpose
LexicalEnvironment Identifies the Environment Record used to resolve identifier references made by code within
this execution context.
VariableEnvironment Identifies the Environment Record that holds bindings created by VariableStatements within this
execution context.
PrivateEnvironment Identifies the PrivateEnvironment Record that holds Private Names created by ClassElements
in the nearest containing class. null if there is no containing class.

The LexicalEnvironment and VariableEnvironment components of an execution context are always

Environment Records.

Execution contexts representing the evaluation of Generators have the additional state components listed in Table 27.

Table 27: Additional State Components for Generator Execution Contexts

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Component Purpose
Generator The Generator that this execution context is evaluating.

In most situations only the running execution context (the top of the execution context stack) is directly manipulated by
algorithms within this specification. Hence when the terms “LexicalEnvironment”, and “VariableEnvironment” are used
without qualification they are in reference to those components of the running execution context.

An execution context is purely a specification mechanism and need not correspond to any particular artefact of an
ECMAScript implementation. It is impossible for ECMAScript code to directly access or observe an execution context.

9.4.1 GetActiveScriptOrModule ( )

The abstract operation GetActiveScriptOrModule takes no arguments and returns a Script Record, a Module Record, or
null. It is used to determine the running script or module, based on the running execution context. It performs the follow-
ing steps when called:

1. If the execution context stack is empty, return null.

2. Let ec be the topmost execution context on the execution context stack whose ScriptOrModule component is not
null.
3. If no such execution context exists, return null; otherwise return ec's ScriptOrModule.

9.4.2 ResolveBinding ( name [ , env ] )

The abstract operation ResolveBinding takes argument name (a String) and optional argument env (an Environment
Record or undefined) and returns either a normal completion containing a Reference Record or a throw completion. It
is used to determine the binding of name. env can be used to explicitly provide the Environment Record that is to be
searched for the binding. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If env is not present or env is undefined, then

a. Set env to the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
2. Assert: env is an Environment Record.
3. Let strict be IsStrict(the syntactic production that is being evaluated).
4. Return ? GetIdentifierReference(env, name, strict).

NOTE The result of ResolveBinding is always a Reference Record whose ⁠[[ReferencedName]] field is name.

9.4.3 GetThisEnvironment ( )

The abstract operation GetThisEnvironment takes no arguments and returns an Environment Record. It finds
the Environment Record that currently supplies the binding of the keyword this. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let env be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.

2. Repeat,
a. Let exists be [Link]().
b. If exists is true, return env.
c. Let outer be env.⁠[[OuterEnv]].
d. Assert: outer is not null.
e. Set env to outer.

NOTE The loop in step 2 will always terminate because the list of environments always ends with the global
environment which has a this binding.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

9.4.4 ResolveThisBinding ( )

The abstract operation ResolveThisBinding takes no arguments and returns either a normal completion containing an
ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It determines the binding of the keyword this using the
LexicalEnvironment of the running execution context. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let envRec be GetThisEnvironment().

2. Return ? [Link]().

9.4.5 GetNewTarget ( )

The abstract operation GetNewTarget takes no arguments and returns an Object or undefined. It determines the
NewTarget value using the LexicalEnvironment of the running execution context. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let envRec be GetThisEnvironment().

2. Assert: envRec has a ⁠[[NewTarget]] field.
3. Return envRec.⁠[[NewTarget]].

9.4.6 GetGlobalObject ( )

The abstract operation GetGlobalObject takes no arguments and returns an Object. It returns the global object used by
the currently running execution context. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let currentRealm be the current Realm Record.

2. Return currentRealm.⁠[[GlobalObject]].

9.5 Jobs and Host Operations to Enqueue Jobs

A Job is an Abstract Closure with no parameters that initiates an ECMAScript computation when no other ECMAScript
computation is currently in progress.

Jobs are scheduled for execution by ECMAScript host environments in a particular agent. This specification describes
the host hooks HostEnqueueGenericJob, HostEnqueueFinalizationRegistryCleanupJob, HostEnqueuePromiseJob, and
HostEnqueueTimeoutJob to schedule jobs. The host hooks in this specification are organized by the additional con-
straints imposed on the scheduling of jobs. Hosts may define additional abstract operations which schedule jobs. Such
operations accept a Job Abstract Closure and a realm (a Realm Record or null) as parameters. If a Realm Record is
provided, these operations schedule the job to be performed at some future time in the provided realm, in the agent that
owns the realm. If null is provided instead for the realm, then the job does not evaluate ECMAScript code. Their imple-
mentations must conform to the following requirements:

At some future point in time, when there is no running context in the agent for which the job is scheduled and that
agent's execution context stack is empty, the implementation must:
1. Perform any host-defined preparation steps.
2. Invoke the Job Abstract Closure.
3. Perform any host-defined cleanup steps, after which the execution context stack must be empty.
Only one Job may be actively undergoing evaluation at any point in time in an agent.
Once evaluation of a Job starts, it must run to completion before evaluation of any other Job starts in an agent.
The Abstract Closure must return a normal completion, implementing its own handling of errors.

NOTE 1 Host environments are not required to treat Jobs uniformly with respect to scheduling. For example, web
browsers and [Link] treat Promise-handling Jobs as a higher priority than other work; future features may
add Jobs that are not treated at such a high priority.

At any particular time, scriptOrModule (a Script Record, a Module Record, or null) is the active script or module if all of
the following conditions are true:

GetActiveScriptOrModule() is scriptOrModule.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

If scriptOrModule is a Script Record or Module Record, let ec be the topmost execution context on the execution
context stack whose ScriptOrModule component is scriptOrModule. The Realm component of ec is
scriptOrModule.⁠[[Realm]].

At any particular time, an execution is prepared to evaluate ECMAScript code if all of the following conditions are true:

The execution context stack is not empty.

The Realm component of the topmost execution context on the execution context stack is a Realm Record.

NOTE 2 Host environments may prepare an execution to evaluate code by pushing execution contexts onto the
execution context stack. The specific steps are implementation-defined.

The specific choice of Realm is up to the host environment. This initial execution context and Realm is only
in use before any callback function is invoked. When a callback function related to a Job, like a Promise
handler, is invoked, the invocation pushes its own execution context and Realm.

Particular kinds of Jobs have additional conformance requirements.

9.5.1 JobCallback Records

A JobCallback Record is a Record value used to store a function object and a host-defined value. Function objects
that are invoked via a Job enqueued by the host may have additional host-defined context. To propagate the state,
Job Abstract Closures should not capture and call function objects directly. Instead, use HostMakeJobCallback
and HostCallJobCallback.

NOTE The WHATWG HTML specification ([Link] for example, uses the host-defined value
to propagate the incumbent settings object for Promise callbacks.

JobCallback Records have the fields listed in Table 28.

Table 28: JobCallback Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[Callback]] a function object The function to invoke when the Job is invoked.
⁠[[HostDefined]] anything (default value is EMPTY) Field reserved for use by hosts.

9.5.2 HostMakeJobCallback ( callback )

The host-defined abstract operation HostMakeJobCallback takes argument callback (a function object) and returns a
JobCallback Record.

An implementation of HostMakeJobCallback must conform to the following requirements:

It must return a JobCallback Record whose ⁠[[Callback]] field is callback.

The default implementation of HostMakeJobCallback performs the following steps when called:

1. Return the JobCallback Record { ⁠[[Callback]]: callback, ⁠[[HostDefined]]: EMPTY }.

ECMAScript hosts that are not web browsers must use the default implementation of HostMakeJobCallback.

NOTE This is called at the time that the callback is passed to the function that is responsible for its being eventually
scheduled and run. For example, [Link](thenAction) calls MakeJobCallback on thenAction
at the time of invoking [Link], not at the time of scheduling the reaction Job.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

9.5.3 HostCallJobCallback ( jobCallback, V, argumentsList )

The host-defined abstract operation HostCallJobCallback takes arguments jobCallback (a JobCallback Record), V (an
ECMAScript language value), and argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns either a normal
completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion.

An implementation of HostCallJobCallback must conform to the following requirements:

It must perform and return the result of Call(jobCallback.⁠[[Callback]], V, argumentsList).

NOTE This requirement means that hosts cannot change the ⁠[[Call]] behaviour of function objects defined in
this specification.

The default implementation of HostCallJobCallback performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsCallable(jobCallback.⁠[[Callback]]) is true.

2. Return ? Call(jobCallback.⁠[[Callback]], V, argumentsList).

ECMAScript hosts that are not web browsers must use the default implementation of HostCallJobCallback.

9.5.4 HostEnqueueGenericJob ( job, realm )

The host-defined abstract operation HostEnqueueGenericJob takes arguments job (a Job Abstract Closure) and realm
(a Realm Record) and returns UNUSED. It schedules job in the realm realm in the agent signified by
realm.⁠[[AgentSignifier]] to be performed at some future time. The Abstract Closures used with this algorithm are inten-
ded to be scheduled without additional constraints, such as priority and ordering.

An implementation of HostEnqueueGenericJob must conform to the requirements in 9.5.

9.5.5 HostEnqueuePromiseJob ( job, realm )

The host-defined abstract operation HostEnqueuePromiseJob takes arguments job (a Job Abstract Closure) and realm
(a Realm Record or null) and returns UNUSED. It schedules job to be performed at some future time. The Abstract
Closures used with this algorithm are intended to be related to the handling of Promises, or otherwise, to be scheduled
with equal priority to Promise handling operations.

An implementation of HostEnqueuePromiseJob must conform to the requirements in 9.5 as well as the following:

If realm is not null, each time job is invoked the implementation must perform implementation-defined steps such
that execution is prepared to evaluate ECMAScript code at the time of job's invocation.
Let scriptOrModule be GetActiveScriptOrModule() at the time HostEnqueuePromiseJob is invoked. If realm is not
null, each time job is invoked the implementation must perform implementation-defined steps such that
scriptOrModule is the active script or module at the time of job's invocation.
Jobs must run in the same order as the HostEnqueuePromiseJob invocations that scheduled them.

NOTE The realm for Jobs returned by NewPromiseResolveThenableJob is usually the result of calling
GetFunctionRealm on the then function object. The realm for Jobs returned by NewPromiseReactionJob is
usually the result of calling GetFunctionRealm on the handler if the handler is not undefined. If the handler
is undefined, realm is null. For both kinds of Jobs, when GetFunctionRealm completes abnormally (i.e.
called on a revoked Proxy), realm is the current Realm Record at the time of the GetFunctionRealm call.
When the realm is null, no user ECMAScript code will be evaluated and no new ECMAScript objects (e.g.
Error objects) will be created. The WHATWG HTML specification ([Link] for
example, uses realm to check for the ability to run script and for the entry concept.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

9.5.6 HostEnqueueTimeoutJob ( timeoutJob, realm, milliseconds )

The host-defined abstract operation HostEnqueueTimeoutJob takes arguments timeoutJob (a Job Abstract Closure),
realm (a Realm Record), and milliseconds (a non-negative finite Number) and returns UNUSED. It schedules
timeoutJob in the realm realm in the agent signified by realm.⁠[[AgentSignifier]] to be performed after at least
milliseconds milliseconds.

An implementation of HostEnqueueTimeoutJob must conform to the requirements in 9.5.

9.6 Agents

An agent comprises a set of ECMAScript execution contexts, an execution context stack, a running execution context,
an Agent Record, and an executing thread. Except for the executing thread, the constituents of an agent belong exclus-
ively to that agent.

An agent's executing thread executes algorithmic steps on the agent's execution contexts independently of other
agents, except that an executing thread may be used as the executing thread by multiple agents, provided none of the
agents sharing the thread have an Agent Record whose ⁠[[CanBlock]] field is true.

NOTE 1 Some web browsers share a single executing thread across multiple unrelated tabs of a browser window,
for example.

While an agent's executing thread is executing algorithmic steps, the agent is the surrounding agent for those steps.
The steps use the surrounding agent to access the specification-level execution objects held within the agent: the run-
ning execution context, the execution context stack, and the Agent Record's fields.

An agent signifier is a globally-unique opaque value used to identify an Agent.

Table 29: Agent Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[LittleEndian]] a Boolean The default value computed for the isLittleEndian parameter when it
is needed by the algorithms GetValueFromBuffer and
SetValueInBuffer. The choice is implementation-defined and should
be the alternative that is most efficient for the implementation. Once
the value has been observed it cannot change.
⁠[[CanBlock]] a Boolean Determines whether the agent can block or not.
⁠[[Signifier]] an agent Uniquely identifies the agent within its agent cluster.
signifier
⁠[[IsLockFree1]] a Boolean true if atomic operations on one-byte values are lock-free, false
otherwise.
⁠[[IsLockFree2]] a Boolean true if atomic operations on two-byte values are lock-free, false
otherwise.
⁠[[IsLockFree8]] a Boolean true if atomic operations on eight-byte values are lock-free, false
otherwise.
⁠[[CandidateExecution]] a candidate See the memory model.
execution
Record
⁠[[KeptAlive]] a List of Initially a new empty List, representing the list of objects and/or
either symbols to be kept alive until the end of the current Job
Objects or
Symbols

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Field Name Value Meaning

⁠[[ModuleAsyncEvaluationCount]] an integer Initially 0, used to assign unique incrementing values to the
⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] field of modules that are asynchronous or
have asynchronous dependencies.

Once the values of ⁠[[Signifier]], ⁠[[IsLockFree1]], and ⁠[[IsLockFree2]] have been observed by any agent in the agent
cluster they cannot change.

NOTE 2 The values of ⁠[[IsLockFree1]] and ⁠[[IsLockFree2]] are not necessarily determined by the hardware, but may
also reflect implementation choices that can vary over time and between ECMAScript implementations.

There is no ⁠[[IsLockFree4]] field: 4-byte atomic operations are always lock-free.

In practice, if an atomic operation is implemented with any type of lock the operation is not lock-free. Lock-
free does not imply wait-free: there is no upper bound on how many machine steps may be required to
complete a lock-free atomic operation.

That an atomic access of size n is lock-free does not imply anything about the (perceived) atomicity of non-
atomic accesses of size n, specifically, non-atomic accesses may still be performed as a sequence of
several separate memory accesses. See ReadSharedMemory and WriteSharedMemory for details.

NOTE 3 An agent is a specification mechanism and need not correspond to any particular artefact of an
ECMAScript implementation.

9.6.1 AgentSignifier ( )

The abstract operation AgentSignifier takes no arguments and returns an agent signifier. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let AR be the Agent Record of the surrounding agent.

2. Return AR.⁠[[Signifier]].

9.6.2 AgentCanSuspend ( )

The abstract operation AgentCanSuspend takes no arguments and returns a Boolean. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let AR be the Agent Record of the surrounding agent.

2. Return AR.⁠[[CanBlock]].

NOTE In some environments it may not be reasonable for a given agent to suspend. For example, in a web
browser environment, it may be reasonable to disallow suspending a document's main event handling
thread, while still allowing workers' event handling threads to suspend.

9.6.3 IncrementModuleAsyncEvaluationCount ( )

The abstract operation IncrementModuleAsyncEvaluationCount takes no arguments and returns an integer. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Let AR be the Agent Record of the surrounding agent.

2. Let count be AR.⁠[[ModuleAsyncEvaluationCount]].
3. Set AR.⁠[[ModuleAsyncEvaluationCount]] to count + 1.
4. Return count.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE This value is only used to keep track of the relative evaluation order between pending modules. An
implementation may unobservably reset ⁠[[ModuleAsyncEvaluationCount]] to 0 whenever there are no
pending modules.

9.7 Agent Clusters

An agent cluster is a maximal set of agents that can communicate by operating on shared memory.

NOTE 1 Programs within different agents may share memory by unspecified means. At a minimum, the backing
memory for SharedArrayBuffers can be shared among the agents in the cluster.

There may be agents that can communicate by message passing that cannot share memory; they are never
in the same agent cluster.

Every agent belongs to exactly one agent cluster.

NOTE 2 The agents in a cluster need not all be alive at some particular point in time. If agent A creates another
agent B, after which A terminates and B creates agent C, the three agents are in the same cluster if A could
share some memory with B and B could share some memory with C.

All agents within a cluster must have the same value for the ⁠[[LittleEndian]] field in their respective Agent Records.

NOTE 3 If different agents within an agent cluster have different values of ⁠[[LittleEndian]] it becomes hard to use
shared memory for multi-byte data.

All agents within a cluster must have the same values for the ⁠[[IsLockFree1]] field in their respective Agent Records;
similarly for the ⁠[[IsLockFree2]] field.

All agents within a cluster must have different values for the ⁠[[Signifier]] field in their respective Agent Records.

An embedding may deactivate (stop forward progress) or activate (resume forward progress) an agent without the
agent's knowledge or cooperation. If the embedding does so, it must not leave some agents in the cluster active while
other agents in the cluster are deactivated indefinitely.

NOTE 4 The purpose of the preceding restriction is to avoid a situation where an agent deadlocks or starves because
another agent has been deactivated. For example, if an HTML shared worker that has a lifetime independent
of documents in any windows were allowed to share memory with the dedicated worker of such an
independent document, and the document and its dedicated worker were to be deactivated while the
dedicated worker holds a lock (say, the document is pushed into its window's history), and the shared worker
then tries to acquire the lock, then the shared worker will be blocked until the dedicated worker is activated
again, if ever. Meanwhile other workers trying to access the shared worker from other windows will starve.

The implication of the restriction is that it will not be possible to share memory between agents that don't
belong to the same suspend/wake collective within the embedding.

An embedding may terminate an agent without any of the agent's cluster's other agents' prior knowledge or cooperation.
If an agent is terminated not by programmatic action of its own or of another agent in the cluster but by forces external
to the cluster, then the embedding must choose one of two strategies: Either terminate all the agents in the cluster, or
provide reliable APIs that allow the agents in the cluster to coordinate so that at least one remaining member of the
cluster will be able to detect the termination, with the termination data containing enough information to identify the
agent that was terminated.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 5 Examples of that type of termination are: operating systems or users terminating agents that are running in
separate processes; the embedding itself terminating an agent that is running in-process with the other
agents when per-agent resource accounting indicates that the agent is runaway.

Each of the following specification values, and values transitively reachable from them, belong to exactly one
agent cluster.

candidate execution Record

Shared Data Block
WaiterList Record

Prior to any evaluation of any ECMAScript code by any agent in a cluster, the ⁠[[CandidateExecution]] field of the Agent
Record for all agents in the cluster is set to the initial candidate execution. The initial candidate execution is an empty
candidate execution whose ⁠[[EventsRecords]] field is a List containing, for each agent, an Agent Events Record whose
[[AgentSignifier]] field is that agent's agent signifier, and whose ⁠[[EventList]] and ⁠[[AgentSynchronizesWith]] fields are
empty Lists.

NOTE 6 All agents in an agent cluster share the same candidate execution in its Agent Record's
[[CandidateExecution]] field. The candidate execution is a specification mechanism used by the
memory model.

NOTE 7 An agent cluster is a specification mechanism and need not correspond to any particular artefact of an
ECMAScript implementation.

9.8 Forward Progress

For an agent to make forward progress is for it to perform an evaluation step according to this specification.

An agent becomes blocked when its running execution context waits synchronously and indefinitely for an external
event. Only agents whose Agent Record's ⁠[[CanBlock]] field is true can become blocked in this sense. An unblocked
agent is one that is not blocked.

Implementations must ensure that:

every unblocked agent with a dedicated executing thread eventually makes forward progress
in a set of agents that share an executing thread, one agent eventually makes forward progress
an agent does not cause another agent to become blocked except via explicit APIs that provide blocking.

NOTE This, along with the liveness guarantee in the memory model, ensures that all SEQ-CST writes eventually
become observable to all agents.

9.9 Processing Model of WeakRef and FinalizationRegistry Targets

9.9.1 Objectives

This specification does not make any guarantees that any object or symbol will be garbage collected. Objects or sym-
bols which are not live may be released after long periods of time, or never at all. For this reason, this specification uses
the term "may" when describing behaviour triggered by garbage collection.

The semantics of WeakRefs and FinalizationRegistrys is based on two operations which happen at particular points
in time:

When [Link] is called, the referent (if undefined is not returned) is kept alive so that
subsequent, synchronous accesses also return the same value. This list is reset when synchronous work is done
using the ClearKeptObjects abstract operation.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

When an object or symbol which is registered with a FinalizationRegistry becomes unreachable, a call of the
FinalizationRegistry's cleanup callback may eventually be made, after synchronous ECMAScript execution
completes. The FinalizationRegistry cleanup is performed with the CleanupFinalizationRegistry abstract operation.

Neither of these actions (ClearKeptObjects or CleanupFinalizationRegistry) may interrupt synchronous ECMAScript ex-
ecution. Because hosts may assemble longer, synchronous ECMAScript execution runs, this specification defers the
scheduling of ClearKeptObjects and CleanupFinalizationRegistry to the host environment.

Some ECMAScript implementations include garbage collector implementations which run in the background, including
when ECMAScript is idle. Letting the host environment schedule CleanupFinalizationRegistry allows it to resume
ECMAScript execution in order to run finalizer work, which may free up held values, reducing overall memory usage.

9.9.2 Liveness

For some set of objects and/or symbols S a hypothetical WeakRef-oblivious execution with respect to S is an
execution whereby the abstract operation WeakRefDeref of a WeakRef whose referent is an element of S always
returns undefined.

NOTE 1 WeakRef-obliviousness, together with liveness, capture two notions. One, that a WeakRef itself does not
keep its referent alive. Two, that cycles in liveness does not imply that a value is live. To be concrete, if
determining v's liveness depends on determining the liveness of a WeakRef referent, r, r's liveness cannot
assume v's liveness, which would be circular reasoning.

NOTE 2 WeakRef-obliviousness is defined on sets of objects or symbols instead of individual values to account for
cycles. If it were defined on individual values, then a WeakRef referent in a cycle will be considered live even
though its identity is only observed via other WeakRef referents in the cycle.

NOTE 3 Colloquially, we say that an individual object or symbol is live if every set containing it is live.

At any point during evaluation, a set of objects and/or symbols S is considered live if either of the following conditions
is met:

Any element in S is included in any agent's ⁠[[KeptAlive]] List.

There exists a valid future hypothetical WeakRef-oblivious execution with respect to S that observes the identity of
any value in S.

NOTE 4 The second condition above intends to capture the intuition that a value is live if its identity is observable via
non-WeakRef means. A value's identity may be observed by observing a strict equality comparison or
observing the value being used as key in a Map.

NOTE 5 Presence of an object or a symbol in a field, an internal slot, or a property does not imply that the value is
live. For example if the value in question is never passed back to the program, then it cannot be observed.

This is the case for keys in a WeakMap, members of a WeakSet, as well as the ⁠[[WeakRefTarget]] and
[[UnregisterToken]] fields of a FinalizationRegistry Cell record.

The above definition implies that, if a key in a WeakMap is not live, then its corresponding value is not
necessarily live either.

NOTE 6 Liveness is the lower bound for guaranteeing which WeakRefs engines must not empty. Liveness as defined
here is undecidable. In practice, engines use conservative approximations such as reachability. There is
expected to be significant implementation leeway.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

9.9.3 Execution

At any time, if a set of objects and/or symbols S is not live, an ECMAScript implementation may perform the following
steps atomically:

1. For each element value of S, do

a. For each WeakRef ref such that ref.⁠[[WeakRefTarget]] is value, do
i. Set ref.⁠[[WeakRefTarget]] to EMPTY.
b. For each FinalizationRegistry fg such that fg.⁠[[Cells]] contains a Record cell such that cell.⁠[[WeakRefTarget]] is
value, do
i. Set cell.⁠[[WeakRefTarget]] to EMPTY.
ii. Optionally, perform HostEnqueueFinalizationRegistryCleanupJob(fg).
c. For each WeakMap map such that map.⁠[[WeakMapData]] contains a Record r such that r.⁠[[Key]] is value, do
i. Set r.⁠[[Key]] to EMPTY.
ii. Set r.⁠[[Value]] to EMPTY.
d. For each WeakSet set such that set.⁠[[WeakSetData]] contains value, do
i. Replace the element of set.⁠[[WeakSetData]] whose value is value with an element whose value is EMPTY.

NOTE 1 Together with the definition of liveness, this clause prescribes optimizations that an implementation may
apply regarding WeakRefs.

It is possible to access an object without observing its identity. Optimizations such as dead variable
elimination and scalar replacement on properties of non-escaping objects whose identity is not observed are
allowed. These optimizations are thus allowed to observably empty WeakRefs that point to such objects.

On the other hand, if an object's identity is observable, and that object is in the ⁠[[WeakRefTarget]]
internal slot of a WeakRef, optimizations such as rematerialization that observably empty the WeakRef
are prohibited.

Because calling HostEnqueueFinalizationRegistryCleanupJob is optional, registered objects in a

FinalizationRegistry do not necessarily hold that FinalizationRegistry live. Implementations may omit
FinalizationRegistry callbacks for any reason, e.g., if the FinalizationRegistry itself becomes dead, or if the
application is shutting down.

NOTE 2 Implementations are not obligated to empty WeakRefs for maximal sets of non-live objects or symbols.

If an implementation chooses a non-live set S in which to empty WeakRefs, this definition requires that it
empties WeakRefs for all values in S simultaneously. In other words, it is not conformant for an
implementation to empty a WeakRef pointing to a value v without emptying out other WeakRefs that, if not
emptied, could result in an execution that observes the value of v.

9.9.4 Host Hooks

[Link] HostEnqueueFinalizationRegistryCleanupJob ( finalizationRegistry )

The host-defined abstract operation HostEnqueueFinalizationRegistryCleanupJob takes argument finalizationRegistry

(a FinalizationRegistry) and returns UNUSED.

Let cleanupJob be a new Job Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures finalizationRegistry and performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let cleanupResult be Completion(CleanupFinalizationRegistry(finalizationRegistry)).

2. If cleanupResult is an abrupt completion, perform any host-defined steps for reporting the error.
3. Return UNUSED.

An implementation of HostEnqueueFinalizationRegistryCleanupJob schedules cleanupJob to be performed at some fu-

ture time, if possible. It must also conform to the requirements in 9.5.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

9.10 ClearKeptObjects ( )

The abstract operation ClearKeptObjects takes no arguments and returns UNUSED. ECMAScript implementations are
expected to call ClearKeptObjects when a synchronous sequence of ECMAScript executions completes. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let agentRecord be the surrounding agent's Agent Record.

2. Set agentRecord.⁠[[KeptAlive]] to a new empty List.
3. Return UNUSED.

9.11 AddToKeptObjects ( value )

The abstract operation AddToKeptObjects takes argument value (an Object or a Symbol) and returns UNUSED. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Let agentRecord be the surrounding agent's Agent Record.

2. Append value to agentRecord.⁠[[KeptAlive]].
3. Return UNUSED.

NOTE When the abstract operation AddToKeptObjects is called with a target object or symbol, it adds the target to
a list that will point strongly at the target until ClearKeptObjects is called.

9.12 CleanupFinalizationRegistry ( finalizationRegistry )

The abstract operation CleanupFinalizationRegistry takes argument finalizationRegistry (a FinalizationRegistry) and re-
turns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: finalizationRegistry has ⁠[[Cells]] and ⁠[[CleanupCallback]] internal slots.

2. Let callback be finalizationRegistry.⁠[[CleanupCallback]].
3. While finalizationRegistry.⁠[[Cells]] contains a Record cell such that cell.⁠[[WeakRefTarget]] is EMPTY, an
implementation may perform the following steps:
a. Choose any such cell.
b. Remove cell from finalizationRegistry.⁠[[Cells]].
c. Perform ? HostCallJobCallback(callback, undefined, « cell.⁠[[HeldValue]] »).
4. Return UNUSED.

9.13 CanBeHeldWeakly ( v )

The abstract operation CanBeHeldWeakly takes argument v (an ECMAScript language value) and returns a Boolean. It
returns true if and only if v is suitable for use as a weak reference. Only values that are suitable for use as a weak refer-
ence may be a key of a WeakMap, an element of a WeakSet, the target of a WeakRef, or one of the targets of a
FinalizationRegistry. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If v is an Object, return true.

2. If v is a Symbol and KeyForSymbol(v) is undefined, return true.
3. Return false.

NOTE A language value without language identity can be manifested without prior reference and is unsuitable for
use as a weak reference. A Symbol value produced by [Link], unlike other Symbol values, does not
have language identity and is unsuitable for use as a weak reference. Well-known symbols are likely to
never be collected, but are nonetheless treated as suitable for use as a weak reference because they are
limited in number and therefore manageable by a variety of implementation approaches. However, any value
associated to a well-known symbol in a live WeakMap is unlikely to be collected and could “leak” memory
resources in implementations.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

10 Ordinary and Exotic Objects Behaviours

10.1 Ordinary Object Internal Methods and Internal Slots

All ordinary objects have an internal slot called ⁠[[Prototype]]. The value of this internal slot is either null or an object and
is used for implementing inheritance. Assume a property named P is missing from an ordinary object O but exists on its
[[Prototype]] object. If P refers to a data property on the ⁠[[Prototype]] object, O inherits it for get access, making it be-
have as if P was a property of O. If P refers to a writable data property on the ⁠[[Prototype]] object, set access of P on O
creates a new data property named P on O. If P refers to a non-writable data property on the ⁠[[Prototype]] object, set ac-
cess of P on O fails. If P refers to an accessor property on the ⁠[[Prototype]] object, the accessor is inherited by O for
both get access and set access.

Every ordinary object has a Boolean-valued ⁠[[Extensible]] internal slot which is used to fulfill the extensibility-related in-
ternal method invariants specified in [Link]. Namely, once the value of an object's ⁠[[Extensible]] internal slot has been
set to false, it is no longer possible to add properties to the object, to modify the value of the object's ⁠[[Prototype]] in-
ternal slot, or to subsequently change the value of ⁠[[Extensible]] to true.

In the following algorithm descriptions, assume O is an ordinary object, P is a property key value, V is any ECMAScript
language value, and Desc is a Property Descriptor record.

Each ordinary object internal method delegates to a similarly-named abstract operation. If such an abstract operation
depends on another internal method, then the internal method is invoked on O rather than calling the similarly-named
abstract operation directly. These semantics ensure that exotic objects have their overridden internal methods invoked
when ordinary object internal methods are applied to them.

10.1.1 ⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] ( )

The ⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes no arguments and returns a normal completion
containing either an Object or null. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return OrdinaryGetPrototypeOf(O).

[Link] OrdinaryGetPrototypeOf ( O )

The abstract operation OrdinaryGetPrototypeOf takes argument O (an Object) and returns an Object or null. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Return O.⁠[[Prototype]].

10.1.2 ⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]] ( V )

The ⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes argument V (an Object or null) and returns a nor-
mal completion containing a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return OrdinarySetPrototypeOf(O, V).

[Link] OrdinarySetPrototypeOf ( O, V )

The abstract operation OrdinarySetPrototypeOf takes arguments O (an Object) and V (an Object or null) and returns a
Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let current be O.⁠[[Prototype]].

2. If SameValue(V, current) is true, return true.
3. Let extensible be O.⁠[[Extensible]].
4. If extensible is false, return false.
5. Let p be V.
6. Let done be false.
7. Repeat, while done is false,

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

a. If p is null, then
i. Set done to true.
b. Else if SameValue(p, O) is true, then
i. Return false.
c. Else,
i. If p.⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] is not the ordinary object internal method defined in 10.1.1, set done to true.
ii. Else, set p to p.⁠[[Prototype]].
8. Set O.⁠[[Prototype]] to V.
9. Return true.

NOTE The loop in step 7 guarantees that there will be no cycles in any prototype chain that only includes objects
that use the ordinary object definitions for ⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] and ⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]].

10.1.3 ⁠[[IsExtensible]] ( )

The ⁠[[IsExtensible]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes no arguments and returns a normal completion con-
taining a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return OrdinaryIsExtensible(O).

[Link] OrdinaryIsExtensible ( O )

The abstract operation OrdinaryIsExtensible takes argument O (an Object) and returns a Boolean. It performs the fol-
lowing steps when called:

1. Return O.⁠[[Extensible]].

10.1.4 ⁠[[PreventExtensions]] ( )

The ⁠[[PreventExtensions]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes no arguments and returns a normal completion
containing true. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return OrdinaryPreventExtensions(O).

[Link] OrdinaryPreventExtensions ( O )

The abstract operation OrdinaryPreventExtensions takes argument O (an Object) and returns true. It performs the fol-
lowing steps when called:

1. Set O.⁠[[Extensible]] to false.

2. Return true.

10.1.5 ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] ( P )

The ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes argument P (a property key) and returns a normal
completion containing either a Property Descriptor or undefined. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return OrdinaryGetOwnProperty(O, P).

[Link] OrdinaryGetOwnProperty ( O, P )

The abstract operation OrdinaryGetOwnProperty takes arguments O (an Object) and P (a property key) and returns a
Property Descriptor or undefined. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If O does not have an own property with key P, return undefined.

2. Let D be a newly created Property Descriptor with no fields.
3. Let X be O's own property whose key is P.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4. If X is a data property, then

a. Set D.⁠[[Value]] to the value of X's ⁠[[Value]] attribute.
b. Set D.⁠[[Writable]] to the value of X's ⁠[[Writable]] attribute.
5. Else,
a. Assert: X is an accessor property.
b. Set D.⁠[[Get]] to the value of X's ⁠[[Get]] attribute.
c. Set D.⁠[[Set]] to the value of X's ⁠[[Set]] attribute.
6. Set D.⁠[[Enumerable]] to the value of X's ⁠[[Enumerable]] attribute.
7. Set D.⁠[[Configurable]] to the value of X's ⁠[[Configurable]] attribute.
8. Return D.

10.1.6 ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] ( P, Desc )

The ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes arguments P (a property key) and Desc (a
Property Descriptor) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Return ? OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(O, P, Desc).

[Link] OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty ( O, P, Desc )

The abstract operation OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property key), and Desc (a
Property Descriptor) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let current be ? O.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](P).

2. Let extensible be ? IsExtensible(O).
3. Return ValidateAndApplyPropertyDescriptor(O, P, extensible, Desc, current).

[Link] IsCompatiblePropertyDescriptor ( Extensible, Desc, Current )

The abstract operation IsCompatiblePropertyDescriptor takes arguments Extensible (a Boolean), Desc (a Property
Descriptor), and Current (a Property Descriptor or undefined) and returns a Boolean. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Return ValidateAndApplyPropertyDescriptor(undefined, "", Extensible, Desc, Current).

[Link] ValidateAndApplyPropertyDescriptor ( O, P, extensible, Desc, current )

The abstract operation ValidateAndApplyPropertyDescriptor takes arguments O (an Object or undefined), P (a property
key), extensible (a Boolean), Desc (a Property Descriptor), and current (a Property Descriptor or undefined) and re-
turns a Boolean. It returns true if and only if Desc can be applied as the property of an object with specified extensibility
and current property current while upholding invariants. When such application is possible and O is not undefined, it is
performed for the property named P (which is created if necessary). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: P is a property key.

2. If current is undefined, then
a. If extensible is false, return false.
b. If O is undefined, return true.
c. If IsAccessorDescriptor(Desc) is true, then
i. Create an own accessor property named P of object O whose ⁠[[Get]], ⁠[[Set]], ⁠[[Enumerable]], and
⁠[[Configurable]] attributes are set to the value of the corresponding field in Desc if Desc has that field, or to
the attribute's default value otherwise.
d. Else,
i. Create an own data property named P of object O whose ⁠[[Value]], ⁠[[Writable]], ⁠[[Enumerable]], and
⁠[[Configurable]] attributes are set to the value of the corresponding field in Desc if Desc has that field, or to
the attribute's default value otherwise.
e. Return true.
3. Assert: current is a fully populated Property Descriptor.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4. If Desc does not have any fields, return true.

5. If current.⁠[[Configurable]] is false, then
a. If Desc has a ⁠[[Configurable]] field and Desc.⁠[[Configurable]] is true, return false.
b. If Desc has an ⁠[[Enumerable]] field and Desc.⁠[[Enumerable]] is not current.⁠[[Enumerable]], return false.
c. If IsGenericDescriptor(Desc) is false and IsAccessorDescriptor(Desc) is not IsAccessorDescriptor(current),
return false.
d. If IsAccessorDescriptor(current) is true, then
i. If Desc has a ⁠[[Get]] field and SameValue(Desc.⁠[[Get]], current.⁠[[Get]]) is false, return false.
ii. If Desc has a ⁠[[Set]] field and SameValue(Desc.⁠[[Set]], current.⁠[[Set]]) is false, return false.
e. Else if current.⁠[[Writable]] is false, then
i. If Desc has a ⁠[[Writable]] field and Desc.⁠[[Writable]] is true, return false.
ii. NOTE: SameValue returns true for NaN values which may be distinguishable by other means. Returning
here ensures that any existing property of O remains unmodified.
iii. If Desc has a ⁠[[Value]] field, return SameValue(Desc.⁠[[Value]], current.⁠[[Value]]).
6. If O is not undefined, then
a. If IsDataDescriptor(current) is true and IsAccessorDescriptor(Desc) is true, then
i. If Desc has a ⁠[[Configurable]] field, let configurable be Desc.⁠[[Configurable]]; else let configurable be
current.⁠[[Configurable]].
ii. If Desc has a ⁠[[Enumerable]] field, let enumerable be Desc.⁠[[Enumerable]]; else let enumerable be
current.⁠[[Enumerable]].
iii. Replace the property named P of object O with an accessor property whose ⁠[[Configurable]] and
⁠[[Enumerable]] attributes are set to configurable and enumerable, respectively, and whose ⁠[[Get]] and
⁠[[Set]] attributes are set to the value of the corresponding field in Desc if Desc has that field, or to the
attribute's default value otherwise.
b. Else if IsAccessorDescriptor(current) is true and IsDataDescriptor(Desc) is true, then
i. If Desc has a ⁠[[Configurable]] field, let configurable be Desc.⁠[[Configurable]]; else let configurable be
current.⁠[[Configurable]].
ii. If Desc has a ⁠[[Enumerable]] field, let enumerable be Desc.⁠[[Enumerable]]; else let enumerable be
current.⁠[[Enumerable]].
iii. Replace the property named P of object O with a data property whose ⁠[[Configurable]] and ⁠[[Enumerable]]
attributes are set to configurable and enumerable, respectively, and whose ⁠[[Value]] and ⁠[[Writable]]
attributes are set to the value of the corresponding field in Desc if Desc has that field, or to the attribute's
default value otherwise.
c. Else,
i. For each field of Desc, set the corresponding attribute of the property named P of object O to the value of
the field.
7. Return true.

10.1.7 ⁠[[HasProperty]] ( P )

The ⁠[[HasProperty]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes argument P (a property key) and returns either a nor-
mal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? OrdinaryHasProperty(O, P).

[Link] OrdinaryHasProperty ( O, P )

The abstract operation OrdinaryHasProperty takes arguments O (an Object) and P (a property key) and returns either a
normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let hasOwn be ? O.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](P).

2. If hasOwn is not undefined, return true.
3. Let parent be ? O.⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
4. If parent is not null, then
a. Return ? parent.⁠[[HasProperty]](P).
5. Return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

10.1.8 ⁠[[Get]] ( P, Receiver )

The ⁠[[Get]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes arguments P (a property key) and Receiver (an ECMAScript
language value) and returns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw comple-
tion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? OrdinaryGet(O, P, Receiver).

[Link] OrdinaryGet ( O, P, Receiver )

The abstract operation OrdinaryGet takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property key), and Receiver (an ECMAScript
language value) and returns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw comple-
tion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let desc be ? O.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](P).

2. If desc is undefined, then
a. Let parent be ? O.⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
b. If parent is null, return undefined.
c. Return ? parent.⁠[[Get]](P, Receiver).
3. If IsDataDescriptor(desc) is true, return desc.⁠[[Value]].
4. Assert: IsAccessorDescriptor(desc) is true.
5. Let getter be desc.⁠[[Get]].
6. If getter is undefined, return undefined.
7. Return ? Call(getter, Receiver).

10.1.9 ⁠[[Set]] ( P, V, Receiver )

The ⁠[[Set]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes arguments P (a property key), V (an ECMAScript language
value), and Receiver (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a
throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? OrdinarySet(O, P, V, Receiver).

[Link] OrdinarySet ( O, P, V, Receiver )

The abstract operation OrdinarySet takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property key), V (an ECMAScript language
value), and Receiver (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a
throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let ownDesc be ? O.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](P).

2. Return ? OrdinarySetWithOwnDescriptor(O, P, V, Receiver, ownDesc).

[Link] OrdinarySetWithOwnDescriptor ( O, P, V, Receiver, ownDesc )

The abstract operation OrdinarySetWithOwnDescriptor takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property key), V (an
ECMAScript language value), Receiver (an ECMAScript language value), and ownDesc (a Property Descriptor or un-
defined) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. If ownDesc is undefined, then

a. Let parent be ? O.⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
b. If parent is not null, then
i. Return ? parent.[[Set]](P, V, Receiver).
c. Else,
i. Set ownDesc to the PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: undefined, ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: true,
⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.
2. If IsDataDescriptor(ownDesc) is true, then
a. If ownDesc.⁠[[Writable]] is false, return false.
b. If Receiver is not an Object, return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

c. Let existingDescriptor be ? Receiver.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](P).

d. If existingDescriptor is not undefined, then
i. If IsAccessorDescriptor(existingDescriptor) is true, return false.
ii. If existingDescriptor.⁠[[Writable]] is false, return false.
iii. Let valueDesc be the PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: V }.
iv. Return ? Receiver.⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]](P, valueDesc).
e. Else,
i. Assert: Receiver does not currently have a property P.
ii. Return ? CreateDataProperty(Receiver, P, V).
3. Assert: IsAccessorDescriptor(ownDesc) is true.
4. Let setter be ownDesc.⁠[[Set]].
5. If setter is undefined, return false.
6. Perform ? Call(setter, Receiver, « V »).
7. Return true.

10.1.10 ⁠[[Delete]] ( P )

The ⁠[[Delete]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes argument P (a property key) and returns either a normal
completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? OrdinaryDelete(O, P).

[Link] OrdinaryDelete ( O, P )

The abstract operation OrdinaryDelete takes arguments O (an Object) and P (a property key) and returns either a nor-
mal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let desc be ? O.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](P).

2. If desc is undefined, return true.
3. If desc.⁠[[Configurable]] is true, then
a. Remove the own property with name P from O.
b. Return true.
4. Return false.

10.1.11 ⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]] ( )

The ⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes no arguments and returns a normal completion
containing a List of property keys. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return OrdinaryOwnPropertyKeys(O).

[Link] OrdinaryOwnPropertyKeys ( O )

The abstract operation OrdinaryOwnPropertyKeys takes argument O (an Object) and returns a List of property keys. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Let keys be a new empty List.

2. For each own property key P of O such that P is an array index, in ascending numeric index order, do
a. Append P to keys.
3. For each own property key P of O such that P is a String and P is not an array index, in ascending chronological
order of property creation, do
a. Append P to keys.
4. For each own property key P of O such that P is a Symbol, in ascending chronological order of property creation, do
a. Append P to keys.
5. Return keys.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

10.1.12 OrdinaryObjectCreate ( proto [ , additionalInternalSlotsList ] )

The abstract operation OrdinaryObjectCreate takes argument proto (an Object or null) and optional argument addition-
alInternalSlotsList (a List of names of internal slots) and returns an Object. It is used to specify the runtime creation of
new ordinary objects. additionalInternalSlotsList contains the names of additional internal slots that must be defined as
part of the object, beyond ⁠[[Prototype]] and ⁠[[Extensible]]. If additionalInternalSlotsList is not provided, a new empty List
is used. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let internalSlotsList be « ⁠[[Prototype]], ⁠[[Extensible]] ».

2. If additionalInternalSlotsList is present, set internalSlotsList to the list-concatenation of internalSlotsList and
additionalInternalSlotsList.
3. Let O be MakeBasicObject(internalSlotsList).
4. Set O.⁠[[Prototype]] to proto.
5. Return O.

NOTE Although OrdinaryObjectCreate does little more than call MakeBasicObject, its use communicates the
intention to create an ordinary object, and not an exotic one. Thus, within this specification, it is not called by
any algorithm that subsequently modifies the internal methods of the object in ways that would make the
result non-ordinary. Operations that create exotic objects invoke MakeBasicObject directly.

10.1.13 OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor ( constructor, intrinsicDefaultProto [ , internalSlotsList ] )

The abstract operation OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor takes arguments constructor (a function object) and intrinsicDe-
faultProto (a String) and optional argument internalSlotsList (a List of names of internal slots) and returns either a nor-
mal completion containing an Object or a throw completion. It creates an ordinary object whose ⁠[[Prototype]] value is re-
trieved from a constructor's "prototype" property, if it exists. Otherwise the intrinsic named by intrinsicDefaultProto is
used for ⁠[[Prototype]]. internalSlotsList contains the names of additional internal slots that must be defined as part of the
object. If internalSlotsList is not provided, a new empty List is used. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: intrinsicDefaultProto is this specification's name of an intrinsic object. The corresponding object must be an
intrinsic that is intended to be used as the ⁠[[Prototype]] value of an object.
2. Let proto be ? GetPrototypeFromConstructor(constructor, intrinsicDefaultProto).
3. If internalSlotsList is present, let slotsList be internalSlotsList.
4. Else, let slotsList be a new empty List.
5. Return OrdinaryObjectCreate(proto, slotsList).

10.1.14 GetPrototypeFromConstructor ( constructor, intrinsicDefaultProto )

The abstract operation GetPrototypeFromConstructor takes arguments constructor (a function object) and intrinsicDe-
faultProto (a String) and returns either a normal completion containing an Object or a throw completion. It determines
the ⁠[[Prototype]] value that should be used to create an object corresponding to a specific constructor. The value is re-
trieved from the constructor's "prototype" property, if it exists. Otherwise the intrinsic named by intrinsicDefaultProto is
used for ⁠[[Prototype]]. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: intrinsicDefaultProto is this specification's name of an intrinsic object. The corresponding object must be an
intrinsic that is intended to be used as the ⁠[[Prototype]] value of an object.
2. Let proto be ? Get(constructor, "prototype").
3. If proto is not an Object, then
a. Let realm be ? GetFunctionRealm(constructor).
b. Set proto to realm's intrinsic object named intrinsicDefaultProto.
4. Return proto.

NOTE If constructor does not supply a ⁠[[Prototype]] value, the default value that is used is obtained from the realm
of the constructor function rather than from the running execution context.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

10.1.15 RequireInternalSlot ( O, internalSlot )

The abstract operation RequireInternalSlot takes arguments O (an ECMAScript language value) and internalSlot (an
internal slot name) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It throws an
exception unless O is an Object and has the given internal slot. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If O is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. If O does not have an internalSlot internal slot, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Return UNUSED.

10.2 ECMAScript Function Objects

ECMAScript function objects encapsulate parameterized ECMAScript code closed over a lexical environment and sup-
port the dynamic evaluation of that code. An ECMAScript function object is an ordinary object and has the same internal
slots and the same internal methods as other ordinary objects. The code of an ECMAScript function object may be
either strict mode code (11.2.2) or non-strict code. An ECMAScript function object whose code is strict mode code is
called a strict function. One whose code is not strict mode code is called a non-strict function.

In addition to ⁠[[Extensible]] and ⁠[[Prototype]], ECMAScript function objects also have the internal slots listed in Table 30.

Table 30: Internal Slots of ECMAScript Function Objects

Internal Slot Type Description
⁠[[Environment]] an Environment The Environment Record that the function was closed over.
Record Used as the outer environment when evaluating the code of the
function.
⁠[[PrivateEnvironment]] a PrivateEnvironment The PrivateEnvironment Record for Private Names that the
Record or null function was closed over. null if this function is not syntactically
contained within a class. Used as the outer PrivateEnvironment
for inner classes when evaluating the code of the function.
⁠[[FormalParameters]] a Parse Node The root parse node of the source text that defines the
function's formal parameter list.
⁠[[ECMAScriptCode]] a Parse Node The root parse node of the source text that defines the
function's body.
⁠[[ConstructorKind]] BASE or DERIVED Whether or not the function is a derived class constructor.
⁠[[Realm]] a Realm Record The realm in which the function was created and which
provides any intrinsic objects that are accessed when
evaluating the function.
⁠[[ScriptOrModule]] a Script Record or a The script or module in which the function was created.
Module Record
⁠[[ThisMode]] LEXICAL, STRICT, or Defines how this references are interpreted within the formal
GLOBAL parameters and code body of the function. LEXICAL means that
this refers to the this value of a lexically enclosing function.
STRICT means that the this value is used exactly as provided
by an invocation of the function. GLOBAL means that a this
value of undefined or null is interpreted as a reference to the
global object, and any other this value is first passed to
ToObject.
⁠[[Strict]] a Boolean true if this is a strict function, false if this is a non-strict function.
⁠[[HomeObject]] an Object If the function uses super, this is the object whose
⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] provides the object where super property
lookups begin.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Internal Slot Type Description

⁠[[SourceText]] a sequence of The source text that defines the function.
Unicode code points
⁠[[Fields]] a List of If the function is a class, this is a list of Records representing
ClassFieldDefinition the non-static fields and corresponding initializers of the class.
Records
⁠[[PrivateMethods]] a List of If the function is a class, this is a list representing the non-static
PrivateElements private methods and accessors of the class.
⁠[[ClassFieldInitializerName]] a String, a Symbol, a If the function is created as the initializer of a class field, the
Private Name, or name to use for NamedEvaluation of the field; EMPTY
EMPTY otherwise.
⁠[[IsClassConstructor]] a Boolean Indicates whether the function is a class constructor. (If true,
invoking the function's ⁠[[Call]] will immediately throw a
TypeError exception.)

All ECMAScript function objects have the ⁠[[Call]] internal method defined here. ECMAScript functions that are also con-
structors in addition have the ⁠[[Construct]] internal method.

10.2.1 ⁠[[Call]] ( thisArgument, argumentsList )

The ⁠[[Call]] internal method of an ECMAScript function object F takes arguments thisArgument (an ECMAScript
language value) and argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns either a normal completion
containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let callerContext be the running execution context.

2. Let calleeContext be PrepareForOrdinaryCall(F, undefined).
3. Assert: calleeContext is now the running execution context.
4. If F.⁠[[IsClassConstructor]] is true, then
a. Let error be a newly created TypeError object.
b. NOTE: error is created in calleeContext with F's associated Realm Record.
c. Remove calleeContext from the execution context stack and restore callerContext as the running execution
context.
d. Return ThrowCompletion(error).
5. Perform OrdinaryCallBindThis(F, calleeContext, thisArgument).
6. Let result be Completion(OrdinaryCallEvaluateBody(F, argumentsList)).
7. Remove calleeContext from the execution context stack and restore callerContext as the running execution context.
8. If result is a return completion, return result.⁠[[Value]].
9. Assert: result is a throw completion.
10. Return ? result.

NOTE When calleeContext is removed from the execution context stack in step 7 it must not be destroyed if it is
suspended and retained for later resumption by an accessible Generator.

[Link] PrepareForOrdinaryCall ( F, newTarget )

The abstract operation PrepareForOrdinaryCall takes arguments F (an ECMAScript function object) and newTarget (an
Object or undefined) and returns an execution context. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let callerContext be the running execution context.

2. Let calleeContext be a new ECMAScript code execution context.
3. Set the Function of calleeContext to F.
4. Let calleeRealm be F.⁠[[Realm]].
5. Set the Realm of calleeContext to calleeRealm.
6. Set the ScriptOrModule of calleeContext to F.⁠[[ScriptOrModule]].
7. Let localEnv be NewFunctionEnvironment(F, newTarget).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

8. Set the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext to localEnv.

9. Set the VariableEnvironment of calleeContext to localEnv.
10. Set the PrivateEnvironment of calleeContext to F.⁠[[PrivateEnvironment]].
11. If callerContext is not already suspended, suspend callerContext.
12. Push calleeContext onto the execution context stack; calleeContext is now the running execution context.
13. NOTE: Any exception objects produced after this point are associated with calleeRealm.
14. Return calleeContext.

[Link] OrdinaryCallBindThis ( F, calleeContext, thisArgument )

The abstract operation OrdinaryCallBindThis takes arguments F (an ECMAScript function object), calleeContext (an ex-
ecution context), and thisArgument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns UNUSED. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let thisMode be F.⁠[[ThisMode]].

2. If thisMode is LEXICAL, return UNUSED.
3. Let calleeRealm be F.⁠[[Realm]].
4. Let localEnv be the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext.
5. If thisMode is STRICT, then
a. Let thisValue be thisArgument.
6. Else,
a. If thisArgument is either undefined or null, then
i. Let globalEnv be calleeRealm.⁠[[GlobalEnv]].
ii. Assert: globalEnv is a Global Environment Record.
iii. Let thisValue be globalEnv.⁠[[GlobalThisValue]].
b. Else,
i. Let thisValue be ! ToObject(thisArgument).
ii. NOTE: ToObject produces wrapper objects using calleeRealm.
7. Assert: localEnv is a Function Environment Record.
8. Assert: The next step never returns an abrupt completion because localEnv.⁠[[ThisBindingStatus]] is not
INITIALIZED.
9. Perform ! BindThisValue(localEnv, thisValue).
10. Return UNUSED.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: EvaluateBody

The syntax-directed operation EvaluateBody takes arguments functionObject (an ECMAScript function object) and argu-
mentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns a return completion or a throw completion. It is defined
piecewise over the following productions:
FunctionBody : FunctionStatementList

1. Return ? EvaluateFunctionBody of FunctionBody with arguments functionObject and argumentsList.

ConciseBody : ExpressionBody

1. Return ? EvaluateConciseBody of ConciseBody with arguments functionObject and argumentsList.

GeneratorBody : FunctionBody

1. Return ? EvaluateGeneratorBody of GeneratorBody with arguments functionObject and argumentsList.

AsyncGeneratorBody : FunctionBody

1. Return ? EvaluateAsyncGeneratorBody of AsyncGeneratorBody with arguments functionObject and argumentsList.

AsyncFunctionBody : FunctionBody

1. Return ? EvaluateAsyncFunctionBody of AsyncFunctionBody with arguments functionObject and argumentsList.

AsyncConciseBody : ExpressionBody

1. Return ? EvaluateAsyncConciseBody of AsyncConciseBody with arguments functionObject and argumentsList.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Initializer :
= AssignmentExpression

1. Assert: argumentsList is empty.

2. Assert: functionObject.⁠[[ClassFieldInitializerName]] is not EMPTY.
3. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(AssignmentExpression) is true, then
a. Let value be ? NamedEvaluation of Initializer with argument functionObject.⁠[[ClassFieldInitializerName]].
4. Else,
a. Let rhs be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.
b. Let value be ? GetValue(rhs).
5. Return ReturnCompletion(value).

NOTE Even though field initializers constitute a function boundary, calling FunctionDeclarationInstantiation does not
have any observable effect and so is omitted.

ClassStaticBlockBody : ClassStaticBlockStatementList

1. Assert: argumentsList is empty.

2. Return ? EvaluateClassStaticBlockBody of ClassStaticBlockBody with argument functionObject.

[Link] OrdinaryCallEvaluateBody ( F, argumentsList )

The abstract operation OrdinaryCallEvaluateBody takes arguments F (an ECMAScript function object) and argu-
mentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns a return completion or a throw completion. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Return ? EvaluateBody of F.⁠[[ECMAScriptCode]] with arguments F and argumentsList.

10.2.2 ⁠[[Construct]] ( argumentsList, newTarget )

The ⁠[[Construct]] internal method of an ECMAScript function object F takes arguments argumentsList (a List of
ECMAScript language values) and newTarget (a constructor) and returns either a normal completion containing an
Object or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let callerContext be the running execution context.

2. Let kind be F.⁠[[ConstructorKind]].
3. If kind is BASE, then
a. Let thisArgument be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(newTarget, "%[Link]%").
4. Let calleeContext be PrepareForOrdinaryCall(F, newTarget).
5. Assert: calleeContext is now the running execution context.
6. If kind is BASE, then
a. Perform OrdinaryCallBindThis(F, calleeContext, thisArgument).
b. Let initializeResult be Completion(InitializeInstanceElements(thisArgument, F)).
c. If initializeResult is an abrupt completion, then
i. Remove calleeContext from the execution context stack and restore callerContext as the running execution
context.
ii. Return ? initializeResult.
7. Let constructorEnv be the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext.
8. Let result be Completion(OrdinaryCallEvaluateBody(F, argumentsList)).
9. Remove calleeContext from the execution context stack and restore callerContext as the running execution context.
10. If result is a throw completion, then
a. Return ? result.
11. Assert: result is a return completion.
12. If result.⁠[[Value]] is an Object, return result.⁠[[Value]].
13. If kind is BASE, return thisArgument.
14. If result.⁠[[Value]] is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
15. Let thisBinding be ? [Link]().
16. Assert: thisBinding is an Object.
17. Return thisBinding.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

10.2.3 OrdinaryFunctionCreate ( functionPrototype,

sourceText, ParameterList, Body, thisMode, env, privateEnv )

The abstract operation OrdinaryFunctionCreate takes arguments functionPrototype (an Object), sourceText (a sequence
of Unicode code points), ParameterList (a Parse Node), Body (a Parse Node), thisMode (LEXICAL-THIS or NON-
LEXICAL-THIS), env (an Environment Record), and privateEnv (a PrivateEnvironment Record or null) and returns an
ECMAScript function object. It is used to specify the runtime creation of a new function with a default ⁠[[Call]] internal
method and no ⁠[[Construct]] internal method (although one may be subsequently added by an operation such as
MakeConstructor). sourceText is the source text of the syntactic definition of the function to be created. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let internalSlotsList be the internal slots listed in Table 30.

2. Let F be OrdinaryObjectCreate(functionPrototype, internalSlotsList).
3. Set F.⁠[[Call]] to the definition specified in 10.2.1.
4. Set F.⁠[[SourceText]] to sourceText.
5. Set F.⁠[[FormalParameters]] to ParameterList.
6. Set F.⁠[[ECMAScriptCode]] to Body.
7. Let Strict be IsStrict(Body).
8. Set F.⁠[[Strict]] to Strict.
9. If thisMode is LEXICAL-THIS, set F.⁠[[ThisMode]] to LEXICAL.
10. Else if Strict is true, set F.⁠[[ThisMode]] to STRICT.
11. Else, set F.⁠[[ThisMode]] to GLOBAL.
12. Set F.⁠[[IsClassConstructor]] to false.
13. Set F.⁠[[Environment]] to env.
14. Set F.⁠[[PrivateEnvironment]] to privateEnv.
15. Set F.⁠[[ScriptOrModule]] to GetActiveScriptOrModule().
16. Set F.⁠[[Realm]] to the current Realm Record.
17. Set F.⁠[[HomeObject]] to undefined.
18. Set F.⁠[[Fields]] to a new empty List.
19. Set F.⁠[[PrivateMethods]] to a new empty List.
20. Set F.⁠[[ClassFieldInitializerName]] to EMPTY.
21. Let len be the ExpectedArgumentCount of ParameterList.
22. Perform SetFunctionLength(F, len).
23. Return F.

10.2.4 AddRestrictedFunctionProperties ( F, realm )

The abstract operation AddRestrictedFunctionProperties takes arguments F (a function object) and realm (a Realm
Record) and returns UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: realm.⁠[[Intrinsics]].[[%ThrowTypeError%]] exists and has been initialized.

2. Let thrower be realm.⁠[[Intrinsics]].[[%ThrowTypeError%]].
3. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(F, "caller", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Get]]: thrower, ⁠[[Set]]: thrower, ⁠[[Enumerable]]:
false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }).
4. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(F, "arguments", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Get]]: thrower, ⁠[[Set]]: thrower,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }).
5. Return UNUSED.

[Link] %ThrowTypeError% ( )

This function is the %ThrowTypeError% intrinsic object.

It is an anonymous built-in function object that is defined once for each realm.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Throw a TypeError exception.

The value of the ⁠[[Extensible]] internal slot of this function is false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

The "length" property of this function has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]:
false }.

The "name" property of this function has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]:
false }.

10.2.5 MakeConstructor ( F [ , writablePrototype [ , prototype ] ] )

The abstract operation MakeConstructor takes argument F (an ECMAScript function object or a built-in function object)
and optional arguments writablePrototype (a Boolean) and prototype (an Object) and returns UNUSED. It converts F into
a constructor. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If F is an ECMAScript function object, then

a. Assert: IsConstructor(F) is false.
b. Assert: F is an extensible object that does not have a "prototype" own property.
c. Set F.⁠[[Construct]] to the definition specified in 10.2.2.
2. Else,
a. Set F.⁠[[Construct]] to the definition specified in 10.3.2.
3. Set F.⁠[[ConstructorKind]] to BASE.
4. If writablePrototype is not present, set writablePrototype to true.
5. If prototype is not present, then
a. Set prototype to OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%).
b. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(prototype, "constructor", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: F, ⁠[[Writable]]:
writablePrototype, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }).
6. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(F, "prototype", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: prototype, ⁠[[Writable]]:
writablePrototype, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
7. Return UNUSED.

10.2.6 MakeClassConstructor ( F )

The abstract operation MakeClassConstructor takes argument F (an ECMAScript function object) and returns UNUSED.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: F.⁠[[IsClassConstructor]] is false.

2. Set F.⁠[[IsClassConstructor]] to true.
3. Return UNUSED.

10.2.7 MakeMethod ( F, homeObject )

The abstract operation MakeMethod takes arguments F (an ECMAScript function object) and homeObject (an Object)
and returns UNUSED. It configures F as a method. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: homeObject is an ordinary object.

2. Set F.⁠[[HomeObject]] to homeObject.
3. Return UNUSED.

10.2.8 DefineMethodProperty ( homeObject, key, closure, enumerable )

The abstract operation DefineMethodProperty takes arguments homeObject (an Object), key (a property key or Private
Name), closure (a function object), and enumerable (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing
either a PrivateElement or UNUSED, or an abrupt completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: homeObject is an ordinary, extensible object.

2. If key is a Private Name, then
a. Return PrivateElement { ⁠[[Key]]: key, ⁠[[Kind]]: METHOD, ⁠[[Value]]: closure }.
3. Else,
a. Let desc be the PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: closure, ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: enumerable,
⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.
b. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(homeObject, key, desc).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

c. NOTE: DefinePropertyOrThrow only returns an abrupt completion when attempting to define a class static
method whose key is "prototype".
d. Return UNUSED.

10.2.9 SetFunctionName ( F, name [ , prefix ] )

The abstract operation SetFunctionName takes arguments F (a function object) and name (a property key or Private
Name) and optional argument prefix (a String) and returns UNUSED. It adds a "name" property to F. It performs the fol-
lowing steps when called:

1. Assert: F is an extensible object that does not have a "name" own property.
2. If name is a Symbol, then
a. Let description be name's ⁠[[Description]] value.
b. If description is undefined, set name to the empty String.
c. Else, set name to the string-concatenation of "[", description, and "]".
3. Else if name is a Private Name, then
a. Set name to name.⁠[[Description]].
4. If F has an ⁠[[InitialName]] internal slot, then
a. Set F.⁠[[InitialName]] to name.
5. If prefix is present, then
a. Set name to the string-concatenation of prefix, the code unit 0x0020 (SPACE), and name.
b. If F has an ⁠[[InitialName]] internal slot, then
i. Optionally, set F.⁠[[InitialName]] to name.
6. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(F, "name", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: name, ⁠[[Writable]]: false,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }).
7. Return UNUSED.

10.2.10 SetFunctionLength ( F, length )

The abstract operation SetFunctionLength takes arguments F (a function object) and length (a non-negative integer or
+∞) and returns UNUSED. It adds a "length" property to F. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: F is an extensible object that does not have a "length" own property.
2. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(F, "length", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: 𝔽(length), ⁠[[Writable]]: false,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }).
3. Return UNUSED.

10.2.11 FunctionDeclarationInstantiation ( func, argumentsList )

The abstract operation FunctionDeclarationInstantiation takes arguments func (an ECMAScript function object) and ar-
gumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a
throw completion. func is the function object for which the execution context is being established.

NOTE 1 When an execution context is established for evaluating an ECMAScript function a new Function
Environment Record is created and bindings for each formal parameter are instantiated in that Environment
Record. Each declaration in the function body is also instantiated. If the function's formal parameters do not
include any default value initializers then the body declarations are instantiated in the same Environment
Record as the parameters. If default value parameter initializers exist, a second Environment Record is
created for the body declarations. Formal parameters and functions are initialized as part of
FunctionDeclarationInstantiation. All other bindings are initialized during evaluation of the function body.

It performs the following steps when called:

NOTE 2 B.3.2 provides an extension to the above algorithm that is necessary for backwards compatibility with web
browser implementations of ECMAScript that predate ECMAScript 2015.

10.3 Built-in Function Objects

A built-in function object is an ordinary object; it must satisfy the requirements for ordinary objects set out in 10.1.

In addition to the internal slots required of every ordinary object (see 10.1), a built-in function object must also have the
following internal slots:

[⁠[Realm]], a Realm Record that represents the realm in which the function was created.
⁠[[InitialName]], a String that is the initial name of the function. It is used by [Link].

The initial value of a built-in function object's ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot is %[Link]%, unless
otherwise specified.

A built-in function object must have a ⁠[[Call]] internal method that conforms to the definition in 10.3.1.

A built-in function object has a ⁠[[Construct]] internal method if and only if it is described as a “constructor”, or some al-
gorithm in this specification explicitly sets its ⁠[[Construct]] internal method. Such a ⁠[[Construct]] internal method must
conform to the definition in 10.3.2.

An implementation may provide additional built-in function objects that are not defined in this specification.

10.3.1 ⁠[[Call]] ( thisArgument, argumentsList )

The ⁠[[Call]] internal method of a built-in function object F takes arguments thisArgument (an ECMAScript language
value) and argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns either a normal completion containing an
ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? BuiltinCallOrConstruct(F, thisArgument, argumentsList, undefined).

10.3.2 ⁠[[Construct]] ( argumentsList, newTarget )

The ⁠[[Construct]] internal method of a built-in function object F (when the method is present) takes arguments argu-
mentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and newTarget (a constructor) and returns either a normal completion
containing an Object or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let result be ? BuiltinCallOrConstruct(F, UNINITIALIZED, argumentsList, newTarget).

2. Assert: result is an Object.
3. Return result.

10.3.3 BuiltinCallOrConstruct ( F, thisArgument, argumentsList, newTarget )

The abstract operation BuiltinCallOrConstruct takes arguments F (a built-in function object), thisArgument (an
ECMAScript language value or UNINITIALIZED), argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values), and newTar-
get (a constructor or undefined) and returns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a
throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let callerContext be the running execution context.

2. If callerContext is not already suspended, suspend callerContext.
3. Let calleeContext be a new execution context.
4. Set the Function of calleeContext to F.
5. Let calleeRealm be F.⁠[[Realm]].
6. Set the Realm of calleeContext to calleeRealm.
7. Set the ScriptOrModule of calleeContext to null.
8. Perform any necessary implementation-defined initialization of calleeContext.
9. Push calleeContext onto the execution context stack; calleeContext is now the running execution context.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

10. Let result be the Completion Record that is the result of evaluating F in a manner that conforms to the specification
of F. If thisArgument is UNINITIALIZED, the this value is uninitialized; otherwise thisArgument provides the this
value. argumentsList provides the named parameters. newTarget provides the NewTarget value.
11. NOTE: If F is defined in this document, “the specification of F” is the behaviour specified for it via algorithm steps or
other means.
12. Remove calleeContext from the execution context stack and restore callerContext as the running execution context.
13. Return ? result.

NOTE When calleeContext is removed from the execution context stack it must not be destroyed if it has been
suspended and retained by an accessible Generator for later resumption.

10.3.4 CreateBuiltinFunction ( behaviour, length, name,

additionalInternalSlotsList [ , realm [ , prototype [ , prefix ] ] ] )

The abstract operation CreateBuiltinFunction takes arguments behaviour (an Abstract Closure, a set of algorithm steps,
or some other definition of a function's behaviour provided in this specification), length (a non-negative integer or +∞),
name (a property key or a Private Name), and additionalInternalSlotsList (a List of names of internal slots) and optional
arguments realm (a Realm Record), prototype (an Object or null), and prefix (a String) and returns a built-in function ob-
ject. additionalInternalSlotsList contains the names of additional internal slots that must be defined as part of the object.
This operation creates a built-in function object. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If realm is not present, set realm to the current Realm Record.

2. If prototype is not present, set prototype to realm.⁠[[Intrinsics]].[[%[Link]%]].
3. Let internalSlotsList be a List containing the names of all the internal slots that 10.3 requires for the built-in function
object that is about to be created.
4. Append to internalSlotsList the elements of additionalInternalSlotsList.
5. Let func be a new built-in function object that, when called, performs the action described by behaviour using the
provided arguments as the values of the corresponding parameters specified by behaviour. The new function object
has internal slots whose names are the elements of internalSlotsList, and an ⁠[[InitialName]] internal slot.
6. Set func.⁠[[Prototype]] to prototype.
7. Set func.⁠[[Extensible]] to true.
8. Set func.⁠[[Realm]] to realm.
9. Set func.⁠[[InitialName]] to null.
10. Perform SetFunctionLength(func, length).
11. If prefix is not present, then
a. Perform SetFunctionName(func, name).
12. Else,
a. Perform SetFunctionName(func, name, prefix).
13. Return func.

Each built-in function defined in this specification is created by calling the CreateBuiltinFunction abstract operation.

10.4 Built-in Exotic Object Internal Methods and Slots

This specification defines several kinds of built-in exotic objects. These objects generally behave similar to ordinary ob-
jects except for a few specific situations. The following exotic objects use the ordinary object internal methods except
where it is explicitly specified otherwise below:

10.4.1 Bound Function Exotic Objects

A bound function exotic object is an exotic object that wraps another function object. A bound function exotic object is
callable (it has a ⁠[[Call]] internal method and may have a ⁠[[Construct]] internal method). Calling a bound function exotic
object generally results in a call of its wrapped function.

An object is a bound function exotic object if its ⁠[[Call]] and (if applicable) ⁠[[Construct]] internal methods use the following
implementations, and its other essential internal methods use the definitions found in 10.1. These methods are installed
in BoundFunctionCreate.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Bound function exotic objects do not have the internal slots of ECMAScript function objects listed in Table 30. Instead
they have the internal slots listed in Table 31, in addition to ⁠[[Prototype]] and ⁠[[Extensible]].

Table 31: Internal Slots of Bound Function Exotic Objects

Internal Slot Type Description
⁠[[BoundTargetFunction]] a callable Object The wrapped function object.
⁠[[BoundThis]] an ECMAScript language The value that is always passed as the this value when calling
value the wrapped function.
⁠[[BoundArguments]] a List of ECMAScript A list of values whose elements are used as the first arguments
language values to any call to the wrapped function.

[Link] ⁠[[Call]] ( thisArgument, argumentsList )

The ⁠[[Call]] internal method of a bound function exotic object F takes arguments thisArgument (an ECMAScript
language value) and argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns either a normal completion
containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let target be F.⁠[[BoundTargetFunction]].

2. Let boundThis be F.⁠[[BoundThis]].
3. Let boundArgs be F.⁠[[BoundArguments]].
4. Let args be the list-concatenation of boundArgs and argumentsList.
5. Return ? Call(target, boundThis, args).

[Link] ⁠[[Construct]] ( argumentsList, newTarget )

The ⁠[[Construct]] internal method of a bound function exotic object F takes arguments argumentsList (a List of
ECMAScript language values) and newTarget (a constructor) and returns either a normal completion containing an
Object or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let target be F.⁠[[BoundTargetFunction]].

2. Assert: IsConstructor(target) is true.
3. Let boundArgs be F.⁠[[BoundArguments]].
4. Let args be the list-concatenation of boundArgs and argumentsList.
5. If SameValue(F, newTarget) is true, set newTarget to target.
6. Return ? Construct(target, args, newTarget).

[Link] BoundFunctionCreate ( targetFunction, boundThis, boundArgs )

The abstract operation BoundFunctionCreate takes arguments targetFunction (a function object), boundThis (an
ECMAScript language value), and boundArgs (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns either a normal com-
pletion containing a function object or a throw completion. It is used to specify the creation of new bound function exotic
objects. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let proto be ? targetFunction.⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]]().

2. Let internalSlotsList be the list-concatenation of « ⁠[[Prototype]], ⁠[[Extensible]] » and the internal slots listed in Table
31.
3. Let obj be MakeBasicObject(internalSlotsList).
4. Set obj.⁠[[Prototype]] to proto.
5. Set obj.⁠[[Call]] as described in [Link].
6. If IsConstructor(targetFunction) is true, then
a. Set obj.⁠[[Construct]] as described in [Link].
7. Set obj.⁠[[BoundTargetFunction]] to targetFunction.
8. Set obj.⁠[[BoundThis]] to boundThis.
9. Set obj.⁠[[BoundArguments]] to boundArgs.
10. Return obj.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

10.4.2 Array Exotic Objects

An Array is an exotic object that gives special treatment to array index property keys (see 6.1.7). A property whose prop-
erty name is an array index is also called an element. Every Array has a non-configurable "length" property whose
value is always a non-negative integral Number whose mathematical value is strictly less than 232. The value of the
"length" property is numerically greater than the name of every own property whose name is an array index; whenever
an own property of an Array is created or changed, other properties are adjusted as necessary to maintain this invariant.
Specifically, whenever an own property is added whose name is an array index, the value of the "length" property is
changed, if necessary, to be one more than the numeric value of that array index; and whenever the value of the
"length" property is changed, every own property whose name is an array index whose value is not smaller than the
new length is deleted. This constraint applies only to own properties of an Array and is unaffected by "length" or array
index properties that may be inherited from its prototypes.

An object is an Array exotic object (or simply, an Array) if its ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method uses the following
implementation, and its other essential internal methods use the definitions found in 10.1. These methods are installed
in ArrayCreate.

[Link] ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] ( P, Desc )

The ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method of an Array exotic object A takes arguments P (a property key) and Desc (a
Property Descriptor) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. If P is "length", then
a. Return ? ArraySetLength(A, Desc).
2. Else if P is an array index, then
a. Let lengthDesc be OrdinaryGetOwnProperty(A, "length").
b. Assert: lengthDesc is not undefined.
c. Assert: IsDataDescriptor(lengthDesc) is true.
d. Assert: lengthDesc.⁠[[Configurable]] is false.
e. Let length be lengthDesc.⁠[[Value]].
f. Assert: length is a non-negative integral Number.
g. Let index be ! ToUint32(P).
h. If index ≥ length and lengthDesc.⁠[[Writable]] is false, return false.
i. Let succeeded be ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, P, Desc).
j. If succeeded is false, return false.
k. If index ≥ length, then
i. Set lengthDesc.⁠[[Value]] to index + 1𝔽.
ii. Set succeeded to ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, "length", lengthDesc).
iii. Assert: succeeded is true.
l. Return true.
3. Return ? OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, P, Desc).

[Link] ArrayCreate ( length [ , proto ] )

The abstract operation ArrayCreate takes argument length (a non-negative integer) and optional argument proto (an
Object) and returns either a normal completion containing an Array exotic object or a throw completion. It is used to spe-
cify the creation of new Arrays. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If length > 232 - 1, throw a RangeError exception.

2. If proto is not present, set proto to %[Link]%.
3. Let A be MakeBasicObject(« ⁠[[Prototype]], ⁠[[Extensible]] »).
4. Set A.⁠[[Prototype]] to proto.
5. Set A.⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] as specified in [Link].
6. Perform ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, "length", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: 𝔽(length), ⁠[[Writable]]: true,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
7. Return A.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] ArraySpeciesCreate ( originalArray, length )

The abstract operation ArraySpeciesCreate takes arguments originalArray (an Object) and length (a non-negative in-
teger) and returns either a normal completion containing an Object or a throw completion. It is used to specify the cre-
ation of a new Array or similar object using a constructor function that is derived from originalArray. It does not enforce
that the constructor function returns an Array. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let isArray be ? IsArray(originalArray).

2. If isArray is false, return ? ArrayCreate(length).
3. Let C be ? Get(originalArray, "constructor").
4. If IsConstructor(C) is true, then
a. Let thisRealm be the current Realm Record.
b. Let realmC be ? GetFunctionRealm(C).
c. If thisRealm and realmC are not the same Realm Record, then
i. If SameValue(C, realmC.⁠[[Intrinsics]].[[%Array%]]) is true, set C to undefined.
5. If C is an Object, then
a. Set C to ? Get(C, %[Link]%).
b. If C is null, set C to undefined.
6. If C is undefined, return ? ArrayCreate(length).
7. If IsConstructor(C) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
8. Return ? Construct(C, « 𝔽(length) »).

NOTE If originalArray was created using the standard built-in Array constructor for a realm that is not the realm of
the running execution context, then a new Array is created using the realm of the running execution context.
This maintains compatibility with Web browsers that have historically had that behaviour for the
[Link] methods that now are defined using ArraySpeciesCreate.

[Link] ArraySetLength ( A, Desc )

The abstract operation ArraySetLength takes arguments A (an Array) and Desc (a Property Descriptor) and returns
either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If Desc does not have a ⁠[[Value]] field, then

a. Return ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, "length", Desc).
2. Let newLenDesc be a copy of Desc.
3. Let newLen be ? ToUint32(Desc.⁠[[Value]]).
4. Let numberLen be ? ToNumber(Desc.⁠[[Value]]).
5. If SameValueZero(newLen, numberLen) is false, throw a RangeError exception.
6. Set newLenDesc.⁠[[Value]] to newLen.
7. Let oldLenDesc be OrdinaryGetOwnProperty(A, "length").
8. Assert: oldLenDesc is not undefined.
9. Assert: IsDataDescriptor(oldLenDesc) is true.
10. Assert: oldLenDesc.⁠[[Configurable]] is false.
11. Let oldLen be oldLenDesc.⁠[[Value]].
12. If newLen ≥ oldLen, then
a. Return ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, "length", newLenDesc).
13. If oldLenDesc.⁠[[Writable]] is false, return false.
14. If newLenDesc does not have a ⁠[[Writable]] field or newLenDesc.⁠[[Writable]] is true, then
a. Let newWritable be true.
15. Else,
a. NOTE: Setting the ⁠[[Writable]] attribute to false is deferred in case any elements cannot be deleted.
b. Let newWritable be false.
c. Set newLenDesc.⁠[[Writable]] to true.
16. Let succeeded be ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, "length", newLenDesc).
17. If succeeded is false, return false.
18. For each own property key P of A such that P is an array index and ! ToUint32(P) ≥ newLen, in descending numeric
index order, do
a. Let deleteSucceeded be ! A.⁠[[Delete]](P).
b. If deleteSucceeded is false, then

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

i. Set newLenDesc.⁠[[Value]] to ! ToUint32(P) + 1𝔽.

ii. If newWritable is false, set newLenDesc.⁠[[Writable]] to false.
iii. Perform ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, "length", newLenDesc).
iv. Return false.
19. If newWritable is false, then
a. Set succeeded to ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, "length", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Writable]]: false }).
b. Assert: succeeded is true.
20. Return true.

NOTE In steps 3 and 4, if Desc.⁠[[Value]] is an object then its valueOf method is called twice. This is legacy
behaviour that was specified with this effect starting with the 2nd Edition of this specification.

10.4.3 String Exotic Objects

A String object is an exotic object that encapsulates a String value and exposes virtual integer-indexed data properties
corresponding to the individual code unit elements of the String value. String exotic objects always have a data property
named "length" whose value is the length of the encapsulated String value. Both the code unit data properties and the
"length" property are non-writable and non-configurable.

An object is a String exotic object (or simply, a String object) if its ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]], ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]], and
[[OwnPropertyKeys]] internal methods use the following implementations, and its other essential internal methods use
the definitions found in 10.1. These methods are installed in StringCreate.

String exotic objects have the same internal slots as ordinary objects. They also have a ⁠[[StringData]] internal slot.

[Link] ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] ( P )

The ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] internal method of a String exotic object S takes argument P (a property key) and returns a nor-
mal completion containing either a Property Descriptor or undefined. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let desc be OrdinaryGetOwnProperty(S, P).

2. If desc is not undefined, return desc.
3. Return StringGetOwnProperty(S, P).

[Link] ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] ( P, Desc )

The ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method of a String exotic object S takes arguments P (a property key) and Desc (a
Property Descriptor) and returns a normal completion containing a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let stringDesc be StringGetOwnProperty(S, P).

2. If stringDesc is not undefined, then
a. Let extensible be S.⁠[[Extensible]].
b. Return IsCompatiblePropertyDescriptor(extensible, Desc, stringDesc).
3. Return ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(S, P, Desc).

[Link] ⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]] ( )

The ⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]] internal method of a String exotic object O takes no arguments and returns a normal comple-
tion containing a List of property keys. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let keys be a new empty List.

2. Let str be O.⁠[[StringData]].
3. Assert: str is a String.
4. Let len be the length of str.
5. For each integer i such that 0 ≤ i < len, in ascending order, do
a. Append ! ToString(𝔽(i)) to keys.
6. For each own property key P of O such that P is an array index and ! ToIntegerOrInfinity(P) ≥ len, in ascending

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

numeric index order, do

a. Append P to keys.
7. For each own property key P of O such that P is a String and P is not an array index, in ascending chronological
order of property creation, do
a. Append P to keys.
8. For each own property key P of O such that P is a Symbol, in ascending chronological order of property creation, do
a. Append P to keys.
9. Return keys.

[Link] StringCreate ( value, prototype )

The abstract operation StringCreate takes arguments value (a String) and prototype (an Object) and returns a String
exotic object. It is used to specify the creation of new String exotic objects. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be MakeBasicObject(« ⁠[[Prototype]], ⁠[[Extensible]], ⁠[[StringData]] »).

2. Set S.⁠[[Prototype]] to prototype.
3. Set S.⁠[[StringData]] to value.
4. Set S.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] as specified in [Link].
5. Set S.⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] as specified in [Link].
6. Set S.⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]] as specified in [Link].
7. Let length be the length of value.
8. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(S, "length", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: 𝔽(length), ⁠[[Writable]]: false,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
9. Return S.

[Link] StringGetOwnProperty ( S, P )

The abstract operation StringGetOwnProperty takes arguments S (an Object that has a ⁠[[StringData]] internal slot) and
P (a property key) and returns a Property Descriptor or undefined. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If P is not a String, return undefined.

2. Let index be CanonicalNumericIndexString(P).
3. If index is not an integral Number, return undefined.
4. If index is -0𝔽 or index < -0𝔽, return undefined.
5. Let str be S.⁠[[StringData]].
6. Assert: str is a String.
7. Let len be the length of str.
8. If ℝ(index) ≥ len, return undefined.
9. Let resultStr be the substring of str from ℝ(index) to ℝ(index) + 1.
10. Return the PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: resultStr, ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: true, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

10.4.4 Arguments Exotic Objects

Most ECMAScript functions make an arguments object available to their code. Depending upon the characteristics of
the function definition, its arguments object is either an ordinary object or an arguments exotic object. An arguments
exotic object is an exotic object whose array index properties map to the formal parameters bindings of an invocation of
its associated ECMAScript function.

An object is an arguments exotic object if its internal methods use the following implementations, with the ones not spe-
cified here using those found in 10.1. These methods are installed in CreateMappedArgumentsObject.

NOTE 1 While CreateUnmappedArgumentsObject is grouped into this clause, it creates an ordinary object, not an
arguments exotic object.

Arguments exotic objects have the same internal slots as ordinary objects. They also have a ⁠[[ParameterMap]] internal
slot. Ordinary arguments objects also have a ⁠[[ParameterMap]] internal slot whose value is always undefined. For or-
dinary argument objects the ⁠[[ParameterMap]] internal slot is only used by [Link] ([Link])
to identify them as such.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 2 The integer-indexed data properties of an arguments exotic object whose numeric name values are less
than the number of formal parameters of the corresponding function object initially share their values with
the corresponding argument bindings in the function's execution context. This means that changing the
property changes the corresponding value of the argument binding and vice-versa. This correspondence is
broken if such a property is deleted and then redefined or if the property is changed into an accessor
property. If the arguments object is an ordinary object, the values of its properties are simply a copy of the
arguments passed to the function and there is no dynamic linkage between the property values and the
formal parameter values.

NOTE 3 The ParameterMap object and its property values are used as a device for specifying the arguments object
correspondence to argument bindings. The ParameterMap object and the objects that are the values of its
properties are not directly observable from ECMAScript code. An ECMAScript implementation does not
need to actually create or use such objects to implement the specified semantics.

NOTE 4 Ordinary arguments objects define a non-configurable accessor property named "callee" which throws a
TypeError exception on access. The "callee" property has a more specific meaning for arguments
exotic objects, which are created only for some class of non-strict functions. The definition of this
property in the ordinary variant exists to ensure that it is not defined in any other manner by conforming
ECMAScript implementations.

NOTE 5 ECMAScript implementations of arguments exotic objects have historically contained an accessor property
named "caller". Prior to ECMAScript 2017, this specification included the definition of a throwing "caller"
property on ordinary arguments objects. Since implementations do not contain this extension any longer,
ECMAScript 2017 dropped the requirement for a throwing "caller" accessor.

[Link] ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] ( P )

The ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] internal method of an arguments exotic object args takes argument P (a property key) and
returns a normal completion containing either a Property Descriptor or undefined. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let desc be OrdinaryGetOwnProperty(args, P).

2. If desc is undefined, return undefined.
3. Let map be args.⁠[[ParameterMap]].
4. Let isMapped be ! HasOwnProperty(map, P).
5. If isMapped is true, then
a. Set desc.⁠[[Value]] to ! Get(map, P).
6. Return desc.

[Link] ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] ( P, Desc )

The ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method of an arguments exotic object args takes arguments P (a property key) and
Desc (a Property Descriptor) and returns a normal completion containing a Boolean. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let map be args.⁠[[ParameterMap]].

2. Let isMapped be ! HasOwnProperty(map, P).
3. Let newArgDesc be Desc.
4. If isMapped is true and IsDataDescriptor(Desc) is true, then
a. If Desc does not have a ⁠[[Value]] field, Desc has a ⁠[[Writable]] field, and Desc.⁠[[Writable]] is false, then
i. Set newArgDesc to a copy of Desc.
ii. Set newArgDesc.⁠[[Value]] to ! Get(map, P).
5. Let allowed be ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(args, P, newArgDesc).
6. If allowed is false, return false.
7. If isMapped is true, then

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

a. If IsAccessorDescriptor(Desc) is true, then

i. Perform ! map.⁠[[Delete]](P).
b. Else,
i. If Desc has a ⁠[[Value]] field, then
1. Assert: The following Set will succeed, since formal parameters mapped by arguments objects are
always writable.
2. Perform ! Set(map, P, Desc.⁠[[Value]], false).
ii. If Desc has a ⁠[[Writable]] field and Desc.⁠[[Writable]] is false, then
1. Perform ! map.⁠[[Delete]](P).
8. Return true.

[Link] ⁠[[Get]] ( P, Receiver )

The ⁠[[Get]] internal method of an arguments exotic object args takes arguments P (a property key) and Receiver (an
ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a
throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let map be args.⁠[[ParameterMap]].

2. Let isMapped be ! HasOwnProperty(map, P).
3. If isMapped is false, then
a. Return ? OrdinaryGet(args, P, Receiver).
4. Else,
a. Assert: map contains a formal parameter mapping for P.
b. Return ! Get(map, P).

[Link] ⁠[[Set]] ( P, V, Receiver )

The ⁠[[Set]] internal method of an arguments exotic object args takes arguments P (a property key), V (an ECMAScript
language value), and Receiver (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing a
Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If SameValue(args, Receiver) is false, then

a. Let isMapped be false.
2. Else,
a. Let map be args.⁠[[ParameterMap]].
b. Let isMapped be ! HasOwnProperty(map, P).
3. If isMapped is true, then
a. Assert: The following Set will succeed, since formal parameters mapped by arguments objects are always
writable.
b. Perform ! Set(map, P, V, false).
4. Return ? OrdinarySet(args, P, V, Receiver).

[Link] ⁠[[Delete]] ( P )

The ⁠[[Delete]] internal method of an arguments exotic object args takes argument P (a property key) and returns either a
normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let map be args.⁠[[ParameterMap]].

2. Let isMapped be ! HasOwnProperty(map, P).
3. Let result be ? OrdinaryDelete(args, P).
4. If result is true and isMapped is true, then
a. Perform ! map.⁠[[Delete]](P).
5. Return result.

[Link] CreateUnmappedArgumentsObject ( argumentsList )

The abstract operation CreateUnmappedArgumentsObject takes argument argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript lan-

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

guage values) and returns an ordinary object. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let len be the number of elements in argumentsList.

2. Let obj be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%, « ⁠[[ParameterMap]] »).
3. Set obj.⁠[[ParameterMap]] to undefined.
4. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(obj, "length", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: 𝔽(len), ⁠[[Writable]]: true,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }).
5. Let index be 0.
6. Repeat, while index < len,
a. Let val be argumentsList[index].
b. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, ! ToString(𝔽(index)), val).
c. Set index to index + 1.
7. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(obj, %[Link]%, PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]:
%[Link]%, ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }).
8. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(obj, "callee", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Get]]: %ThrowTypeError%, ⁠[[Set]]:
%ThrowTypeError%, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
9. Return obj.

[Link] CreateMappedArgumentsObject ( func, formals, argumentsList, env )

The abstract operation CreateMappedArgumentsObject takes arguments func (an Object), formals (a Parse Node), ar-
gumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values), and env (an Environment Record) and returns an arguments
exotic object. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: formals does not contain a rest parameter, any binding patterns, or any initializers. It may contain duplicate
identifiers.
2. Let len be the number of elements in argumentsList.
3. Let obj be MakeBasicObject(« ⁠[[Prototype]], ⁠[[Extensible]], ⁠[[ParameterMap]] »).
4. Set obj.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] as specified in [Link].
5. Set obj.⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] as specified in [Link].
6. Set obj.⁠[[Get]] as specified in [Link].
7. Set obj.⁠[[Set]] as specified in [Link].
8. Set obj.⁠[[Delete]] as specified in [Link].
9. Set obj.⁠[[Prototype]] to %[Link]%.
10. Let map be OrdinaryObjectCreate(null).
11. Set obj.⁠[[ParameterMap]] to map.
12. Let parameterNames be the BoundNames of formals.
13. Let numberOfParameters be the number of elements in parameterNames.
14. Let index be 0.
15. Repeat, while index < len,
a. Let val be argumentsList[index].
b. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, ! ToString(𝔽(index)), val).
c. Set index to index + 1.
16. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(obj, "length", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: 𝔽(len), ⁠[[Writable]]: true,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }).
17. Let mappedNames be a new empty List.
18. Set index to numberOfParameters - 1.
19. Repeat, while index ≥ 0,
a. Let name be parameterNames[index].
b. If mappedNames does not contain name, then
i. Append name to mappedNames.
ii. If index < len, then
1. Let g be MakeArgGetter(name, env).
2. Let p be MakeArgSetter(name, env).
3. Perform ! map.⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]](! ToString(𝔽(index)), PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Set]]: p, ⁠[[Get]]: g,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }).
c. Set index to index - 1.
20. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(obj, %[Link]%, PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]:
%[Link]%, ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

21. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(obj, "callee", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: func, ⁠[[Writable]]: true,

⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }).
22. Return obj.

[Link].1 MakeArgGetter ( name, env )

The abstract operation MakeArgGetter takes arguments name (a String) and env (an Environment Record) and returns
a function object. It creates a built-in function object that when executed returns the value bound for name in env. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Let getterClosure be a new Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures name and env and performs the
following steps when called:
a. Return NormalCompletion(! [Link](name, false)).
2. Let getter be CreateBuiltinFunction(getterClosure, 0, "", « »).
3. NOTE: getter is never directly accessible to ECMAScript code.
4. Return getter.

[Link].2 MakeArgSetter ( name, env )

The abstract operation MakeArgSetter takes arguments name (a String) and env (an Environment Record) and returns
a function object. It creates a built-in function object that when executed sets the value bound for name in env. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Let setterClosure be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (value) that captures name and env and performs the
following steps when called:
a. Return NormalCompletion(! [Link](name, value, false)).
2. Let setter be CreateBuiltinFunction(setterClosure, 1, "", « »).
3. NOTE: setter is never directly accessible to ECMAScript code.
4. Return setter.

10.4.5 TypedArray Exotic Objects

A TypedArray is an exotic object that performs special handling of property keys that are canonical numeric strings, us-
ing the subset that are in-bounds integer indices to index elements of uniform type and enforcing the invariant that the
remainder are absent without incurring prototype chain traversal.

NOTE Because ToString(n) for any Number n is a canonical numeric string, an implementation may treat Numbers
as property keys for TypedArrays without actually performing the string conversion.

TypedArrays have the same internal slots as ordinary objects and additionally ⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]],
[[TypedArrayName]], ⁠[[ContentType]], ⁠[[ByteLength]], ⁠[[ByteOffset]], and ⁠[[ArrayLength]] internal slots.

An object is a TypedArray if its ⁠[[PreventExtensions]], ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]], ⁠[[HasProperty]], ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]],

[[Get]], ⁠[[Set]], ⁠[[Delete]], and ⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]], internal methods use the definitions in this section, and its other es-
sential internal methods use the definitions found in 10.1. These methods are installed by TypedArrayCreate.

[Link] ⁠[[PreventExtensions]] ( )

The ⁠[[PreventExtensions]] internal method of a TypedArray O takes no arguments and returns a normal completion con-
taining a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. NOTE: The extensibility-related invariants specified in [Link] do not allow this method to return true when O can
gain (or lose and then regain) properties, which might occur for properties with integer index names when its
underlying buffer is resized.
2. If IsTypedArrayFixedLength(O) is false, return false.
3. Return OrdinaryPreventExtensions(O).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] ( P )

The ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] internal method of a TypedArray O takes argument P (a property key) and returns a normal
completion containing either a Property Descriptor or undefined. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If P is a String, then
a. Let numericIndex be CanonicalNumericIndexString(P).
b. If numericIndex is not undefined, then
i. Let value be TypedArrayGetElement(O, numericIndex).
ii. If value is undefined, return undefined.
iii. Return the PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: value, ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: true, ⁠[[Configurable]]:
true }.
2. Return OrdinaryGetOwnProperty(O, P).

[Link] ⁠[[HasProperty]] ( P )

The ⁠[[HasProperty]] internal method of a TypedArray O takes argument P (a property key) and returns either a normal
completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If P is a String, then
a. Let numericIndex be CanonicalNumericIndexString(P).
b. If numericIndex is not undefined, return IsValidIntegerIndex(O, numericIndex).
2. Return ? OrdinaryHasProperty(O, P).

[Link] ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] ( P, Desc )

The ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method of a TypedArray O takes arguments P (a property key) and Desc (a Property
Descriptor) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. If P is a String, then
a. Let numericIndex be CanonicalNumericIndexString(P).
b. If numericIndex is not undefined, then
i. If IsValidIntegerIndex(O, numericIndex) is false, return false.
ii. If Desc has a ⁠[[Configurable]] field and Desc.⁠[[Configurable]] is false, return false.
iii. If Desc has an ⁠[[Enumerable]] field and Desc.⁠[[Enumerable]] is false, return false.
iv. If IsAccessorDescriptor(Desc) is true, return false.
v. If Desc has a ⁠[[Writable]] field and Desc.⁠[[Writable]] is false, return false.
vi. If Desc has a ⁠[[Value]] field, perform ? TypedArraySetElement(O, numericIndex, Desc.⁠[[Value]]).
vii. Return true.
2. Return ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(O, P, Desc).

[Link] ⁠[[Get]] ( P, Receiver )

The ⁠[[Get]] internal method of a TypedArray O takes arguments P (a property key) and Receiver (an ECMAScript lan-
guage value) and returns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. If P is a String, then
a. Let numericIndex be CanonicalNumericIndexString(P).
b. If numericIndex is not undefined, then
i. Return TypedArrayGetElement(O, numericIndex).
2. Return ? OrdinaryGet(O, P, Receiver).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] ⁠[[Set]] ( P, V, Receiver )

The ⁠[[Set]] internal method of a TypedArray O takes arguments P (a property key), V (an ECMAScript language value),
and Receiver (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw
completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If P is a String, then
a. Let numericIndex be CanonicalNumericIndexString(P).
b. If numericIndex is not undefined, then
i. If SameValue(O, Receiver) is true, then
1. Perform ? TypedArraySetElement(O, numericIndex, V).
2. Return true.
ii. If IsValidIntegerIndex(O, numericIndex) is false, return true.
2. Return ? OrdinarySet(O, P, V, Receiver).

[Link] ⁠[[Delete]] ( P )

The ⁠[[Delete]] internal method of a TypedArray O takes argument P (a property key) and returns a normal completion
containing a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

[Link] ⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]] ( )

The ⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]] internal method of a TypedArray O takes no arguments and returns a normal completion con-
taining a List of property keys. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let taRecord be MakeTypedArrayWithBufferWitnessRecord(O, SEQ-CST).

2. Let keys be a new empty List.
3. If IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds(taRecord) is false, then
a. Let length be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
b. For each integer i such that 0 ≤ i < length, in ascending order, do
i. Append ! ToString(𝔽(i)) to keys.
4. For each own property key P of O such that P is a String and P is not an integer index, in ascending chronological
order of property creation, do
a. Append P to keys.
5. For each own property key P of O such that P is a Symbol, in ascending chronological order of property creation, do
a. Append P to keys.
6. Return keys.

[Link] TypedArray With Buffer Witness Records

An TypedArray With Buffer Witness Record is a Record value used to encapsulate a TypedArray along with a cached
byte length of the viewed buffer. It is used to help ensure there is a single shared memory read event of the byte length
data block when the viewed buffer is a growable SharedArrayBuffer.

TypedArray With Buffer Witness Records have the fields listed in Table 32.

Table 32: TypedArray With Buffer Witness Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[Object]] a TypedArray The TypedArray whose buffer's byte length is loaded.
⁠[[CachedBufferByteLength]] a non-negative integer or The byte length of the object's ⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]] when
DETACHED the Record was created.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] MakeTypedArrayWithBufferWitnessRecord ( obj, order )

The abstract operation MakeTypedArrayWithBufferWitnessRecord takes arguments obj (a TypedArray) and order (SEQ-
CST or UNORDERED) and returns a TypedArray With Buffer Witness Record. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let buffer be obj.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]].

2. If IsDetachedBuffer(buffer) is true, then
a. Let byteLength be DETACHED.
3. Else,
a. Let byteLength be ArrayBufferByteLength(buffer, order).
4. Return the TypedArray With Buffer Witness Record { ⁠[[Object]]: obj, ⁠[[CachedBufferByteLength]]: byteLength }.

[Link] TypedArrayCreate ( prototype )

The abstract operation TypedArrayCreate takes argument prototype (an Object) and returns a TypedArray. It is used to
specify the creation of new TypedArrays. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let internalSlotsList be « ⁠[[Prototype]], ⁠[[Extensible]], ⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]], ⁠[[TypedArrayName]], ⁠[[ContentType]],

⁠[[ByteLength]], ⁠[[ByteOffset]], ⁠[[ArrayLength]] ».
2. Let A be MakeBasicObject(internalSlotsList).
3. Set A.⁠[[PreventExtensions]] as specified in [Link].
4. Set A.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] as specified in [Link].
5. Set A.⁠[[HasProperty]] as specified in [Link].
6. Set A.⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] as specified in [Link].
7. Set A.⁠[[Get]] as specified in [Link].
8. Set A.⁠[[Set]] as specified in [Link].
9. Set A.⁠[[Delete]] as specified in [Link].
10. Set A.⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]] as specified in [Link].
11. Set A.⁠[[Prototype]] to prototype.
12. Return A.

[Link] TypedArrayByteLength ( taRecord )

The abstract operation TypedArrayByteLength takes argument taRecord (a TypedArray With Buffer Witness Record)
and returns a non-negative integer. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds(taRecord) is true, return 0.

2. Let length be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
3. If length = 0, return 0.
4. Let O be taRecord.⁠[[Object]].
5. If O.⁠[[ByteLength]] is not AUTO, return O.⁠[[ByteLength]].
6. Let elementSize be TypedArrayElementSize(O).
7. Return length × elementSize.

[Link] TypedArrayLength ( taRecord )

The abstract operation TypedArrayLength takes argument taRecord (a TypedArray With Buffer Witness Record) and re-
turns a non-negative integer. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds(taRecord) is false.

2. Let O be taRecord.⁠[[Object]].
3. If O.⁠[[ArrayLength]] is not AUTO, return O.⁠[[ArrayLength]].
4. Assert: IsFixedLengthArrayBuffer(O.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]]) is false.
5. Let byteOffset be O.⁠[[ByteOffset]].
6. Let elementSize be TypedArrayElementSize(O).
7. Let byteLength be taRecord.⁠[[CachedBufferByteLength]].
8. Assert: byteLength is not DETACHED.
9. Return floor((byteLength - byteOffset) / elementSize).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds ( taRecord )

The abstract operation IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds takes argument taRecord (a TypedArray With Buffer Witness Record)
and returns a Boolean. It checks if any of the object's numeric properties reference a value at an index not contained
within the underlying buffer's bounds. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be taRecord.⁠[[Object]].
2. Let bufferByteLength be taRecord.⁠[[CachedBufferByteLength]].
3. Assert: IsDetachedBuffer(O.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]]) is true if and only if bufferByteLength is DETACHED.
4. If bufferByteLength is DETACHED, return true.
5. Let byteOffsetStart be O.⁠[[ByteOffset]].
6. If O.⁠[[ArrayLength]] is AUTO, then
a. Let byteOffsetEnd be bufferByteLength.
7. Else,
a. Let elementSize be TypedArrayElementSize(O).
b. Let byteOffsetEnd be byteOffsetStart + O.⁠[[ArrayLength]] × elementSize.
8. If byteOffsetStart > bufferByteLength or byteOffsetEnd > bufferByteLength, return true.
9. NOTE: 0-length TypedArrays are not considered out-of-bounds.
10. Return false.

[Link] IsTypedArrayFixedLength ( O )

The abstract operation IsTypedArrayFixedLength takes argument O (a TypedArray) and returns a Boolean. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. If O.⁠[[ArrayLength]] is AUTO, return false.

2. Let buffer be O.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]].
3. If IsFixedLengthArrayBuffer(buffer) is false and IsSharedArrayBuffer(buffer) is false, return false.
4. Return true.

[Link] IsValidIntegerIndex ( O, index )

The abstract operation IsValidIntegerIndex takes arguments O (a TypedArray) and index (a Number) and returns a
Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If IsDetachedBuffer(O.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]]) is true, return false.

2. If index is not an integral Number, return false.
3. If index is -0𝔽 or index < -0𝔽, return false.
4. Let taRecord be MakeTypedArrayWithBufferWitnessRecord(O, UNORDERED).
5. NOTE: Bounds checking is not a synchronizing operation when O's backing buffer is a growable SharedArrayBuffer.
6. If IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds(taRecord) is true, return false.
7. Let length be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
8. If ℝ(index) ≥ length, return false.
9. Return true.

[Link] TypedArrayGetElement ( O, index )

The abstract operation TypedArrayGetElement takes arguments O (a TypedArray) and index (a Number) and returns a
Number, a BigInt, or undefined. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If IsValidIntegerIndex(O, index) is false, return undefined.

2. Let offset be O.⁠[[ByteOffset]].
3. Let elementSize be TypedArrayElementSize(O).
4. Let byteIndexInBuffer be (ℝ(index) × elementSize) + offset.
5. Let elementType be TypedArrayElementType(O).
6. Return GetValueFromBuffer(O.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]], byteIndexInBuffer, elementType, true, UNORDERED).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] TypedArraySetElement ( O, index, value )

The abstract operation TypedArraySetElement takes arguments O (a TypedArray), index (a Number), and value (an
ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. If O.⁠[[ContentType]] is BIGINT, let numValue be ? ToBigInt(value).

2. Otherwise, let numValue be ? ToNumber(value).
3. If IsValidIntegerIndex(O, index) is true, then
a. Let offset be O.⁠[[ByteOffset]].
b. Let elementSize be TypedArrayElementSize(O).
c. Let byteIndexInBuffer be (ℝ(index) × elementSize) + offset.
d. Let elementType be TypedArrayElementType(O).
e. Perform SetValueInBuffer(O.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]], byteIndexInBuffer, elementType, numValue, true,
UNORDERED).
4. Return UNUSED.

NOTE This operation always appears to succeed, but it has no effect when attempting to write past the end of a
TypedArray or to a TypedArray which is backed by a detached ArrayBuffer.

[Link] IsArrayBufferViewOutOfBounds ( O )

The abstract operation IsArrayBufferViewOutOfBounds takes argument O (a TypedArray or a DataView) and returns a
Boolean. It checks if either any of a TypedArray's numeric properties or a DataView object's methods can reference a
value at an index not contained within the underlying data block's bounds. This abstract operation exists as a conveni-
ence for upstream specifications. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If O has a ⁠[[DataView]] internal slot, then

a. Let viewRecord be MakeDataViewWithBufferWitnessRecord(O, SEQ-CST).
b. Return IsViewOutOfBounds(viewRecord).
2. Let taRecord be MakeTypedArrayWithBufferWitnessRecord(O, SEQ-CST).
3. Return IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds(taRecord).

10.4.6 Module Namespace Exotic Objects

A module namespace exotic object is an exotic object that exposes the bindings exported from an ECMAScript Module
(See 16.2.3). There is a one-to-one correspondence between the String-keyed own properties of a module namespace
exotic object and the binding names exported by the Module. The exported bindings include any bindings that are indir-
ectly exported using export * export items. Each String-valued own property key is the StringValue of the correspond-
ing exported binding name. These are the only String-keyed properties of a module namespace exotic object. Each
such property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: true, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }. Module namespace
exotic objects are not extensible.

An object is a module namespace exotic object if its ⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]], ⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]], ⁠[[IsExtensible]],

[[PreventExtensions]], ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]], ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]], ⁠[[HasProperty]], ⁠[[Get]], ⁠[[Set]], ⁠[[Delete]], and
[[OwnPropertyKeys]] internal methods use the definitions in this section, and its other essential internal methods use the
definitions found in 10.1. These methods are installed by ModuleNamespaceCreate.

Module namespace exotic objects have the internal slots defined in Table 33.

Table 33: Internal Slots of Module Namespace Exotic Objects

Internal Type Description
Slot
⁠[[Module]] a Module The Module Record whose exports this namespace exposes.
Record
⁠[[Exports]] a List of A List whose elements are the String values of the exported names exposed as own
Strings properties of this object. The list is sorted according to lexicographic code unit order.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] ⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] ( )

The ⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object takes no arguments and returns a normal
completion containing null. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return null.

[Link] ⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]] ( V )

The ⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object O takes argument V (an Object or null)
and returns a normal completion containing a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ! SetImmutablePrototype(O, V).

[Link] ⁠[[IsExtensible]] ( )

The ⁠[[IsExtensible]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object takes no arguments and returns a normal
completion containing false. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return false.

[Link] ⁠[[PreventExtensions]] ( )

The ⁠[[PreventExtensions]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object takes no arguments and returns a nor-
mal completion containing true. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return true.

[Link] ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] ( P )

The ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object O takes argument P (a property key) and
returns either a normal completion containing either a Property Descriptor or undefined, or a throw completion. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. If P is a Symbol, return OrdinaryGetOwnProperty(O, P).

2. Let exports be O.⁠[[Exports]].
3. If exports does not contain P, return undefined.
4. Let value be ? O.⁠[[Get]](P, O).
5. Return PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: value, ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: true, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] ( P, Desc )

The ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object O takes arguments P (a property key)
and Desc (a Property Descriptor) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. If P is a Symbol, return ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(O, P, Desc).

2. Let current be ? O.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](P).
3. If current is undefined, return false.
4. If Desc has a ⁠[[Configurable]] field and Desc.⁠[[Configurable]] is true, return false.
5. If Desc has an ⁠[[Enumerable]] field and Desc.⁠[[Enumerable]] is false, return false.
6. If IsAccessorDescriptor(Desc) is true, return false.
7. If Desc has a ⁠[[Writable]] field and Desc.⁠[[Writable]] is false, return false.
8. If Desc has a ⁠[[Value]] field, return SameValue(Desc.⁠[[Value]], current.⁠[[Value]]).
9. Return true.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] ⁠[[HasProperty]] ( P )

The ⁠[[HasProperty]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object O takes argument P (a property key) and re-
turns a normal completion containing a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If P is a Symbol, return ! OrdinaryHasProperty(O, P).

2. Let exports be O.⁠[[Exports]].
3. If exports contains P, return true.
4. Return false.

[Link] ⁠[[Get]] ( P, Receiver )

The ⁠[[Get]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object O takes arguments P (a property key) and Receiver
(an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a
throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If P is a Symbol, then
a. Return ! OrdinaryGet(O, P, Receiver).
2. Let exports be O.⁠[[Exports]].
3. If exports does not contain P, return undefined.
4. Let m be O.[[Module]].
5. Let binding be [Link](P).
6. Assert: binding is a ResolvedBinding Record.
7. Let targetModule be binding.⁠[[Module]].
8. Assert: targetModule is not undefined.
9. If binding.⁠[[BindingName]] is NAMESPACE, then
a. Return GetModuleNamespace(targetModule).
10. Let targetEnv be targetModule.⁠[[Environment]].
11. If targetEnv is EMPTY, throw a ReferenceError exception.
12. Return ? [Link](binding.⁠[[BindingName]], true).

NOTE ResolveExport is side-effect free. Each time this operation is called with a specific exportName, resolveSet
pair as arguments it must return the same result. An implementation might choose to pre-compute or cache
the ResolveExport results for the ⁠[[Exports]] of each module namespace exotic object.

[Link] ⁠[[Set]] ( P, V, Receiver )

The ⁠[[Set]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object takes arguments P (a property key), V (an ECMAScript
language value), and Receiver (an ECMAScript language value) and returns a normal completion containing false. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Return false.

[Link] ⁠[[Delete]] ( P )

The ⁠[[Delete]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object O takes argument P (a property key) and returns a
normal completion containing a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If P is a Symbol, then
a. Return ! OrdinaryDelete(O, P).
2. Let exports be O.⁠[[Exports]].
3. If exports contains P, return false.
4. Return true.

[Link] ⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]] ( )

The ⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object O takes no arguments and returns a

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

normal completion containing a List of property keys. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let exports be O.⁠[[Exports]].

2. Let symbolKeys be OrdinaryOwnPropertyKeys(O).
3. Return the list-concatenation of exports and symbolKeys.

[Link] ModuleNamespaceCreate ( module, exports )

The abstract operation ModuleNamespaceCreate takes arguments module (a Module Record) and exports (a List of
Strings) and returns a module namespace exotic object. It is used to specify the creation of new module namespace
exotic objects. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: module.⁠[[Namespace]] is EMPTY.

2. Let internalSlotsList be the internal slots listed in Table 33.
3. Let M be MakeBasicObject(internalSlotsList).
4. Set M's essential internal methods to the definitions specified in 10.4.6.
5. Set M.⁠[[Module]] to module.
6. Let sortedExports be a List whose elements are the elements of exports, sorted according to lexicographic code unit
order.
7. Set M.⁠[[Exports]] to sortedExports.
8. Create own properties of M corresponding to the definitions in 28.3.
9. Set module.⁠[[Namespace]] to M.
10. Return M.

10.4.7 Immutable Prototype Exotic Objects

An immutable prototype exotic object is an exotic object that has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot that will not change once it
is initialized.

An object is an immutable prototype exotic object if its ⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]] internal method uses the following implement-
ation. (Its other essential internal methods may use any implementation, depending on the specific immutable prototype
exotic object in question.)

NOTE Unlike other exotic objects, there is not a dedicated creation abstract operation provided for immutable
prototype exotic objects. This is because they are only used by %[Link]% and by host
environments, and in host environments, the relevant objects are potentially exotic in other ways and thus
need their own dedicated creation operation.

[Link] ⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]] ( V )

The ⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]] internal method of an immutable prototype exotic object O takes argument V (an Object or null)
and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Return ? SetImmutablePrototype(O, V).

[Link] SetImmutablePrototype ( O, V )

The abstract operation SetImmutablePrototype takes arguments O (an Object) and V (an Object or null) and returns
either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let current be ? O.⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]]().

2. If SameValue(V, current) is true, return true.
3. Return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

10.5 Proxy Object Internal Methods and Internal Slots

A Proxy object is an exotic object whose essential internal methods are partially implemented using ECMAScript code.
Every Proxy object has an internal slot called ⁠[[ProxyHandler]]. The value of ⁠[[ProxyHandler]] is an object, called the
proxy's handler object, or null. Methods (see Table 34) of a handler object may be used to augment the implementation
for one or more of the Proxy object's internal methods. Every Proxy object also has an internal slot called ⁠[[ProxyTarget]]
whose value is either an object or null. This object is called the proxy's target object.

An object is a Proxy exotic object if its essential internal methods (including ⁠[[Call]] and [[Construct]], if applicable) use
the definitions in this section. These internal methods are installed in ProxyCreate.

Table 34: Proxy Handler Methods

Internal Method Handler Method
⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] getPrototypeOf
⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]] setPrototypeOf
⁠[[IsExtensible]] isExtensible
⁠[[PreventExtensions]] preventExtensions
⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] getOwnPropertyDescriptor
⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] defineProperty
⁠[[HasProperty]] has
⁠[[Get]] get
⁠[[Set]] set
⁠[[Delete]] deleteProperty
⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]] ownKeys
⁠[[Call]] apply
⁠[[Construct]] construct

When a handler method is called to provide the implementation of a Proxy object internal method, the handler method is
passed the proxy's target object as a parameter. A proxy's handler object does not necessarily have a method corres-
ponding to every essential internal method. Invoking an internal method on the proxy results in the invocation of the cor-
responding internal method on the proxy's target object if the handler object does not have a method corresponding to
the internal trap.

The ⁠[[ProxyHandler]] and ⁠[[ProxyTarget]] internal slots of a Proxy object are always initialized when the object is created
and typically may not be modified. Some Proxy objects are created in a manner that permits them to be subsequently
revoked. When a proxy is revoked, its ⁠[[ProxyHandler]] and ⁠[[ProxyTarget]] internal slots are set to null causing sub-
sequent invocations of internal methods on that Proxy object to throw a TypeError exception.

Because Proxy objects permit the implementation of internal methods to be provided by arbitrary ECMAScript code, it is
possible to define a Proxy object whose handler methods violates the invariants defined in [Link]. Some of the internal
method invariants defined in [Link] are essential integrity invariants. These invariants are explicitly enforced by the
Proxy object internal methods specified in this section. An ECMAScript implementation must be robust in the presence
of all possible invariant violations.

In the following algorithm descriptions, assume O is an ECMAScript Proxy object, P is a property key value, V is any
ECMAScript language value and Desc is a Property Descriptor record.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

10.5.1 ⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] ( )

The [[GetPrototypeOf]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes no arguments and returns either a normal com-
pletion containing either an Object or null, or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

NOTE [[GetPrototypeOf]] for Proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of ⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] must be either an Object or null.

If the target object is not extensible, ⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] applied to the Proxy object must return the same
value as ⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] applied to the Proxy object's target object.

10.5.2 ⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]] ( V )

The ⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes argument V (an Object or null) and returns
either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

NOTE [[SetPrototypeOf]] for Proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of ⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]] is a Boolean value.

If the target object is not extensible, the argument value must be the same as the result of
⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] applied to target object.

10.5.3 ⁠[[IsExtensible]] ( )

The ⁠[[IsExtensible]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes no arguments and returns either a normal comple-

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

tion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

NOTE [[IsExtensible]] for Proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of ⁠[[IsExtensible]] is a Boolean value.

⁠[[IsExtensible]] applied to the Proxy object must return the same value as ⁠[[IsExtensible]] applied to the
Proxy object's target object with the same argument.

10.5.4 ⁠[[PreventExtensions]] ( )

The ⁠[[PreventExtensions]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes no arguments and returns either a normal
completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

NOTE [[PreventExtensions]] for Proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of ⁠[[PreventExtensions]] is a Boolean value.

⁠[[PreventExtensions]] applied to the Proxy object only returns true if ⁠[[IsExtensible]] applied to the Proxy
object's target object is false.

10.5.5 ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] ( P )

The ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes argument P (a property key) and returns either
a normal completion containing either a Property Descriptor or undefined, or a throw completion. It performs the follow-
ing steps when called:

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7. Let trapResultObj be ? Call(trap, handler, « target, P »).

8. If trapResultObj is not an Object and trapResultObj is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
9. Let targetDesc be ? target.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](P).
10. If trapResultObj is undefined, then
a. If targetDesc is undefined, return undefined.
b. If targetDesc.⁠[[Configurable]] is false, throw a TypeError exception.
c. Let extensibleTarget be ? IsExtensible(target).
d. If extensibleTarget is false, throw a TypeError exception.
e. Return undefined.
11. Let extensibleTarget be ? IsExtensible(target).
12. Let resultDesc be ? ToPropertyDescriptor(trapResultObj).
13. Perform CompletePropertyDescriptor(resultDesc).
14. Let valid be IsCompatiblePropertyDescriptor(extensibleTarget, resultDesc, targetDesc).
15. If valid is false, throw a TypeError exception.
16. If resultDesc.⁠[[Configurable]] is false, then
a. If targetDesc is undefined or targetDesc.⁠[[Configurable]] is true, then
i. Throw a TypeError exception.
b. If resultDesc has a ⁠[[Writable]] field and resultDesc.⁠[[Writable]] is false, then
i. Assert: targetDesc has a ⁠[[Writable]] field.
ii. If targetDesc.⁠[[Writable]] is true, throw a TypeError exception.
17. Return resultDesc.

NOTE [[GetOwnProperty]] for Proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]] must be either an Object or undefined.

A property cannot be reported as non-existent, if it exists as a non-configurable own property of the
target object.
A property cannot be reported as non-existent, if it exists as an own property of a non-extensible target
object.
A property cannot be reported as existent, if it does not exist as an own property of the target object and
the target object is not extensible.
A property cannot be reported as non-configurable, unless it exists as a non-configurable own property
of the target object.
A property cannot be reported as both non-configurable and non-writable, unless it exists as a non-
configurable, non-writable own property of the target object.

10.5.6 ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] ( P, Desc )

The ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes arguments P (a property key) and Desc (a
Property Descriptor) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the
following steps when called:

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

a. If extensibleTarget is false, throw a TypeError exception.

b. If settingConfigFalse is true, throw a TypeError exception.
15. Else,
a. If IsCompatiblePropertyDescriptor(extensibleTarget, Desc, targetDesc) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
b. If settingConfigFalse is true and targetDesc.⁠[[Configurable]] is true, throw a TypeError exception.
c. If IsDataDescriptor(targetDesc) is true, targetDesc.⁠[[Configurable]] is false, and targetDesc.⁠[[Writable]] is true,
then
i. If Desc has a ⁠[[Writable]] field and Desc.⁠[[Writable]] is false, throw a TypeError exception.
16. Return true.

NOTE [[DefineOwnProperty]] for Proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] is a Boolean value.

A property cannot be added, if the target object is not extensible.
A property cannot be non-configurable, unless there exists a corresponding non-configurable own
property of the target object.
A non-configurable property cannot be non-writable, unless there exists a corresponding non-
configurable, non-writable own property of the target object.
If a property has a corresponding target object property then applying the Property Descriptor of the
property to the target object using ⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]] will not throw an exception.

10.5.7 ⁠[[HasProperty]] ( P )

The ⁠[[HasProperty]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes argument P (a property key) and returns either a
normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

NOTE [[HasProperty]] for Proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of ⁠[[HasProperty]] is a Boolean value.

10.5.8 ⁠[[Get]] ( P, Receiver )

The ⁠[[Get]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes arguments P (a property key) and Receiver (an ECMAScript
language value) and returns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw comple-

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

tion. It performs the following steps when called:

NOTE [[Get]] for Proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The value reported for a property must be the same as the value of the corresponding target object
property if the target object property is a non-writable, non-configurable own data property.
The value reported for a property must be undefined if the corresponding target object property is a
non-configurable own accessor property that has undefined as its ⁠[[Get]] attribute.

10.5.9 ⁠[[Set]] ( P, V, Receiver )

The ⁠[[Set]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes arguments P (a property key), V (an ECMAScript language
value), and Receiver (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a
throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

NOTE [[Set]] for Proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of ⁠[[Set]] is a Boolean value.

Cannot change the value of a property to be different from the value of the corresponding target object
property if the corresponding target object property is a non-writable, non-configurable own data
property.
Cannot set the value of a property if the corresponding target object property is a non-configurable own
accessor property that has undefined as its ⁠[[Set]] attribute.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

10.5.10 ⁠[[Delete]] ( P )

The ⁠[[Delete]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes argument P (a property key) and returns either a normal
completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

NOTE [[Delete]] for Proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of ⁠[[Delete]] is a Boolean value.

A property cannot be reported as deleted, if it exists as a non-configurable own property of the target
object.
A property cannot be reported as deleted, if it exists as an own property of the target object and the
target object is non-extensible.

10.5.11 ⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]] ( )

The ⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes no arguments and returns either a normal
completion containing a List of property keys or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Perform ? ValidateNonRevokedProxy(O).
2. Let target be O.⁠[[ProxyTarget]].
3. Let handler be O.⁠[[ProxyHandler]].
4. Assert: handler is an Object.
5. Let trap be ? GetMethod(handler, "ownKeys").
6. If trap is undefined, then
a. Return ? target.⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
7. Let trapResultArray be ? Call(trap, handler, « target »).
8. Let trapResult be ? CreateListFromArrayLike(trapResultArray, PROPERTY-KEY).
9. If trapResult contains any duplicate entries, throw a TypeError exception.
10. Let extensibleTarget be ? IsExtensible(target).
11. Let targetKeys be ? target.⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
12. Assert: targetKeys is a List of property keys.
13. Assert: targetKeys contains no duplicate entries.
14. Let targetConfigurableKeys be a new empty List.
15. Let targetNonconfigurableKeys be a new empty List.
16. For each element key of targetKeys, do
a. Let desc be ? target.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](key).
b. If desc is not undefined and desc.⁠[[Configurable]] is false, then
i. Append key to targetNonconfigurableKeys.
c. Else,
i. Append key to targetConfigurableKeys.
17. If extensibleTarget is true and targetNonconfigurableKeys is empty, then
a. Return trapResult.
18. Let uncheckedResultKeys be a List whose elements are the elements of trapResult.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

19. For each element key of targetNonconfigurableKeys, do

a. If uncheckedResultKeys does not contain key, throw a TypeError exception.
b. Remove key from uncheckedResultKeys.
20. If extensibleTarget is true, return trapResult.
21. For each element key of targetConfigurableKeys, do
a. If uncheckedResultKeys does not contain key, throw a TypeError exception.
b. Remove key from uncheckedResultKeys.
22. If uncheckedResultKeys is not empty, throw a TypeError exception.
23. Return trapResult.

NOTE [[OwnPropertyKeys]] for Proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of ⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]] is a List.

The returned List contains no duplicate entries.
Each element of the returned List is a property key.
The result List must contain the keys of all non-configurable own properties of the target object.
If the target object is not extensible, then the result List must contain all the keys of the own properties of
the target object and no other values.

10.5.12 ⁠[[Call]] ( thisArgument, argumentsList )

The ⁠[[Call]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes arguments thisArgument (an ECMAScript language value)
and argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns either a normal completion containing an
ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Perform ? ValidateNonRevokedProxy(O).
2. Let target be O.⁠[[ProxyTarget]].
3. Let handler be O.⁠[[ProxyHandler]].
4. Assert: handler is an Object.
5. Let trap be ? GetMethod(handler, "apply").
6. If trap is undefined, then
a. Return ? Call(target, thisArgument, argumentsList).
7. Let argArray be CreateArrayFromList(argumentsList).
8. Return ? Call(trap, handler, « target, thisArgument, argArray »).

NOTE A Proxy exotic object only has a ⁠[[Call]] internal method if the initial value of its ⁠[[ProxyTarget]] internal slot is
an object that has a ⁠[[Call]] internal method.

10.5.13 ⁠[[Construct]] ( argumentsList, newTarget )

The ⁠[[Construct]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes arguments argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript lan-
guage values) and newTarget (a constructor) and returns either a normal completion containing an Object or a throw
completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Perform ? ValidateNonRevokedProxy(O).
2. Let target be O.⁠[[ProxyTarget]].
3. Assert: IsConstructor(target) is true.
4. Let handler be O.⁠[[ProxyHandler]].
5. Assert: handler is an Object.
6. Let trap be ? GetMethod(handler, "construct").
7. If trap is undefined, then
a. Return ? Construct(target, argumentsList, newTarget).
8. Let argArray be CreateArrayFromList(argumentsList).
9. Let newObj be ? Call(trap, handler, « target, argArray, newTarget »).
10. If newObj is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
11. Return newObj.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 1 A Proxy exotic object only has a ⁠[[Construct]] internal method if the initial value of its ⁠[[ProxyTarget]] internal
slot is an object that has a ⁠[[Construct]] internal method.

NOTE 2 [[Construct]] for Proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of ⁠[[Construct]] must be an Object.

10.5.14 ValidateNonRevokedProxy ( proxy )

The abstract operation ValidateNonRevokedProxy takes argument proxy (a Proxy exotic object) and returns either a
normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It throws a TypeError exception if proxy has been re-
voked. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If proxy.⁠[[ProxyTarget]] is null, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Assert: proxy.⁠[[ProxyHandler]] is not null.
3. Return UNUSED.

10.5.15 ProxyCreate ( target, handler )

The abstract operation ProxyCreate takes arguments target (an ECMAScript language value) and handler (an
ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing a Proxy exotic object or a throw comple-
tion. It is used to specify the creation of new Proxy objects. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If target is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. If handler is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let P be MakeBasicObject(« ⁠[[ProxyHandler]], ⁠[[ProxyTarget]] »).
4. Set P's essential internal methods, except for ⁠[[Call]] and ⁠[[Construct]], to the definitions specified in 10.5.
5. If IsCallable(target) is true, then
a. Set P.⁠[[Call]] as specified in 10.5.12.
b. If IsConstructor(target) is true, then
i. Set P.⁠[[Construct]] as specified in 10.5.13.
6. Set P.⁠[[ProxyTarget]] to target.
7. Set P.⁠[[ProxyHandler]] to handler.
8. Return P.

11 ECMAScript Language: Source Text

11.1 Source Text

Syntax

SourceCharacter ::
any Unicode code point

ECMAScript source text is a sequence of Unicode code points. All Unicode code point values from U+0000 to
U+10FFFF, including surrogate code points, may occur in ECMAScript source text where permitted by the ECMAScript
grammars. The actual encodings used to store and interchange ECMAScript source text is not relevant to this specifica-
tion. Regardless of the external source text encoding, a conforming ECMAScript implementation processes the source
text as if it was an equivalent sequence of SourceCharacter values, each SourceCharacter being a Unicode code point.
Conforming ECMAScript implementations are not required to perform any normalization of source text, or behave as
though they were performing normalization of source text.

The components of a combining character sequence are treated as individual Unicode code points even though a user
might think of the whole sequence as a single character.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE In string literals, regular expression literals, template literals and identifiers, any Unicode code point may
also be expressed using Unicode escape sequences that explicitly express a code point's numeric value.
Within a comment, such an escape sequence is effectively ignored as part of the comment.

ECMAScript differs from the Java programming language in the behaviour of Unicode escape sequences. In
a Java program, if the Unicode escape sequence \u000A, for example, occurs within a single-line comment,
it is interpreted as a line terminator (Unicode code point U+000A is LINE FEED (LF)) and therefore the next
code point is not part of the comment. Similarly, if the Unicode escape sequence \u000A occurs within a
string literal in a Java program, it is likewise interpreted as a line terminator, which is not allowed within a
string literal—one must write \n instead of \u000A to cause a LINE FEED (LF) to be part of the value of a
string literal. In an ECMAScript program, a Unicode escape sequence occurring within a comment is never
interpreted and therefore cannot contribute to termination of the comment. Similarly, a Unicode escape
sequence occurring within a string literal in an ECMAScript program always contributes to the literal and is
never interpreted as a line terminator or as a code point that might terminate the string literal.

11.1.1 Static Semantics: UTF16EncodeCodePoint ( cp )

The abstract operation UTF16EncodeCodePoint takes argument cp (a Unicode code point) and returns a String. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Assert: 0 ≤ cp ≤ 0x10FFFF.
2. If cp ≤ 0xFFFF, return the String value consisting of the code unit whose numeric value is cp.
3. Let cu1 be the code unit whose numeric value is floor((cp - 0x10000) / 0x400) + 0xD800.
4. Let cu2 be the code unit whose numeric value is ((cp - 0x10000) modulo 0x400) + 0xDC00.
5. Return the string-concatenation of cu1 and cu2.

11.1.2 Static Semantics: CodePointsToString ( text )

The abstract operation CodePointsToString takes argument text (a sequence of Unicode code points) and returns a
String. It converts text into a String value, as described in 6.1.4. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let result be the empty String.

2. For each code point cp of text, do
a. Set result to the string-concatenation of result and UTF16EncodeCodePoint(cp).
3. Return result.

11.1.3 Static Semantics: UTF16SurrogatePairToCodePoint ( lead, trail )

The abstract operation UTF16SurrogatePairToCodePoint takes arguments lead (a code unit) and trail (a code unit) and
returns a code point. Two code units that form a UTF-16 surrogate pair are converted to a code point. It performs the fol-
lowing steps when called:

1. Assert: lead is a leading surrogate and trail is a trailing surrogate.

2. Let cp be (lead - 0xD800) × 0x400 + (trail - 0xDC00) + 0x10000.
3. Return the code point cp.

11.1.4 Static Semantics: CodePointAt ( string, position )

The abstract operation CodePointAt takes arguments string (a String) and position (a non-negative integer) and returns
a Record with fields ⁠[[CodePoint]] (a code point), ⁠[[CodeUnitCount]] (a positive integer), and ⁠[[IsUnpairedSurrogate]] (a
Boolean). It interprets string as a sequence of UTF-16 encoded code points, as described in 6.1.4, and reads from it a
single code point starting with the code unit at index position. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let size be the length of string.

2. Assert: position ≥ 0 and position < size.
3. Let first be the code unit at index position within string.
4. Let cp be the code point whose numeric value is the numeric value of first.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

5. If first is neither a leading surrogate nor a trailing surrogate, then

a. Return the Record { ⁠[[CodePoint]]: cp, ⁠[[CodeUnitCount]]: 1, [[IsUnpairedSurrogate]]: false }.
6. If first is a trailing surrogate or position + 1 = size, then
a. Return the Record { ⁠[[CodePoint]]: cp, ⁠[[CodeUnitCount]]: 1, [[IsUnpairedSurrogate]]: true }.
7. Let second be the code unit at index position + 1 within string.
8. If second is not a trailing surrogate, then
a. Return the Record { ⁠[[CodePoint]]: cp, ⁠[[CodeUnitCount]]: 1, [[IsUnpairedSurrogate]]: true }.
9. Set cp to UTF16SurrogatePairToCodePoint(first, second).
10. Return the Record { ⁠[[CodePoint]]: cp, ⁠[[CodeUnitCount]]: 2, ⁠[[IsUnpairedSurrogate]]: false }.

11.1.5 Static Semantics: StringToCodePoints ( string )

The abstract operation StringToCodePoints takes argument string (a String) and returns a List of code points. It returns
the sequence of Unicode code points that results from interpreting string as UTF-16 encoded Unicode text as described
in 6.1.4. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let codePoints be a new empty List.

2. Let size be the length of string.
3. Let position be 0.
4. Repeat, while position < size,
a. Let cp be CodePointAt(string, position).
b. Append cp.⁠[[CodePoint]] to codePoints.
c. Set position to position + cp.⁠[[CodeUnitCount]].
5. Return codePoints.

11.1.6 Static Semantics: ParseText ( sourceText, goalSymbol )

The abstract operation ParseText takes arguments sourceText (a String or a sequence of Unicode code points) and
goalSymbol (a nonterminal in one of the ECMAScript grammars) and returns a Parse Node or a non-empty List of
SyntaxError objects. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If sourceText is a String, set sourceText to StringToCodePoints(sourceText).

2. Attempt to parse sourceText using goalSymbol as the goal symbol, and analyse the parse result for any early error
conditions. Parsing and early error detection may be interleaved in an implementation-defined manner.
3. If the parse succeeded and no early errors were found, return the Parse Node (an instance of goalSymbol) at the
root of the parse tree resulting from the parse.
4. Otherwise, return a List of one or more SyntaxError objects representing the parsing errors and/or early errors. If
more than one parsing error or early error is present, the number and ordering of error objects in the list is
implementation-defined, but at least one must be present.

NOTE 1 Consider a text that has an early error at a particular point, and also a syntax error at a later point. An
implementation that does a parse pass followed by an early errors pass might report the syntax error and
not proceed to the early errors pass. An implementation that interleaves the two activities might report the
early error and not proceed to find the syntax error. A third implementation might report both errors. All of
these behaviours are conformant.

NOTE 2 See also clause 17.

11.2 Types of Source Code

There are four types of ECMAScript code:

Global code is source text that is treated as an ECMAScript Script. The global code of a particular Script does not
include any source text that is parsed as part of a FunctionDeclaration, FunctionExpression, GeneratorDeclaration,
GeneratorExpression, AsyncFunctionDeclaration, AsyncFunctionExpression, AsyncGeneratorDeclaration,
AsyncGeneratorExpression, MethodDefinition, ArrowFunction, AsyncArrowFunction, ClassDeclaration, or
ClassExpression.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Eval code is the source text supplied to the built-in eval function. More precisely, if the parameter to the built-in
eval function is a String, it is treated as an ECMAScript Script. The eval code for a particular invocation of eval is
the global code portion of that Script.

Function code is source text that is parsed to supply the value of the ⁠[[ECMAScriptCode]] and ⁠[[FormalParameters]]
internal slots (see 10.2) of an ECMAScript function object. The function code of a particular ECMAScript function
does not include any source text that is parsed as the function code of a nested FunctionDeclaration,
FunctionExpression, GeneratorDeclaration, GeneratorExpression, AsyncFunctionDeclaration,
AsyncFunctionExpression, AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, AsyncGeneratorExpression, MethodDefinition,
ArrowFunction, AsyncArrowFunction, ClassDeclaration, or ClassExpression.

In addition, if the source text referred to above is parsed as:

the FormalParameters and FunctionBody of a FunctionDeclaration or FunctionExpression,

the FormalParameters and GeneratorBody of a GeneratorDeclaration or GeneratorExpression,
the FormalParameters and AsyncFunctionBody of an AsyncFunctionDeclaration or AsyncFunctionExpression,
or
the FormalParameters and AsyncGeneratorBody of an AsyncGeneratorDeclaration or
AsyncGeneratorExpression,

then the source text matched by the BindingIdentifier (if any) of that declaration or expression is also included in the
function code of the corresponding function.
Module code is source text that is code that is provided as a ModuleBody. It is the code that is directly evaluated
when a module is initialized. The module code of a particular module does not include any source text that is parsed
as part of a nested FunctionDeclaration, FunctionExpression, GeneratorDeclaration, GeneratorExpression,
AsyncFunctionDeclaration, AsyncFunctionExpression, AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, AsyncGeneratorExpression,
MethodDefinition, ArrowFunction, AsyncArrowFunction, ClassDeclaration, or ClassExpression.

NOTE 1 Function code is generally provided as the bodies of Function Definitions (15.2), Arrow Function Definitions
(15.3), Method Definitions (15.4), Generator Function Definitions (15.5), Async Function Definitions (15.8),
Async Generator Function Definitions (15.6), and Async Arrow Functions (15.9). Function code
is also derived from the arguments to the Function constructor ([Link]), the GeneratorFunction
constructor ([Link]), the AsyncFunction constructor ([Link]), and the AsyncGeneratorFunction
constructor ([Link]).

NOTE 2 The practical effect of including the BindingIdentifier in function code is that the Early Errors for strict mode
code are applied to a BindingIdentifier that is the name of a function whose body contains a "use strict"
directive, even if the surrounding code is not strict mode code.

11.2.1 Directive Prologues and the Use Strict Directive

A Directive Prologue is the longest sequence of ExpressionStatements occurring as the initial StatementListItems or
ModuleItems of a FunctionBody, a ScriptBody, or a ModuleBody and where each ExpressionStatement in the sequence
consists entirely of a StringLiteral token followed by a semicolon. The semicolon may appear explicitly or may be inser-
ted by automatic semicolon insertion (12.10). A Directive Prologue may be an empty sequence.

A Use Strict Directive is an ExpressionStatement in a Directive Prologue whose StringLiteral is either of the
exact code point sequences "use strict" or 'use strict'. A Use Strict Directive may not contain an
EscapeSequence or LineContinuation.

A Directive Prologue may contain more than one Use Strict Directive. However, an implementation may issue a warning
if this occurs.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE The ExpressionStatements of a Directive Prologue are evaluated normally during evaluation of the
containing production. Implementations may define implementation specific meanings for
ExpressionStatements which are not a Use Strict Directive and which occur in a Directive Prologue. If an
appropriate notification mechanism exists, an implementation should issue a warning if it encounters in a
Directive Prologue an ExpressionStatement that is not a Use Strict Directive and which does not have a
meaning defined by the implementation.

11.2.2 Strict Mode Code

An ECMAScript syntactic unit may be processed using either unrestricted or strict mode syntax and semantics (4.3.2).
Code is interpreted as strict mode code in the following situations:

Global code is strict mode code if it begins with a Directive Prologue that contains a Use Strict Directive.
Module code is always strict mode code.
All parts of a ClassDeclaration or a ClassExpression are strict mode code.
Eval code is strict mode code if it begins with a Directive Prologue that contains a Use Strict Directive or if the call to
eval is a direct eval that is contained in strict mode code.
Function code is strict mode code if the associated FunctionDeclaration, FunctionExpression, GeneratorDeclaration,
GeneratorExpression, AsyncFunctionDeclaration, AsyncFunctionExpression, AsyncGeneratorDeclaration,
AsyncGeneratorExpression, MethodDefinition, ArrowFunction, or AsyncArrowFunction is contained in strict mode
code or if the code that produces the value of the function's ⁠[[ECMAScriptCode]] internal slot begins with a Directive
Prologue that contains a Use Strict Directive.
Function code that is supplied as the arguments to the built-in Function, Generator, AsyncFunction, and
AsyncGenerator constructors is strict mode code if the last argument is a String that when processed is a
FunctionBody that begins with a Directive Prologue that contains a Use Strict Directive.

ECMAScript code that is not strict mode code is called non-strict code.

[Link] Static Semantics: IsStrict ( node )

The abstract operation IsStrict takes argument node (a Parse Node) and returns a Boolean. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. If the source text matched by node is strict mode code, return true; else return false.

11.2.3 Non-ECMAScript Functions

An ECMAScript implementation may support the evaluation of function exotic objects whose evaluative behaviour is ex-
pressed in some host-defined form of executable code other than ECMAScript source text. Whether a function object is
defined within ECMAScript code or is a built-in function is not observable from the perspective of ECMAScript code that
calls or is called by such a function object.

12 ECMAScript Language: Lexical Grammar

The source text of an ECMAScript Script or Module is first converted into a sequence of input elements, which are
tokens, line terminators, comments, or white space. The source text is scanned from left to right, repeatedly taking the
longest possible sequence of code points as the next input element.

There are several situations where the identification of lexical input elements is sensitive to the syntactic grammar con-
text that is consuming the input elements. This requires multiple goal symbols for the lexical grammar. The
InputElementHashbangOrRegExp goal is used at the start of a Script or Module. The
InputElementRegExpOrTemplateTail goal is used in syntactic grammar contexts where a RegularExpressionLiteral, a
TemplateMiddle, or a TemplateTail is permitted. The InputElementRegExp goal symbol is used in all syntactic grammar
contexts where a RegularExpressionLiteral is permitted but neither a TemplateMiddle, nor a TemplateTail is permitted.
The InputElementTemplateTail goal is used in all syntactic grammar contexts where a TemplateMiddle or a TemplateTail
is permitted but a RegularExpressionLiteral is not permitted. In all other contexts, InputElementDiv is used as the lexical
goal symbol.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE The use of multiple lexical goals ensures that there are no lexical ambiguities that would affect automatic
semicolon insertion. For example, there are no syntactic grammar contexts where both a leading division or
division-assignment, and a leading RegularExpressionLiteral are permitted. This is not affected by semicolon
insertion (see 12.10); in examples such as the following:

a = b
/hi/[Link](c).map(d);

where the first non-whitespace, non-comment code point after a LineTerminator is U+002F (SOLIDUS) and
the syntactic context allows division or division-assignment, no semicolon is inserted at the LineTerminator.
That is, the above example is interpreted in the same way as:

a = b / hi / [Link](c).map(d);

Syntax
InputElementDiv ::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator
Comment
CommonToken
DivPunctuator
RightBracePunctuator

InputElementRegExp ::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator
Comment
CommonToken
RightBracePunctuator
RegularExpressionLiteral

InputElementRegExpOrTemplateTail ::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator
Comment
CommonToken
RegularExpressionLiteral
TemplateSubstitutionTail

InputElementTemplateTail ::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator
Comment
CommonToken
DivPunctuator
TemplateSubstitutionTail

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

InputElementHashbangOrRegExp ::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator
Comment
CommonToken
HashbangComment
RegularExpressionLiteral

12.1 Unicode Format-Control Characters

The Unicode format-control characters (i.e., the characters in category “Cf” in the Unicode Character Database such as
LEFT-TO-RIGHT MARK or RIGHT-TO-LEFT MARK) are control codes used to control the formatting of a range of text in
the absence of higher-level protocols for this (such as mark-up languages).

It is useful to allow format-control characters in source text to facilitate editing and display. All format control characters
may be used within comments, and within string literals, template literals, and regular expression literals.

U+FEFF (ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE) is a format-control character used primarily at the start of a text to mark it
as Unicode and to allow detection of the text's encoding and byte order. <ZWNBSP> characters intended for this pur-
pose can sometimes also appear after the start of a text, for example as a result of concatenating files. In ECMAScript
source text <ZWNBSP> code points are treated as white space characters (see 12.2) outside of comments, string liter-
als, template literals, and regular expression literals.

12.2 White Space

White space code points are used to improve source text readability and to separate tokens (indivisible lexical units)
from each other, but are otherwise insignificant. White space code points may occur between any two tokens and at the
start or end of input. White space code points may occur within a StringLiteral, a RegularExpressionLiteral, a Template,
or a TemplateSubstitutionTail where they are considered significant code points forming part of a literal value. They may
also occur within a Comment, but cannot appear within any other kind of token.

The ECMAScript white space code points are listed in Table 35.

Table 35: White Space Code Points

Code Points Name Abbreviation
U+0009 CHARACTER TABULATION <TAB>
U+000B LINE TABULATION <VT>
U+000C FORM FEED (FF) <FF>
U+FEFF ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE <ZWNBSP>
any code point in general category “Space_Separator” <USP>

NOTE 1 U+0020 (SPACE) and U+00A0 (NO-BREAK SPACE) code points are part of <USP>.

NOTE 2 Other than for the code points listed in Table 35, ECMAScript WhiteSpace intentionally excludes all code
points that have the Unicode “White_Space” property but which are not classified in general category
“Space_Separator” (“Zs”).

Syntax

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

WhiteSpace ::
<TAB>
<VT>
<FF>
<ZWNBSP>
<USP>

12.3 Line Terminators

Like white space code points, line terminator code points are used to improve source text readability and to separate
tokens (indivisible lexical units) from each other. However, unlike white space code points, line terminators have some
influence over the behaviour of the syntactic grammar. In general, line terminators may occur between any two tokens,
but there are a few places where they are forbidden by the syntactic grammar. Line terminators also affect the process
of automatic semicolon insertion (12.10). A line terminator cannot occur within any token except a StringLiteral,
Template, or TemplateSubstitutionTail. <LF> and <CR> line terminators cannot occur within a StringLiteral token except
as part of a LineContinuation.

A line terminator can occur within a MultiLineComment but cannot occur within a SingleLineComment.

Line terminators are included in the set of white space code points that are matched by the \s class in
regular expressions.

The ECMAScript line terminator code points are listed in Table 36.

Table 36: Line Terminator Code Points

Code Point Unicode Name Abbreviation
U+000A LINE FEED (LF) <LF>
U+000D CARRIAGE RETURN (CR) <CR>
U+2028 LINE SEPARATOR <LS>
U+2029 PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR <PS>

Only the Unicode code points in Table 36 are treated as line terminators. Other new line or line breaking Unicode code
points are not treated as line terminators but are treated as white space if they meet the requirements listed in Table 35.
The sequence <CR><LF> is commonly used as a line terminator. It should be considered a single SourceCharacter for
the purpose of reporting line numbers.

Syntax

LineTerminator ::
<LF>
<CR>
<LS>
<PS>

LineTerminatorSequence ::
<LF>
<CR> [lookahead ≠ <LF>]
<LS>
<PS>
<CR> <LF>

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

12.4 Comments

Comments can be either single or multi-line. Multi-line comments cannot nest.

Because a single-line comment can contain any Unicode code point except a LineTerminator code point, and because
of the general rule that a token is always as long as possible, a single-line comment always consists of all code points
from the // marker to the end of the line. However, the LineTerminator at the end of the line is not considered to be part
of the single-line comment; it is recognized separately by the lexical grammar and becomes part of the stream of input
elements for the syntactic grammar. This point is very important, because it implies that the presence or absence of
single-line comments does not affect the process of automatic semicolon insertion (see 12.10).

Comments behave like white space and are discarded except that, if a MultiLineComment contains a line
terminator code point, then the entire comment is considered to be a LineTerminator for purposes of parsing by the
syntactic grammar.

Syntax

Comment ::
MultiLineComment
SingleLineComment

MultiLineComment ::
/* MultiLineCommentCharsopt */

MultiLineCommentChars ::
MultiLineNotAsteriskChar MultiLineCommentCharsopt
* PostAsteriskCommentCharsopt

PostAsteriskCommentChars ::
MultiLineNotForwardSlashOrAsteriskChar MultiLineCommentCharsopt
* PostAsteriskCommentCharsopt

MultiLineNotAsteriskChar ::
SourceCharacter but not *

MultiLineNotForwardSlashOrAsteriskChar ::
SourceCharacter but not one of / or *

SingleLineComment ::
// SingleLineCommentCharsopt

SingleLineCommentChars ::
SingleLineCommentChar SingleLineCommentCharsopt

SingleLineCommentChar ::
SourceCharacter but not LineTerminator

A number of productions in this section are given alternative definitions in section B.1.1

12.5 Hashbang Comments

Hashbang Comments are location-sensitive and like other types of comments are discarded from the stream of input
elements for the syntactic grammar.

Syntax

HashbangComment ::
#! SingleLineCommentCharsopt

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

12.6 Tokens
Syntax

CommonToken ::
IdentifierName
PrivateIdentifier
Punctuator
NumericLiteral
StringLiteral
Template

NOTE The DivPunctuator, RegularExpressionLiteral, RightBracePunctuator, and TemplateSubstitutionTail

productions derive additional tokens that are not included in the CommonToken production.

12.7 Names and Keywords

IdentifierName and ReservedWord are tokens that are interpreted according to the Default Identifier Syntax given in
Unicode Standard Annex #31, Identifier and Pattern Syntax, with some small modifications. ReservedWord is an enu-
merated subset of IdentifierName. The syntactic grammar defines Identifier as an IdentifierName that is not a
ReservedWord. The Unicode identifier grammar is based on character properties specified by the Unicode Standard.
The Unicode code points in the specified categories in the latest version of the Unicode Standard must be treated as in
those categories by all conforming ECMAScript implementations. ECMAScript implementations may recognize identifier
code points defined in later editions of the Unicode Standard.

NOTE 1 This standard specifies specific code point additions: U+0024 (DOLLAR SIGN) and U+005F (LOW LINE)
are permitted anywhere in an IdentifierName.

Syntax

PrivateIdentifier ::
# IdentifierName

IdentifierName ::
IdentifierStart
IdentifierName IdentifierPart

IdentifierStart ::
IdentifierStartChar
\ UnicodeEscapeSequence

IdentifierPart ::
IdentifierPartChar
\ UnicodeEscapeSequence

IdentifierStartChar ::
UnicodeIDStart
$
_

IdentifierPartChar ::
UnicodeIDContinue
$

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

AsciiLetter :: one of
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

UnicodeIDStart ::
any Unicode code point with the Unicode property “ID_Start”

UnicodeIDContinue ::
any Unicode code point with the Unicode property “ID_Continue”

The definitions of the nonterminal UnicodeEscapeSequence is given in 12.9.4.

NOTE 2 The nonterminal IdentifierPart derives _ via UnicodeIDContinue.

NOTE 3 The sets of code points with Unicode properties “ID_Start” and “ID_Continue” include, respectively, the code
points with Unicode properties “Other_ID_Start” and “Other_ID_Continue”.

12.7.1 Identifier Names

Unicode escape sequences are permitted in an IdentifierName, where they contribute a single Unicode code point equal
to the IdentifierCodePoint of the UnicodeEscapeSequence. The \ preceding the UnicodeEscapeSequence does not
contribute any code points. A UnicodeEscapeSequence cannot be used to contribute a code point to an IdentifierName
that would otherwise be invalid. In other words, if a \ UnicodeEscapeSequence sequence were replaced by the
SourceCharacter it contributes, the result must still be a valid IdentifierName that has the exact same sequence of
SourceCharacter elements as the original IdentifierName. All interpretations of IdentifierName within this specification
are based upon their actual code points regardless of whether or not an escape sequence was used to contribute any
particular code point.

Two IdentifierNames that are canonically equivalent according to the Unicode Standard are not equal unless, after re-
placement of each UnicodeEscapeSequence, they are represented by the exact same sequence of code points.

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

IdentifierStart :: \ UnicodeEscapeSequence

It is a Syntax Error if the IdentifierCodePoint of UnicodeEscapeSequence is not some Unicode code point matched
by the IdentifierStartChar lexical grammar production.

IdentifierPart :: \ UnicodeEscapeSequence

It is a Syntax Error if the IdentifierCodePoint of UnicodeEscapeSequence is not some Unicode code point matched
by the IdentifierPartChar lexical grammar production.

[Link] Static Semantics: IdentifierCodePoints

The syntax-directed operation IdentifierCodePoints takes no arguments and returns a List of code points. It is defined
piecewise over the following productions:
IdentifierName :: IdentifierStart

1. Let cp be the IdentifierCodePoint of IdentifierStart.

2. Return « cp ».

IdentifierName :: IdentifierName IdentifierPart

1. Let cps be the IdentifierCodePoints of the derived IdentifierName.

2. Let cp be the IdentifierCodePoint of IdentifierPart.
3. Return the list-concatenation of cps and « cp ».

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Static Semantics: IdentifierCodePoint

The syntax-directed operation IdentifierCodePoint takes no arguments and returns a code point. It is defined piecewise
over the following productions:
IdentifierStart :: IdentifierStartChar

1. Return the code point matched by IdentifierStartChar.

IdentifierPart :: IdentifierPartChar

1. Return the code point matched by IdentifierPartChar.

UnicodeEscapeSequence :: u Hex4Digits

1. Return the code point whose numeric value is the MV of Hex4Digits.

UnicodeEscapeSequence :: u{ CodePoint }

1. Return the code point whose numeric value is the MV of CodePoint.

12.7.2 Keywords and Reserved Words

A keyword is a token that matches IdentifierName, but also has a syntactic use; that is, it appears literally, in a
fixed width font, in some syntactic production. The keywords of ECMAScript include if, while, async, await, and
many others.

A reserved word is an IdentifierName that cannot be used as an identifier. Many keywords are reserved words, but
some are not, and some are reserved only in certain contexts. if and while are reserved words. await is reserved
only inside async functions and modules. async is not reserved; it can be used as a variable name or statement label
without restriction.

This specification uses a combination of grammatical productions and early error rules to specify which names are valid
identifiers and which are reserved words. All tokens in the ReservedWord list below, except for await and yield, are
unconditionally reserved. Exceptions for await and yield are specified in 13.1, using parameterized syntactic produc-
tions. Lastly, several early error rules restrict the set of valid identifiers. See 13.1.1, [Link], [Link], and 15.7.1. In
summary, there are five categories of identifier names:

Those that are always allowed as identifiers, and are not keywords, such as Math, window, toString, and _;

Those that are never allowed as identifiers, namely the ReservedWords listed below except await and yield;

Those that are contextually allowed as identifiers, namely await and yield;

Those that are contextually disallowed as identifiers, in strict mode code: let, static, implements, interface,
package, private, protected, and public;

Those that are always allowed as identifiers, but also appear as keywords within certain syntactic productions, at
places where Identifier is not allowed: as, async, from, get, meta, of, set, and target.

The term conditional keyword, or contextual keyword, is sometimes used to refer to the keywords that fall in the last
three categories, and thus can be used as identifiers in some contexts and as keywords in others.

Syntax

ReservedWord :: one of
await break case catch class const continue debugger default delete do else
enum export extends false finally for function if import in instanceof new
null return super switch this throw true try typeof var void while with
yield

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 1 Per 5.1.5, keywords in the grammar match literal sequences of specific SourceCharacter elements. A code
point in a keyword cannot be expressed by a \ UnicodeEscapeSequence.

An IdentifierName can contain \ UnicodeEscapeSequences, but it is not possible to declare a variable

named "else" by spelling it els\u{65}. The early error rules in 13.1.1 rule out identifiers with the same
StringValue as a reserved word.

NOTE 2 enum is not currently used as a keyword in this specification. It is a future reserved word, set aside for use
as a keyword in future language extensions.

Similarly, implements, interface, package, private, protected, and public are future reserved
words in strict mode code.

NOTE 3 The names arguments and eval are not keywords, but they are subject to some restrictions in strict mode
code. See 13.1.1, 8.6.4, 15.2.1, 15.5.1, 15.6.1, and 15.8.1.

12.8 Punctuators
Syntax

Punctuator ::
OptionalChainingPunctuator
OtherPunctuator

OptionalChainingPunctuator ::
?. [lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]

OtherPunctuator :: one of
{ ( ) [ ] . ... ; , < > <= >= == != === !== + - * % ** ++ -- << >> >>> & | ^ ! ~
&& || ?? ? : = += -= *= %= **= <<= >>= >>>= &= |= ^= &&= ||= ??= =>

DivPunctuator ::
/
/=

RightBracePunctuator ::
}

12.9 Literals

12.9.1 Null Literals

Syntax

NullLiteral ::
null

12.9.2 Boolean Literals

Syntax

BooleanLiteral ::
true
false

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

12.9.3 Numeric Literals

Syntax

NumericLiteralSeparator ::
_

NumericLiteral ::
DecimalLiteral
DecimalBigIntegerLiteral
NonDecimalIntegerLiteral[+Sep]
NonDecimalIntegerLiteral[+Sep] BigIntLiteralSuffix
LegacyOctalIntegerLiteral

DecimalBigIntegerLiteral ::
0 BigIntLiteralSuffix
NonZeroDigit DecimalDigits[+Sep] opt BigIntLiteralSuffix
NonZeroDigit NumericLiteralSeparator DecimalDigits[+Sep] BigIntLiteralSuffix

NonDecimalIntegerLiteral[Sep] ::
BinaryIntegerLiteral[?Sep]
OctalIntegerLiteral[?Sep]
HexIntegerLiteral[?Sep]

BigIntLiteralSuffix ::
n

DecimalLiteral ::
DecimalIntegerLiteral . DecimalDigits[+Sep] opt ExponentPart[+Sep] opt
. DecimalDigits[+Sep] ExponentPart[+Sep] opt
DecimalIntegerLiteral ExponentPart[+Sep] opt

DecimalIntegerLiteral ::
0
NonZeroDigit
NonZeroDigit NumericLiteralSeparatoropt DecimalDigits[+Sep]
NonOctalDecimalIntegerLiteral

DecimalDigits[Sep] ::
DecimalDigit
DecimalDigits[?Sep] DecimalDigit
[+Sep] DecimalDigits[+Sep] NumericLiteralSeparator DecimalDigit

DecimalDigit :: one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

NonZeroDigit :: one of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

ExponentPart[Sep] ::
ExponentIndicator SignedInteger[?Sep]

ExponentIndicator :: one of
e E

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

SignedInteger[Sep] ::
DecimalDigits[?Sep]
+ DecimalDigits[?Sep]
- DecimalDigits[?Sep]

BinaryIntegerLiteral[Sep] ::
0b BinaryDigits[?Sep]
0B BinaryDigits[?Sep]

BinaryDigits[Sep] ::
BinaryDigit
BinaryDigits[?Sep] BinaryDigit
[+Sep] BinaryDigits[+Sep] NumericLiteralSeparator BinaryDigit

BinaryDigit :: one of
0 1

OctalIntegerLiteral[Sep] ::
0o OctalDigits[?Sep]
0O OctalDigits[?Sep]

OctalDigits[Sep] ::
OctalDigit
OctalDigits[?Sep] OctalDigit
[+Sep] OctalDigits[+Sep] NumericLiteralSeparator OctalDigit

LegacyOctalIntegerLiteral ::
0 OctalDigit
LegacyOctalIntegerLiteral OctalDigit

NonOctalDecimalIntegerLiteral ::
0 NonOctalDigit
LegacyOctalLikeDecimalIntegerLiteral NonOctalDigit
NonOctalDecimalIntegerLiteral DecimalDigit

LegacyOctalLikeDecimalIntegerLiteral ::
0 OctalDigit
LegacyOctalLikeDecimalIntegerLiteral OctalDigit

OctalDigit :: one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

NonOctalDigit :: one of
8 9

HexIntegerLiteral[Sep] ::
0x HexDigits[?Sep]
0X HexDigits[?Sep]

HexDigits[Sep] ::
HexDigit
HexDigits[?Sep] HexDigit
[+Sep] HexDigits[+Sep] NumericLiteralSeparator HexDigit

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

HexDigit :: one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 a b c d e f A B C D E F

The SourceCharacter immediately following a NumericLiteral must not be an IdentifierStart or DecimalDigit.

NOTE For example: 3in is an error and not the two input elements 3 and in.

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

NumericLiteral :: LegacyOctalIntegerLiteral
DecimalIntegerLiteral :: NonOctalDecimalIntegerLiteral

It is a Syntax Error if IsStrict(this production) is true.

NOTE In non-strict code, this syntax is Legacy.

[Link] Static Semantics: MV

A numeric literal stands for a value of the Number type or the BigInt type.

The MV of DecimalLiteral :: DecimalIntegerLiteral . DecimalDigits is the MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral plus (the

MV of DecimalDigits × 10-n), where n is the number of code points in DecimalDigits, excluding all occurrences of
NumericLiteralSeparator.
The MV of DecimalLiteral :: DecimalIntegerLiteral . ExponentPart is the MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral × 10e,
where e is the MV of ExponentPart.
The MV of DecimalLiteral :: DecimalIntegerLiteral . DecimalDigits ExponentPart is (the MV of
DecimalIntegerLiteral plus (the MV of DecimalDigits × 10-n)) × 10e, where n is the number of code points in
DecimalDigits, excluding all occurrences of NumericLiteralSeparator and e is the MV of ExponentPart.
The MV of DecimalLiteral :: . DecimalDigits is the MV of DecimalDigits × 10-n, where n is the number of code
points in DecimalDigits, excluding all occurrences of NumericLiteralSeparator.
The MV of DecimalLiteral :: . DecimalDigits ExponentPart is the MV of DecimalDigits × 10e - n, where n is the
number of code points in DecimalDigits, excluding all occurrences of NumericLiteralSeparator, and e is the MV of
ExponentPart.
The MV of DecimalLiteral :: DecimalIntegerLiteral ExponentPart is the MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral × 10e, where
e is the MV of ExponentPart.
The MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral :: 0 is 0.
The MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral :: NonZeroDigit NumericLiteralSeparatoropt DecimalDigits is (the MV of
NonZeroDigit × 10n) plus the MV of DecimalDigits, where n is the number of code points in DecimalDigits, excluding
all occurrences of NumericLiteralSeparator.
The MV of DecimalDigits :: DecimalDigits DecimalDigit is (the MV of DecimalDigits × 10) plus the MV of
DecimalDigit.
The MV of DecimalDigits :: DecimalDigits NumericLiteralSeparator DecimalDigit is (the MV of DecimalDigits ×
10) plus the MV of DecimalDigit.
The MV of ExponentPart :: ExponentIndicator SignedInteger is the MV of SignedInteger.
The MV of SignedInteger :: - DecimalDigits is the negative of the MV of DecimalDigits.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 0 or of HexDigit :: 0 or of OctalDigit :: 0 or of LegacyOctalEscapeSequence :: 0
or of BinaryDigit :: 0 is 0.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 1 or of NonZeroDigit :: 1 or of HexDigit :: 1 or of OctalDigit :: 1 or of
BinaryDigit :: 1 is 1.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 2 or of NonZeroDigit :: 2 or of HexDigit :: 2 or of OctalDigit :: 2 is 2.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 3 or of NonZeroDigit :: 3 or of HexDigit :: 3 or of OctalDigit :: 3 is 3.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 4 or of NonZeroDigit :: 4 or of HexDigit :: 4 or of OctalDigit :: 4 is 4.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 5 or of NonZeroDigit :: 5 or of HexDigit :: 5 or of OctalDigit :: 5 is 5.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 6 or of NonZeroDigit :: 6 or of HexDigit :: 6 or of OctalDigit :: 6 is 6.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 7 or of NonZeroDigit :: 7 or of HexDigit :: 7 or of OctalDigit :: 7 is 7.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 8 or of NonZeroDigit :: 8 or of NonOctalDigit :: 8 or of HexDigit :: 8 is 8.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

The MV of DecimalDigit :: 9 or of NonZeroDigit :: 9 or of NonOctalDigit :: 9 or of HexDigit :: 9 is 9.

The MV of HexDigit :: a or of HexDigit :: A is 10.
The MV of HexDigit :: b or of HexDigit :: B is 11.
The MV of HexDigit :: c or of HexDigit :: C is 12.
The MV of HexDigit :: d or of HexDigit :: D is 13.
The MV of HexDigit :: e or of HexDigit :: E is 14.
The MV of HexDigit :: f or of HexDigit :: F is 15.
The MV of BinaryDigits :: BinaryDigits BinaryDigit is (the MV of BinaryDigits × 2) plus the MV of BinaryDigit.
The MV of BinaryDigits :: BinaryDigits NumericLiteralSeparator BinaryDigit is (the MV of BinaryDigits × 2) plus
the MV of BinaryDigit.
The MV of OctalDigits :: OctalDigits OctalDigit is (the MV of OctalDigits × 8) plus the MV of OctalDigit.
The MV of OctalDigits :: OctalDigits NumericLiteralSeparator OctalDigit is (the MV of OctalDigits × 8) plus the
MV of OctalDigit.
The MV of LegacyOctalIntegerLiteral :: LegacyOctalIntegerLiteral OctalDigit is (the MV of
LegacyOctalIntegerLiteral times 8) plus the MV of OctalDigit.
The MV of NonOctalDecimalIntegerLiteral :: LegacyOctalLikeDecimalIntegerLiteral NonOctalDigit is (the MV of
LegacyOctalLikeDecimalIntegerLiteral times 10) plus the MV of NonOctalDigit.
The MV of NonOctalDecimalIntegerLiteral :: NonOctalDecimalIntegerLiteral DecimalDigit is (the MV of
NonOctalDecimalIntegerLiteral times 10) plus the MV of DecimalDigit.
The MV of LegacyOctalLikeDecimalIntegerLiteral :: LegacyOctalLikeDecimalIntegerLiteral OctalDigit is (the MV
of LegacyOctalLikeDecimalIntegerLiteral times 10) plus the MV of OctalDigit.
The MV of HexDigits :: HexDigits HexDigit is (the MV of HexDigits × 16) plus the MV of HexDigit.
The MV of HexDigits :: HexDigits NumericLiteralSeparator HexDigit is (the MV of HexDigits × 16) plus the MV of
HexDigit.

[Link] Static Semantics: NumericValue

The syntax-directed operation NumericValue takes no arguments and returns a Number or a BigInt. It is defined piece-
wise over the following productions:
NumericLiteral :: DecimalLiteral

1. Return RoundMVResult(MV of DecimalLiteral).

NumericLiteral :: NonDecimalIntegerLiteral

1. Return 𝔽(MV of NonDecimalIntegerLiteral).

NumericLiteral :: LegacyOctalIntegerLiteral

1. Return 𝔽(MV of LegacyOctalIntegerLiteral).

NumericLiteral :: NonDecimalIntegerLiteral BigIntLiteralSuffix

1. Return the BigInt value for the MV of NonDecimalIntegerLiteral.

DecimalBigIntegerLiteral :: 0 BigIntLiteralSuffix

1. Return 0ℤ.

DecimalBigIntegerLiteral :: NonZeroDigit BigIntLiteralSuffix

1. Return the BigInt value for the MV of NonZeroDigit.

DecimalBigIntegerLiteral ::
NonZeroDigit DecimalDigits BigIntLiteralSuffix
NonZeroDigit NumericLiteralSeparator DecimalDigits BigIntLiteralSuffix

1. Let n be the number of code points in DecimalDigits, excluding all occurrences of NumericLiteralSeparator.
2. Let mv be (the MV of NonZeroDigit × 10n) plus the MV of DecimalDigits.
3. Return ℤ(mv).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

12.9.4 String Literals

NOTE 1 A string literal is 0 or more Unicode code points enclosed in single or double quotes. Unicode code points
may also be represented by an escape sequence. All code points may appear literally in a string literal
except for the closing quote code points, U+005C (REVERSE SOLIDUS), U+000D (CARRIAGE RETURN),
and U+000A (LINE FEED). Any code points may appear in the form of an escape sequence. String literals
evaluate to ECMAScript String values. When generating these String values Unicode code points are UTF-
16 encoded as defined in 11.1.1. Code points belonging to the Basic Multilingual Plane are encoded as
a single code unit element of the string. All other code points are encoded as two code unit elements of
the string.

Syntax

StringLiteral ::
" DoubleStringCharactersopt "
' SingleStringCharactersopt '

DoubleStringCharacters ::
DoubleStringCharacter DoubleStringCharactersopt

SingleStringCharacters ::
SingleStringCharacter SingleStringCharactersopt

DoubleStringCharacter ::
SourceCharacter but not one of " or \ or LineTerminator
<LS>
<PS>
\ EscapeSequence
LineContinuation

SingleStringCharacter ::
SourceCharacter but not one of ' or \ or LineTerminator
<LS>
<PS>
\ EscapeSequence
LineContinuation

LineContinuation ::
\ LineTerminatorSequence

EscapeSequence ::
CharacterEscapeSequence
0 [lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]
LegacyOctalEscapeSequence
NonOctalDecimalEscapeSequence
HexEscapeSequence
UnicodeEscapeSequence

CharacterEscapeSequence ::
SingleEscapeCharacter
NonEscapeCharacter

SingleEscapeCharacter :: one of
' " \ b f n r t v

NonEscapeCharacter ::
SourceCharacter but not one of EscapeCharacter or LineTerminator

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

EscapeCharacter ::
SingleEscapeCharacter
DecimalDigit
x
u

NonZeroOctalDigit ::
OctalDigit but not 0

ZeroToThree :: one of
0 1 2 3

FourToSeven :: one of
4 5 6 7

NonOctalDecimalEscapeSequence :: one of
8 9

HexEscapeSequence ::
x HexDigit HexDigit

UnicodeEscapeSequence ::
u Hex4Digits
u{ CodePoint }

Hex4Digits ::
HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit

The definition of the nonterminal HexDigit is given in 12.9.3. SourceCharacter is defined in 11.1.

NOTE 2 <LF> and <CR> cannot appear in a string literal, except as part of a LineContinuation to produce the empty
code points sequence. The proper way to include either in the String value of a string literal is to use an
escape sequence such as \n or \u000A.

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

EscapeSequence ::
LegacyOctalEscapeSequence
NonOctalDecimalEscapeSequence

It is a Syntax Error if IsStrict(this production) is true.

NOTE 1 In non-strict code, this syntax is Legacy.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 2 It is possible for string literals to precede a Use Strict Directive that places the enclosing code in strict mode,
and implementations must take care to enforce the above rules for such literals. For example, the following
source text contains a Syntax Error:

function invalid() { "\7"; "use strict"; }

[Link] Static Semantics: SV

The syntax-directed operation SV takes no arguments and returns a String.

A string literal stands for a value of the String type. SV produces String values for string literals through recursive applic-
ation on the various parts of the string literal. As part of this process, some Unicode code points within the string literal
are interpreted as having a mathematical value, as described below or in 12.9.3.

The SV of StringLiteral :: " " is the empty String.

The SV of StringLiteral :: ' ' is the empty String.
The SV of DoubleStringCharacters :: DoubleStringCharacter DoubleStringCharacters is the string-concatenation
of the SV of DoubleStringCharacter and the SV of DoubleStringCharacters.
The SV of SingleStringCharacters :: SingleStringCharacter SingleStringCharacters is the string-concatenation of
the SV of SingleStringCharacter and the SV of SingleStringCharacters.
The SV of DoubleStringCharacter :: SourceCharacter but not one of " or \ or LineTerminator is the result of
performing UTF16EncodeCodePoint on the code point matched by SourceCharacter.
The SV of DoubleStringCharacter :: <LS> is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x2028 (LINE
SEPARATOR).
The SV of DoubleStringCharacter :: <PS> is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x2029 (PARAGRAPH
SEPARATOR).
The SV of DoubleStringCharacter :: LineContinuation is the empty String.
The SV of SingleStringCharacter :: SourceCharacter but not one of ' or \ or LineTerminator is the result of
performing UTF16EncodeCodePoint on the code point matched by SourceCharacter.
The SV of SingleStringCharacter :: <LS> is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x2028 (LINE
SEPARATOR).
The SV of SingleStringCharacter :: <PS> is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x2029 (PARAGRAPH
SEPARATOR).
The SV of SingleStringCharacter :: LineContinuation is the empty String.
The SV of EscapeSequence :: 0 is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x0000 (NULL).
The SV of CharacterEscapeSequence :: SingleEscapeCharacter is the String value consisting of the code unit
whose numeric value is determined by the SingleEscapeCharacter according to Table 37.

Table 37: String Single Character Escape Sequences

Escape Sequence Code Unit Value Unicode Character Name Symbol
\b 0x0008 BACKSPACE <BS>
\t 0x0009 CHARACTER TABULATION <HT>
\n 0x000A LINE FEED (LF) <LF>
\v 0x000B LINE TABULATION <VT>
\f 0x000C FORM FEED (FF) <FF>
\r 0x000D CARRIAGE RETURN (CR) <CR>
\" 0x0022 QUOTATION MARK "
\' 0x0027 APOSTROPHE '
\\ 0x005C REVERSE SOLIDUS \

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

The SV of NonEscapeCharacter :: SourceCharacter but not one of EscapeCharacter or LineTerminator is the

result of performing UTF16EncodeCodePoint on the code point matched by SourceCharacter.
The SV of EscapeSequence :: LegacyOctalEscapeSequence is the String value consisting of the code unit
whose numeric value is the MV of LegacyOctalEscapeSequence.
The SV of NonOctalDecimalEscapeSequence :: 8 is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x0038 (DIGIT
EIGHT).
The SV of NonOctalDecimalEscapeSequence :: 9 is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x0039 (DIGIT
NINE).
The SV of HexEscapeSequence :: x HexDigit HexDigit is the String value consisting of the code unit whose
numeric value is the MV of HexEscapeSequence.
The SV of Hex4Digits :: HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit is the String value consisting of the code unit
whose numeric value is the MV of Hex4Digits.
The SV of UnicodeEscapeSequence :: u{ CodePoint } is the result of performing UTF16EncodeCodePoint on
the MV of CodePoint.
The SV of TemplateEscapeSequence :: 0 is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x0000 (NULL).

[Link] Static Semantics: MV

The MV of LegacyOctalEscapeSequence :: ZeroToThree OctalDigit is (8 times the MV of ZeroToThree) plus the

MV of OctalDigit.
The MV of LegacyOctalEscapeSequence :: FourToSeven OctalDigit is (8 times the MV of FourToSeven) plus the
MV of OctalDigit.
The MV of LegacyOctalEscapeSequence :: ZeroToThree OctalDigit OctalDigit is (64 (that is, 82) times the MV of
ZeroToThree) plus (8 times the MV of the first OctalDigit) plus the MV of the second OctalDigit.
The MV of ZeroToThree :: 0 is 0.
The MV of ZeroToThree :: 1 is 1.
The MV of ZeroToThree :: 2 is 2.
The MV of ZeroToThree :: 3 is 3.
The MV of FourToSeven :: 4 is 4.
The MV of FourToSeven :: 5 is 5.
The MV of FourToSeven :: 6 is 6.
The MV of FourToSeven :: 7 is 7.
The MV of HexEscapeSequence :: x HexDigit HexDigit is (16 times the MV of the first HexDigit) plus the MV of
the second HexDigit.
The MV of Hex4Digits :: HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit is (0x1000 × the MV of the first HexDigit) plus
(0x100 × the MV of the second HexDigit) plus (0x10 × the MV of the third HexDigit) plus the MV of the fourth
HexDigit.

12.9.5 Regular Expression Literals

NOTE 1 A regular expression literal is an input element that is converted to a RegExp object (see 22.2) each time the
literal is evaluated. Two regular expression literals in a program evaluate to regular expression objects that
never compare as === to each other even if the two literals' contents are identical. A RegExp object may
also be created at runtime by new RegExp or calling the RegExp constructor as a function (see 22.2.4).

The productions below describe the syntax for a regular expression literal and are used by the input element scanner to
find the end of the regular expression literal. The source text comprising the RegularExpressionBody and the
RegularExpressionFlags are subsequently parsed again using the more stringent ECMAScript Regular Expression
grammar (22.2.1).

An implementation may extend the ECMAScript Regular Expression grammar defined in 22.2.1, but it must not extend
the RegularExpressionBody and RegularExpressionFlags productions defined below or the productions used by
these productions.

Syntax

RegularExpressionLiteral ::
/ RegularExpressionBody / RegularExpressionFlags

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

RegularExpressionBody ::
RegularExpressionFirstChar RegularExpressionChars

RegularExpressionChars ::
[empty]
RegularExpressionChars RegularExpressionChar

RegularExpressionFirstChar ::
RegularExpressionNonTerminator but not one of * or \ or / or [
RegularExpressionBackslashSequence
RegularExpressionClass

RegularExpressionChar ::
RegularExpressionNonTerminator but not one of \ or / or [
RegularExpressionBackslashSequence
RegularExpressionClass

RegularExpressionBackslashSequence ::
\ RegularExpressionNonTerminator

RegularExpressionNonTerminator ::
SourceCharacter but not LineTerminator

RegularExpressionClass ::
[ RegularExpressionClassChars ]

RegularExpressionClassChars ::
[empty]
RegularExpressionClassChars RegularExpressionClassChar

RegularExpressionClassChar ::
RegularExpressionNonTerminator but not one of ] or \
RegularExpressionBackslashSequence

RegularExpressionFlags ::
[empty]
RegularExpressionFlags IdentifierPartChar

NOTE 2 Regular expression literals may not be empty; instead of representing an empty regular expression
literal, the code unit sequence // starts a single-line comment. To specify an empty regular expression,
use: /(?:)/.

[Link] Static Semantics: BodyText

The syntax-directed operation BodyText takes no arguments and returns source text. It is defined piecewise over the fol-
lowing productions:
RegularExpressionLiteral :: / RegularExpressionBody / RegularExpressionFlags

1. Return the source text that was recognized as RegularExpressionBody.

[Link] Static Semantics: FlagText

The syntax-directed operation FlagText takes no arguments and returns source text. It is defined piecewise over the fol-
lowing productions:
RegularExpressionLiteral :: / RegularExpressionBody / RegularExpressionFlags

1. Return the source text that was recognized as RegularExpressionFlags.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

12.9.6 Template Literal Lexical Components

Syntax

Template ::
NoSubstitutionTemplate
TemplateHead

NoSubstitutionTemplate ::
` TemplateCharactersopt `

TemplateHead ::
` TemplateCharactersopt ${

TemplateSubstitutionTail ::
TemplateMiddle
TemplateTail

TemplateMiddle ::
} TemplateCharactersopt ${

TemplateTail ::
} TemplateCharactersopt `

TemplateCharacters ::
TemplateCharacter TemplateCharactersopt

TemplateCharacter ::
$ [lookahead ≠ {]
\ TemplateEscapeSequence
\ NotEscapeSequence
LineContinuation
LineTerminatorSequence
SourceCharacter but not one of ` or \ or $ or LineTerminator

TemplateEscapeSequence ::
CharacterEscapeSequence
0 [lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]
HexEscapeSequence
UnicodeEscapeSequence

NotEscapeSequence ::
0 DecimalDigit
DecimalDigit but not 0
x [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
x HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
u [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] [lookahead ≠ {]
u HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
u HexDigit HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
u HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
u { [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
u { NotCodePoint [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
u { CodePoint [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] [lookahead ≠ }]

NotCodePoint ::
HexDigits[~Sep] but only if the MV of HexDigits > 0x10FFFF

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

CodePoint ::
HexDigits[~Sep] but only if the MV of HexDigits ≤ 0x10FFFF

NOTE TemplateSubstitutionTail is used by the InputElementTemplateTail alternative lexical goal.

[Link] Static Semantics: TV

The syntax-directed operation TV takes no arguments and returns a String or undefined. A template literal component
is interpreted by TV as a value of the String type. TV is used to construct the indexed components of a template object
(colloquially, the template values). In TV, escape sequences are replaced by the UTF-16 code unit(s) of the Unicode
code point represented by the escape sequence.

The TV of NoSubstitutionTemplate :: ` ` is the empty String.

The TV of TemplateHead :: ` ${ is the empty String.
The TV of TemplateMiddle :: } ${ is the empty String.
The TV of TemplateTail :: } ` is the empty String.
The TV of TemplateCharacters :: TemplateCharacter TemplateCharacters is undefined if the TV of
TemplateCharacter is undefined or the TV of TemplateCharacters is undefined. Otherwise, it is the string-
concatenation of the TV of TemplateCharacter and the TV of TemplateCharacters.
The TV of TemplateCharacter :: SourceCharacter but not one of ` or \ or $ or LineTerminator is the result of
performing UTF16EncodeCodePoint on the code point matched by SourceCharacter.
The TV of TemplateCharacter :: $ is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x0024 (DOLLAR SIGN).
The TV of TemplateCharacter :: \ TemplateEscapeSequence is the SV of TemplateEscapeSequence.
The TV of TemplateCharacter :: \ NotEscapeSequence is undefined.
The TV of TemplateCharacter :: LineTerminatorSequence is the TRV of LineTerminatorSequence.
The TV of LineContinuation :: \ LineTerminatorSequence is the empty String.

[Link] Static Semantics: TRV

The syntax-directed operation TRV takes no arguments and returns a String. A template literal component is interpreted
by TRV as a value of the String type. TRV is used to construct the raw components of a template object (colloquially, the
template raw values). TRV is similar to TV with the difference being that in TRV, escape sequences are interpreted as
they appear in the literal.

The TRV of NoSubstitutionTemplate :: ` ` is the empty String.

The TRV of TemplateHead :: ` ${ is the empty String.
The TRV of TemplateMiddle :: } ${ is the empty String.
The TRV of TemplateTail :: } ` is the empty String.
The TRV of TemplateCharacters :: TemplateCharacter TemplateCharacters is the string-concatenation of the
TRV of TemplateCharacter and the TRV of TemplateCharacters.
The TRV of TemplateCharacter :: SourceCharacter but not one of ` or \ or $ or LineTerminator is the result of
performing UTF16EncodeCodePoint on the code point matched by SourceCharacter.
The TRV of TemplateCharacter :: $ is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x0024 (DOLLAR SIGN).
The TRV of TemplateCharacter :: \ TemplateEscapeSequence is the string-concatenation of the code unit
0x005C (REVERSE SOLIDUS) and the TRV of TemplateEscapeSequence.
The TRV of TemplateCharacter :: \ NotEscapeSequence is the string-concatenation of the code unit 0x005C
(REVERSE SOLIDUS) and the TRV of NotEscapeSequence.
The TRV of TemplateEscapeSequence :: 0 is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO).
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: 0 DecimalDigit is the string-concatenation of the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT
ZERO) and the TRV of DecimalDigit.
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: x [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] is the String value consisting of the code unit
0x0078 (LATIN SMALL LETTER X).
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: x HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] is the string-concatenation of the code
unit 0x0078 (LATIN SMALL LETTER X) and the TRV of HexDigit.
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: u [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] [lookahead ≠ {] is the String value consisting of the
code unit 0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER U).
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: u HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] is the string-concatenation of the code
unit 0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER U) and the TRV of HexDigit.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: u HexDigit HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] is the string-concatenation of

the code unit 0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER U), the TRV of the first HexDigit, and the TRV of the second HexDigit.
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: u HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] is the string-
concatenation of the code unit 0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER U), the TRV of the first HexDigit, the TRV of the
second HexDigit, and the TRV of the third HexDigit.
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: u { [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] is the string-concatenation of the code unit
0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER U) and the code unit 0x007B (LEFT CURLY BRACKET).
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: u { NotCodePoint [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] is the string-concatenation of the
code unit 0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER U), the code unit 0x007B (LEFT CURLY BRACKET), and the TRV of
NotCodePoint.
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: u { CodePoint [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] [lookahead ≠ }] is the string-
concatenation of the code unit 0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER U), the code unit 0x007B (LEFT CURLY
BRACKET), and the TRV of CodePoint.
The TRV of DecimalDigit :: one of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 is the result of performing UTF16EncodeCodePoint
on the single code point matched by this production.
The TRV of CharacterEscapeSequence :: NonEscapeCharacter is the SV of NonEscapeCharacter.
The TRV of SingleEscapeCharacter :: one of ' " \ b f n r t v is the result of performing
UTF16EncodeCodePoint on the single code point matched by this production.
The TRV of HexEscapeSequence :: x HexDigit HexDigit is the string-concatenation of the code unit 0x0078
(LATIN SMALL LETTER X), the TRV of the first HexDigit, and the TRV of the second HexDigit.
The TRV of UnicodeEscapeSequence :: u Hex4Digits is the string-concatenation of the code unit 0x0075 (LATIN
SMALL LETTER U) and the TRV of Hex4Digits.
The TRV of UnicodeEscapeSequence :: u{ CodePoint } is the string-concatenation of the code unit 0x0075
(LATIN SMALL LETTER U), the code unit 0x007B (LEFT CURLY BRACKET), the TRV of CodePoint, and the code
unit 0x007D (RIGHT CURLY BRACKET).
The TRV of Hex4Digits :: HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit is the string-concatenation of the TRV of the first
HexDigit, the TRV of the second HexDigit, the TRV of the third HexDigit, and the TRV of the fourth HexDigit.
The TRV of HexDigits :: HexDigits HexDigit is the string-concatenation of the TRV of HexDigits and the TRV of
HexDigit.
The TRV of HexDigit :: one of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 a b c d e f A B C D E F is the result of performing
UTF16EncodeCodePoint on the single code point matched by this production.
The TRV of LineContinuation :: \ LineTerminatorSequence is the string-concatenation of the code unit 0x005C
(REVERSE SOLIDUS) and the TRV of LineTerminatorSequence.
The TRV of LineTerminatorSequence :: <LF> is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x000A (LINE FEED).
The TRV of LineTerminatorSequence :: <CR> is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x000A (LINE FEED).
The TRV of LineTerminatorSequence :: <LS> is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x2028 (LINE
SEPARATOR).
The TRV of LineTerminatorSequence :: <PS> is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x2029
(PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR).
The TRV of LineTerminatorSequence :: <CR> <LF> is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x000A (LINE
FEED).

NOTE TV excludes the code units of LineContinuation while TRV includes them. <CR><LF> and <CR>
LineTerminatorSequences are normalized to <LF> for both TV and TRV. An explicit
TemplateEscapeSequence is needed to include a <CR> or <CR><LF> sequence.

12.10 Automatic Semicolon Insertion

Most ECMAScript statements and declarations must be terminated with a semicolon. Such semicolons may always ap-
pear explicitly in the source text. For convenience, however, such semicolons may be omitted from the source text in
certain situations. These situations are described by saying that semicolons are automatically inserted into the source
code token stream in those situations.

12.10.1 Rules of Automatic Semicolon Insertion

In the following rules, “token” means the actual recognized lexical token determined using the current lexical goal sym-
bol as described in clause 12.

There are three basic rules of semicolon insertion:

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

1. When, as the source text is parsed from left to right, a token (called the offending token) is encountered that is not
allowed by any production of the grammar, then a semicolon is automatically inserted before the offending token if
one or more of the following conditions is true:
The offending token is separated from the previous token by at least one LineTerminator.
The offending token is }.
The previous token is ) and the inserted semicolon would then be parsed as the terminating semicolon of a do-
while statement (14.7.2).
2. When, as the source text is parsed from left to right, the end of the input stream of tokens is encountered and the
parser is unable to parse the input token stream as a single instance of the goal nonterminal, then a semicolon is
automatically inserted at the end of the input stream.
3. When, as the source text is parsed from left to right, a token is encountered that is allowed by some production of
the grammar, but the production is a restricted production and the token would be the first token for a terminal or
nonterminal immediately following the annotation “[no LineTerminator here]” within the restricted production (and
therefore such a token is called a restricted token), and the restricted token is separated from the previous token by
at least one LineTerminator, then a semicolon is automatically inserted before the restricted token.

However, there is an additional overriding condition on the preceding rules: a semicolon is never inserted automatically
if the semicolon would then be parsed as an empty statement or if that semicolon would become one of the two semi-
colons in the header of a for statement (see 14.7.4).

NOTE The following are the only restricted productions in the grammar:
UpdateExpression[Yield, Await] :
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] [no LineTerminator here] ++
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] [no LineTerminator here] --
ContinueStatement[Yield, Await] :
continue ;
continue [no LineTerminator here] LabelIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] ;
BreakStatement[Yield, Await] :
break ;
break [no LineTerminator here] LabelIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] ;
ReturnStatement[Yield, Await] :
return ;
return [no LineTerminator here] Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;
ThrowStatement[Yield, Await] :
throw [no LineTerminator here] Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;
YieldExpression[In, Await] :
yield
yield [no LineTerminator here] AssignmentExpression[?In, +Yield, ?Await]
yield [no LineTerminator here] * AssignmentExpression[?In, +Yield, ?Await]
ArrowFunction[In, Yield, Await] :
ArrowParameters[?Yield, ?Await] [no LineTerminator here] => ConciseBody[?In]
AsyncFunctionDeclaration[Yield, Await, Default] :
async [no LineTerminator here] function BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] (
FormalParameters[~Yield, +Await] ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
async [no LineTerminator here] function ( FormalParameters[~Yield, +Await] )
[+Default]
{ AsyncFunctionBody }
AsyncFunctionExpression :
async [no LineTerminator here] function BindingIdentifier[~Yield, +Await] opt (
FormalParameters[~Yield, +Await] ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
AsyncMethod[Yield, Await] :
async [no LineTerminator here] ClassElementName[?Yield, ?Await] (
UniqueFormalParameters[~Yield, +Await] ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

AsyncGeneratorDeclaration[Yield, Await, Default] :

async [no LineTerminator here] function * BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] (
FormalParameters[+Yield, +Await] ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
async [no LineTerminator here] function * ( FormalParameters[+Yield, +Await]
[+Default]
) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorExpression :
async [no LineTerminator here] function * BindingIdentifier[+Yield, +Await] opt (
FormalParameters[+Yield, +Await] ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorMethod[Yield, Await] :
async [no LineTerminator here] * ClassElementName[?Yield, ?Await] (
UniqueFormalParameters[+Yield, +Await] ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncArrowFunction[In, Yield, Await] :
async [no LineTerminator here] AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier[?Yield] [no LineTerminator here]
=> AsyncConciseBody[?In]
CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead[?Yield, ?Await] [no LineTerminator here] =>
AsyncConciseBody[?In]
AsyncArrowHead :
async [no LineTerminator here] ArrowFormalParameters[~Yield, +Await]

The practical effect of these restricted productions is as follows:

When a ++ or -- token is encountered where the parser would treat it as a postfix operator, and at least
one LineTerminator occurred between the preceding token and the ++ or -- token, then a semicolon is
automatically inserted before the ++ or -- token.
When a continue, break, return, throw, or yield token is encountered and a LineTerminator is
encountered before the next token, a semicolon is automatically inserted after the continue, break,
return, throw, or yield token.
When arrow function parameter(s) are followed by a LineTerminator before a => token, a semicolon is
automatically inserted and the punctuator causes a syntax error.
When an async token is followed by a LineTerminator before a function or IdentifierName or ( token,
a semicolon is automatically inserted and the async token is not treated as part of the same expression
or class element as the following tokens.
When an async token is followed by a LineTerminator before a * token, a semicolon is automatically
inserted and the punctuator causes a syntax error.

The resulting practical advice to ECMAScript programmers is:

is transformed by automatic semicolon insertion into the following:

return;
a + b;

NOTE 1 The expression a + b is not treated as a value to be returned by the return statement, because a
LineTerminator separates it from the token return.

The source

a = b
++c

is transformed by automatic semicolon insertion into the following:

a = b;
++c;

NOTE 2 The token ++ is not treated as a postfix operator applying to the variable b, because a LineTerminator
occurs between b and ++.

The source

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 3:22 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

if (a > b)
else c = d

is not a valid ECMAScript sentence and is not altered by automatic semicolon insertion before the else token, even
though no production of the grammar applies at that point, because an automatically inserted semicolon would then be
parsed as an empty statement.

The source

a = b + c
(d + e).print()

is not transformed by automatic semicolon insertion, because the parenthesized expression that begins the second line
can be interpreted as an argument list for a function call:

a = b + c(d + e).print()

In the circumstance that an assignment statement must begin with a left parenthesis, it is a good idea for the
programmer to provide an explicit semicolon at the end of the preceding statement rather than to rely on automatic
semicolon insertion.

12.10.3 Interesting Cases of Automatic Semicolon Insertion

This section is non-normative.

ECMAScript programs can be written in a style with very few semicolons by relying on automatic semicolon insertion. As
described above, semicolons are not inserted at every newline, and automatic semicolon insertion can depend on mul-
tiple tokens across line terminators.

As new syntactic features are added to ECMAScript, additional grammar productions could be added that cause lines
relying on automatic semicolon insertion preceding them to change grammar productions when parsed.

For the purposes of this section, a case of automatic semicolon insertion is considered interesting if it is a place where a
semicolon may or may not be inserted, depending on the source text which precedes it. The rest of this section de-
scribes a number of interesting cases of automatic semicolon insertion in this version of ECMAScript.

[Link] Interesting Cases of Automatic Semicolon Insertion in Statement Lists

In a StatementList, many StatementListItems end in semicolons, which may be omitted using automatic semicolon in-
sertion. As a consequence of the rules above, at the end of a line ending an expression, a semicolon is required if the
following line begins with any of the following:

An opening parenthesis ((). Without a semicolon, the two lines together are treated as a CallExpression.
An opening square bracket ([). Without a semicolon, the two lines together are treated as property access, rather
than an ArrayLiteral or ArrayAssignmentPattern.
A template literal (`). Without a semicolon, the two lines together are interpreted as a tagged Template (13.3.11),
with the previous expression as the MemberExpression.
Unary + or -. Without a semicolon, the two lines together are interpreted as a usage of the corresponding binary
operator.
A RegExp literal. Without a semicolon, the two lines together may be parsed instead as the /
MultiplicativeOperator, for example if the RegExp has flags.

[Link] Cases of Automatic Semicolon Insertion and “[no LineTerminator here]”

This section is non-normative.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ECMAScript contains grammar productions which include “[no LineTerminator here]”. These productions are sometimes
a means to have optional operands in the grammar. Introducing a LineTerminator in these locations would change the
grammar production of a source text by using the grammar production without the optional operand.

The rest of this section describes a number of productions using “[no LineTerminator here]” in this version
of ECMAScript.

[Link].1 List of Grammar Productions with Optional Operands and “[no LineTerminator here]”

UpdateExpression.
ContinueStatement.
BreakStatement.
ReturnStatement.
YieldExpression.
Async Function Definitions (15.8) with relation to Function Definitions (15.2)

13 ECMAScript Language: Expressions

13.1 Identifiers
Syntax

IdentifierReference[Yield, Await] :
Identifier
[~Yield] yield
[~Await] await

BindingIdentifier[Yield, Await] :
Identifier
yield
await

LabelIdentifier[Yield, Await] :
Identifier
[~Yield] yield
[~Await] await

Identifier :
IdentifierName but not ReservedWord

NOTE yield and await are permitted as BindingIdentifier in the grammar, and prohibited with static semantics
below, to prohibit automatic semicolon insertion in cases such as

let
await 0;

13.1.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

BindingIdentifier : Identifier

It is a Syntax Error if IsStrict(this production) is true and the StringValue of Identifier is either "arguments" or
"eval".

IdentifierReference : yield

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

BindingIdentifier : yield
LabelIdentifier : yield

It is a Syntax Error if IsStrict(this production) is true.

IdentifierReference : await
BindingIdentifier : await
LabelIdentifier : await

It is a Syntax Error if the goal symbol of the syntactic grammar is Module.

BindingIdentifier[Yield, Await] : yield

It is a Syntax Error if this production has a [Yield] parameter.

BindingIdentifier[Yield, Await] : await

It is a Syntax Error if this production has an [Await] parameter.

IdentifierReference[Yield, Await] : Identifier

BindingIdentifier[Yield, Await] : Identifier
LabelIdentifier[Yield, Await] : Identifier

It is a Syntax Error if this production has a [Yield] parameter and the StringValue of Identifier is "yield".
It is a Syntax Error if this production has an [Await] parameter and the StringValue of Identifier is "await".

Identifier : IdentifierName but not ReservedWord

It is a Syntax Error if IsStrict(this phrase) is true and the StringValue of IdentifierName is one of "implements",
"interface", "let", "package", "private", "protected", "public", "static", or "yield".
It is a Syntax Error if the goal symbol of the syntactic grammar is Module and the StringValue of IdentifierName is
"await".
It is a Syntax Error if the StringValue of IdentifierName is the StringValue of any ReservedWord except for yield or
await.

NOTE The StringValue of IdentifierName normalizes any Unicode escape sequences in IdentifierName hence such
escapes cannot be used to write an Identifier whose code point sequence is the same as a ReservedWord.

13.1.2 Static Semantics: StringValue

The syntax-directed operation StringValue takes no arguments and returns a String. It is defined piecewise over the fol-
lowing productions:
IdentifierName ::
IdentifierStart
IdentifierName IdentifierPart

1. Let idTextUnescaped be the IdentifierCodePoints of IdentifierName.

2. Return CodePointsToString(idTextUnescaped).

IdentifierReference : yield
BindingIdentifier : yield
LabelIdentifier : yield

1. Return "yield".

IdentifierReference : await
BindingIdentifier : await

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

LabelIdentifier : await

1. Return "await".

Identifier : IdentifierName but not ReservedWord

1. Return the StringValue of IdentifierName.

PrivateIdentifier ::
# IdentifierName

1. Return the string-concatenation of 0x0023 (NUMBER SIGN) and the StringValue of IdentifierName.

ModuleExportName : StringLiteral

1. Return the SV of StringLiteral.

13.1.3 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

IdentifierReference : Identifier

1. Return ? ResolveBinding(StringValue of Identifier).

IdentifierReference : yield

1. Return ? ResolveBinding("yield").

IdentifierReference : await

1. Return ? ResolveBinding("await").

NOTE 1 The result of evaluating an IdentifierReference is always a value of type Reference.

NOTE 2 In non-strict code, the keyword yield may be used as an identifier. Evaluating the IdentifierReference
resolves the binding of yield as if it was an Identifier. Early Error restriction ensures that such an
evaluation only can occur for non-strict code.

13.2 Primary Expression

Syntax

PrimaryExpression[Yield, Await] :
this
IdentifierReference[?Yield, ?Await]
Literal
ArrayLiteral[?Yield, ?Await]
ObjectLiteral[?Yield, ?Await]
FunctionExpression
ClassExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
GeneratorExpression
AsyncFunctionExpression
AsyncGeneratorExpression
RegularExpressionLiteral
TemplateLiteral[?Yield, ?Await, ~Tagged]
CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList[?Yield, ?Await]

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList[Yield, Await] :
( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] , )
( )
( ... BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] )
( ... BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await] )
( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] , ... BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] )
( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] , ... BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await] )

Supplemental Syntax

When processing an instance of the production

PrimaryExpression[Yield, Await] : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList[?Yield, ?Await]
the interpretation of CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList is refined using the following grammar:

ParenthesizedExpression[Yield, Await] :
( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )

13.2.1 The this Keyword

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

PrimaryExpression : this

1. Return ? ResolveThisBinding().

13.2.2 Identifier Reference

See 13.1 for IdentifierReference.

13.2.3 Literals

Syntax

Literal :
NullLiteral
BooleanLiteral
NumericLiteral
StringLiteral

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

Literal : NullLiteral

1. Return null.

Literal : BooleanLiteral

1. If BooleanLiteral is the token false, return false.

2. If BooleanLiteral is the token true, return true.

Literal : NumericLiteral

1. Return the NumericValue of NumericLiteral as defined in 12.9.3.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Literal : StringLiteral

1. Return the SV of StringLiteral as defined in [Link].

13.2.4 Array Initializer

NOTE An ArrayLiteral is an expression describing the initialization of an Array, using a list, of zero or more
expressions each of which represents an array element, enclosed in square brackets. The elements need
not be literals; they are evaluated each time the array initializer is evaluated.

Array elements may be elided at the beginning, middle or end of the element list. Whenever a comma in the element list
is not preceded by an AssignmentExpression (i.e., a comma at the beginning or after another comma), the missing
array element contributes to the length of the Array and increases the index of subsequent elements. Elided array
elements are not defined. If an element is elided at the end of an array, that element does not contribute to the length of
the Array.
Syntax

ArrayLiteral[Yield, Await] :
[ Elisionopt ]
[ ElementList[?Yield, ?Await] ]
[ ElementList[?Yield, ?Await] , Elisionopt ]

Elision :
,
Elision ,

SpreadElement[Yield, Await] :
... AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]

[Link] Runtime Semantics: ArrayAccumulation

The syntax-directed operation ArrayAccumulation takes arguments array (an Array) and nextIndex (an integer) and
returns either a normal completion containing an integer or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise over the
following productions:
Elision : ,

1. Let len be nextIndex + 1.

2. Perform ? Set(array, "length", 𝔽(len), true).
3. NOTE: The above step throws if len exceeds 232 - 1.
4. Return len.

Elision : Elision ,

1. Return ? ArrayAccumulation of Elision with arguments array and (nextIndex + 1).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ElementList : Elisionopt AssignmentExpression

1. If Elision is present, then

a. Set nextIndex to ? ArrayAccumulation of Elision with arguments array and nextIndex.
2. Let initResult be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.
3. Let initValue be ? GetValue(initResult).
4. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(array, ! ToString(𝔽(nextIndex)), initValue).
5. Return nextIndex + 1.

ElementList : Elisionopt SpreadElement

1. If Elision is present, then

a. Set nextIndex to ? ArrayAccumulation of Elision with arguments array and nextIndex.
2. Return ? ArrayAccumulation of SpreadElement with arguments array and nextIndex.

ElementList : ElementList , Elisionopt AssignmentExpression

1. Set nextIndex to ? ArrayAccumulation of ElementList with arguments array and nextIndex.

2. If Elision is present, then
a. Set nextIndex to ? ArrayAccumulation of Elision with arguments array and nextIndex.
3. Let initResult be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.
4. Let initValue be ? GetValue(initResult).
5. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(array, ! ToString(𝔽(nextIndex)), initValue).
6. Return nextIndex + 1.

ElementList : ElementList , Elisionopt SpreadElement

1. Set nextIndex to ? ArrayAccumulation of ElementList with arguments array and nextIndex.

2. If Elision is present, then
a. Set nextIndex to ? ArrayAccumulation of Elision with arguments array and nextIndex.
3. Return ? ArrayAccumulation of SpreadElement with arguments array and nextIndex.

SpreadElement : ... AssignmentExpression

1. Let spreadRef be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.

2. Let spreadObj be ? GetValue(spreadRef).
3. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(spreadObj, SYNC).
4. Repeat,
a. Let next be ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is DONE, return nextIndex.
c. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(array, ! ToString(𝔽(nextIndex)), next).
d. Set nextIndex to nextIndex + 1.

NOTE CreateDataPropertyOrThrow is used to ensure that own properties are defined for the array even if the
standard built-in Array prototype object has been modified in a manner that would preclude the creation of
new own properties using ⁠[[Set]].

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ArrayLiteral : [ Elisionopt ]

1. Let array be ! ArrayCreate(0).

2. If Elision is present, then
a. Perform ? ArrayAccumulation of Elision with arguments array and 0.
3. Return array.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ArrayLiteral : [ ElementList ]

1. Let array be ! ArrayCreate(0).

2. Perform ? ArrayAccumulation of ElementList with arguments array and 0.
3. Return array.

ArrayLiteral : [ ElementList , Elisionopt ]

1. Let array be ! ArrayCreate(0).

2. Let nextIndex be ? ArrayAccumulation of ElementList with arguments array and 0.
3. If Elision is present, then
a. Perform ? ArrayAccumulation of Elision with arguments array and nextIndex.
4. Return array.

13.2.5 Object Initializer

NOTE 1 An object initializer is an expression describing the initialization of an Object, written in a form resembling a
literal. It is a list of zero or more pairs of property keys and associated values, enclosed in curly brackets.
The values need not be literals; they are evaluated each time the object initializer is evaluated.

Syntax

ObjectLiteral[Yield, Await] :
{ }
{ PropertyDefinitionList[?Yield, ?Await] }
{ PropertyDefinitionList[?Yield, ?Await] , }

PropertyDefinitionList[Yield, Await] :
PropertyDefinition[?Yield, ?Await]
PropertyDefinitionList[?Yield, ?Await] , PropertyDefinition[?Yield, ?Await]

PropertyDefinition[Yield, Await] :
IdentifierReference[?Yield, ?Await]
CoverInitializedName[?Yield, ?Await]
PropertyName[?Yield, ?Await] : AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
MethodDefinition[?Yield, ?Await]
... AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]

PropertyName[Yield, Await] :
LiteralPropertyName
ComputedPropertyName[?Yield, ?Await]

LiteralPropertyName :
IdentifierName
StringLiteral
NumericLiteral

ComputedPropertyName[Yield, Await] :
[ AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ]

CoverInitializedName[Yield, Await] :
IdentifierReference[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Initializer[In, Yield, Await] :

= AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

NOTE 2 MethodDefinition is defined in 15.4.

NOTE 3 In certain contexts, ObjectLiteral is used as a cover grammar for a more restricted secondary grammar. The
CoverInitializedName production is necessary to fully cover these secondary grammars. However, use of
this production results in an early Syntax Error in normal contexts where an actual ObjectLiteral is expected.

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

PropertyDefinition : MethodDefinition

It is a Syntax Error if HasDirectSuper of MethodDefinition is true.

It is a Syntax Error if the PrivateBoundIdentifiers of MethodDefinition is not empty.

In addition to describing an actual object initializer the ObjectLiteral productions are also used as a cover grammar for
ObjectAssignmentPattern and may be recognized as part of a CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
When ObjectLiteral appears in a context where ObjectAssignmentPattern is required the following Early Error rules are
not applied. In addition, they are not applied when initially parsing a
CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList or CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead.
PropertyDefinition : CoverInitializedName

It is a Syntax Error if any source text is matched by this production.

NOTE 1 This production exists so that ObjectLiteral can serve as a cover grammar for ObjectAssignmentPattern. It
cannot occur in an actual object initializer.

ObjectLiteral :
{ PropertyDefinitionList }
{ PropertyDefinitionList , }

It is a Syntax Error if the PropertyNameList of PropertyDefinitionList contains any duplicate entries for "__proto__"
and at least two of those entries were obtained from productions of the form
PropertyDefinition : PropertyName : AssignmentExpression . This rule is not applied if this ObjectLiteral is
contained within a Script that is being parsed for ParseJSON (see step 3 of ParseJSON).

NOTE 2 The List returned by PropertyNameList does not include property names defined using
a ComputedPropertyName.

[Link] Static Semantics: IsComputedPropertyKey

The syntax-directed operation IsComputedPropertyKey takes no arguments and returns a Boolean. It is defined piece-
wise over the following productions:
PropertyName : LiteralPropertyName

1. Return false.

PropertyName : ComputedPropertyName

1. Return true.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Static Semantics: PropertyNameList

The syntax-directed operation PropertyNameList takes no arguments and returns a List of Strings. It is defined piece-
wise over the following productions:
PropertyDefinitionList : PropertyDefinition

1. Let propName be the PropName of PropertyDefinition.

2. If propName is EMPTY, return a new empty List.
3. Return « propName ».

PropertyDefinitionList : PropertyDefinitionList , PropertyDefinition

1. Let list be the PropertyNameList of PropertyDefinitionList.

2. Let propName be the PropName of PropertyDefinition.
3. If propName is EMPTY, return list.
4. Return the list-concatenation of list and « propName ».

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ObjectLiteral : { }

1. Return OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%).

ObjectLiteral :
{ PropertyDefinitionList }
{ PropertyDefinitionList , }

1. Let obj be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%).

2. Perform ? PropertyDefinitionEvaluation of PropertyDefinitionList with argument obj.
3. Return obj.

LiteralPropertyName : IdentifierName

1. Return the StringValue of IdentifierName.

LiteralPropertyName : StringLiteral

1. Return the SV of StringLiteral.

LiteralPropertyName : NumericLiteral

1. Let nbr be the NumericValue of NumericLiteral.

2. Return ! ToString(nbr).

ComputedPropertyName : [ AssignmentExpression ]

1. Let exprValue be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.

2. Let propName be ? GetValue(exprValue).
3. Return ? ToPropertyKey(propName).

[Link] Runtime Semantics: PropertyDefinitionEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation PropertyDefinitionEvaluation takes argument object (an Object) and returns either a nor-
mal completion containing UNUSED or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
PropertyDefinitionList : PropertyDefinitionList , PropertyDefinition

1. Perform ? PropertyDefinitionEvaluation of PropertyDefinitionList with argument object.

2. Perform ? PropertyDefinitionEvaluation of PropertyDefinition with argument object.
3. Return UNUSED.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

PropertyDefinition : ... AssignmentExpression

1. Let exprValue be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.

2. Let fromValue be ? GetValue(exprValue).
3. Let excludedNames be a new empty List.
4. Perform ? CopyDataProperties(object, fromValue, excludedNames).
5. Return UNUSED.

PropertyDefinition : IdentifierReference

1. Let propName be the StringValue of IdentifierReference.

2. Let exprValue be ? Evaluation of IdentifierReference.
3. Let propValue be ? GetValue(exprValue).
4. Assert: object is an ordinary, extensible object with no non-configurable properties.
5. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(object, propName, propValue).
6. Return UNUSED.

PropertyDefinition : PropertyName : AssignmentExpression

1. Let propKey be ? Evaluation of PropertyName.

2. If this PropertyDefinition is contained within a Script that is being evaluated for ParseJSON (see step 6 of
ParseJSON), then
a. Let isProtoSetter be false.
3. Else if propKey is "__proto__" and IsComputedPropertyKey of PropertyName is false, then
a. Let isProtoSetter be true.
4. Else,
a. Let isProtoSetter be false.
5. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(AssignmentExpression) is true and isProtoSetter is false, then
a. Let propValue be ? NamedEvaluation of AssignmentExpression with argument propKey.
6. Else,
a. Let exprValueRef be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.
b. Let propValue be ? GetValue(exprValueRef).
7. If isProtoSetter is true, then
a. If propValue is an Object or propValue is null, then
i. Perform ! object.⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]](propValue).
b. Return UNUSED.
8. Assert: object is an ordinary, extensible object with no non-configurable properties.
9. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(object, propKey, propValue).
10. Return UNUSED.

PropertyDefinition : MethodDefinition

1. Perform ? MethodDefinitionEvaluation of MethodDefinition with arguments object and true.

2. Return UNUSED.

13.2.6 Function Defining Expressions

See 15.2 for PrimaryExpression : FunctionExpression .

See 15.5 for PrimaryExpression : GeneratorExpression .

See 15.7 for PrimaryExpression : ClassExpression .

See 15.8 for PrimaryExpression : AsyncFunctionExpression .

See 15.6 for PrimaryExpression : AsyncGeneratorExpression .

13.2.7 Regular Expression Literals

Syntax

See 12.9.5.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

PrimaryExpression : RegularExpressionLiteral

It is a Syntax Error if IsValidRegularExpressionLiteral(RegularExpressionLiteral) is false.

[Link] Static Semantics: IsValidRegularExpressionLiteral ( literal )

The abstract operation IsValidRegularExpressionLiteral takes argument literal (a RegularExpressionLiteral Parse Node)
and returns a Boolean. It determines if its argument is a valid regular expression literal. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let flags be the FlagText of literal.

2. If flags contains any code points other than d, g, i, m, s, u, v, or y, or if flags contains any code point more than
once, return false.
3. If flags contains u, let u be true; else let u be false.
4. If flags contains v, let v be true; else let v be false.
5. Let patternText be the BodyText of literal.
6. If u is false and v is false, then
a. Let stringValue be CodePointsToString(patternText).
b. Set patternText to the sequence of code points resulting from interpreting each of the 16-bit elements of
stringValue as a Unicode BMP code point. UTF-16 decoding is not applied to the elements.
7. Let parseResult be ParsePattern(patternText, u, v).
8. If parseResult is a Parse Node, return true; else return false.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

PrimaryExpression : RegularExpressionLiteral

1. Let pattern be CodePointsToString(BodyText of RegularExpressionLiteral).

2. Let flags be CodePointsToString(FlagText of RegularExpressionLiteral).
3. Return ! RegExpCreate(pattern, flags).

13.2.8 Template Literals

Syntax

TemplateLiteral[Yield, Await, Tagged] :

NoSubstitutionTemplate
SubstitutionTemplate[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged]

SubstitutionTemplate[Yield, Await, Tagged] :

TemplateHead Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] TemplateSpans[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged]

TemplateSpans[Yield, Await, Tagged] :

TemplateTail
TemplateMiddleList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged] TemplateTail

TemplateMiddleList[Yield, Await, Tagged] :

TemplateMiddle Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
TemplateMiddleList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged] TemplateMiddle Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

TemplateLiteral[Yield, Await, Tagged] : NoSubstitutionTemplate

It is a Syntax Error if the [Tagged] parameter was not set and NoSubstitutionTemplate Contains NotEscapeSequence.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

TemplateLiteral[Yield, Await, Tagged] : SubstitutionTemplate[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged]

It is a Syntax Error if the number of elements in the TemplateStrings of TemplateLiteral with argument false is
greater than or equal to 232.

SubstitutionTemplate[Yield, Await, Tagged] : TemplateHead Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]

TemplateSpans[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged]

It is a Syntax Error if the [Tagged] parameter was not set and TemplateHead Contains NotEscapeSequence.

TemplateSpans[Yield, Await, Tagged] : TemplateTail

It is a Syntax Error if the [Tagged] parameter was not set and TemplateTail Contains NotEscapeSequence.

TemplateMiddleList[Yield, Await, Tagged] :

TemplateMiddle Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
TemplateMiddleList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged] TemplateMiddle Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]

It is a Syntax Error if the [Tagged] parameter was not set and TemplateMiddle Contains NotEscapeSequence.

[Link] Static Semantics: TemplateStrings

The syntax-directed operation TemplateStrings takes argument raw (a Boolean) and returns a List of either Strings or
undefined. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
TemplateLiteral : NoSubstitutionTemplate

1. Return « TemplateString(NoSubstitutionTemplate, raw) ».

SubstitutionTemplate : TemplateHead Expression TemplateSpans

1. Let head be « TemplateString(TemplateHead, raw) ».

2. Let tail be the TemplateStrings of TemplateSpans with argument raw.
3. Return the list-concatenation of head and tail.

TemplateSpans : TemplateTail

1. Return « TemplateString(TemplateTail, raw) ».

TemplateSpans : TemplateMiddleList TemplateTail

1. Let middle be the TemplateStrings of TemplateMiddleList with argument raw.

2. Let tail be « TemplateString(TemplateTail, raw) ».
3. Return the list-concatenation of middle and tail.

TemplateMiddleList : TemplateMiddle Expression

1. Return « TemplateString(TemplateMiddle, raw) ».

TemplateMiddleList : TemplateMiddleList TemplateMiddle Expression

1. Let front be the TemplateStrings of TemplateMiddleList with argument raw.

2. Let last be « TemplateString(TemplateMiddle, raw) ».
3. Return the list-concatenation of front and last.

[Link] Static Semantics: TemplateString ( templateToken, raw )

The abstract operation TemplateString takes arguments templateToken (a NoSubstitutionTemplate Parse Node, a
TemplateHead Parse Node, a TemplateMiddle Parse Node, or a TemplateTail Parse Node) and raw (a Boolean) and re-

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

turns a String or undefined. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If raw is true, then

a. Let string be the TRV of templateToken.
2. Else,
a. Let string be the TV of templateToken.
3. Return string.

NOTE This operation returns undefined if raw is false and templateToken contains a NotEscapeSequence. In all
other cases, it returns a String.

[Link] GetTemplateObject ( templateLiteral )

The abstract operation GetTemplateObject takes argument templateLiteral (a Parse Node) and returns an Array. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Let realm be the current Realm Record.

2. Let templateRegistry be realm.⁠[[TemplateMap]].
3. For each element e of templateRegistry, do
a. If e.⁠[[Site]] is the same Parse Node as templateLiteral, then
i. Return e.⁠[[Array]].
4. Let rawStrings be the TemplateStrings of templateLiteral with argument true.
5. Assert: rawStrings is a List of Strings.
6. Let cookedStrings be the TemplateStrings of templateLiteral with argument false.
7. Let count be the number of elements in the List cookedStrings.
8. Assert: count ≤ 232 - 1.
9. Let template be ! ArrayCreate(count).
10. Let rawObj be ! ArrayCreate(count).
11. Let index be 0.
12. Repeat, while index < count,
a. Let prop be ! ToString(𝔽(index)).
b. Let cookedValue be cookedStrings[index].
c. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(template, prop, PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: cookedValue, ⁠[[Writable]]:
false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: true, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
d. Let rawValue be the String value rawStrings[index].
e. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(rawObj, prop, PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: rawValue, ⁠[[Writable]]: false,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: true, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
f. Set index to index + 1.
13. Perform ! SetIntegrityLevel(rawObj, FROZEN).
14. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(template, "raw", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: rawObj, ⁠[[Writable]]: false,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
15. Perform ! SetIntegrityLevel(template, FROZEN).
16. Append the Record { ⁠[[Site]]: templateLiteral, ⁠[[Array]]: template } to realm.⁠[[TemplateMap]].
17. Return template.

NOTE 1 The creation of a template object cannot result in an abrupt completion.

NOTE 2 Each TemplateLiteral in the program code of a realm is associated with a unique template object that is used
in the evaluation of tagged Templates ([Link]). The template objects are frozen and the same template
object is used each time a specific tagged Template is evaluated. Whether template objects are created
lazily upon first evaluation of the TemplateLiteral or eagerly prior to first evaluation is an implementation
choice that is not observable to ECMAScript code.

NOTE 3 Future editions of this specification may define additional non-enumerable properties of template objects.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Runtime Semantics: SubstitutionEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation SubstitutionEvaluation takes no arguments and returns either a normal completion
containing a List of ECMAScript language values or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise over the
following productions:
TemplateSpans : TemplateTail

1. Return a new empty List.

TemplateSpans : TemplateMiddleList TemplateTail

1. Return ? SubstitutionEvaluation of TemplateMiddleList.

TemplateMiddleList : TemplateMiddle Expression

1. Let subRef be ? Evaluation of Expression.

2. Let sub be ? GetValue(subRef).
3. Return « sub ».

TemplateMiddleList : TemplateMiddleList TemplateMiddle Expression

1. Let preceding be ? SubstitutionEvaluation of TemplateMiddleList.

2. Let nextRef be ? Evaluation of Expression.
3. Let next be ? GetValue(nextRef).
4. Return the list-concatenation of preceding and « next ».

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

TemplateLiteral : NoSubstitutionTemplate

1. Return the TV of NoSubstitutionTemplate as defined in 12.9.6.

SubstitutionTemplate : TemplateHead Expression TemplateSpans

1. Let head be the TV of TemplateHead as defined in 12.9.6.

2. Let subRef be ? Evaluation of Expression.
3. Let sub be ? GetValue(subRef).
4. Let middle be ? ToString(sub).
5. Let tail be ? Evaluation of TemplateSpans.
6. Return the string-concatenation of head, middle, and tail.

NOTE 1 The string conversion semantics applied to the Expression value are like [Link]
rather than the + operator.

TemplateSpans : TemplateTail

1. Return the TV of TemplateTail as defined in 12.9.6.

TemplateSpans : TemplateMiddleList TemplateTail

1. Let head be ? Evaluation of TemplateMiddleList.

2. Let tail be the TV of TemplateTail as defined in 12.9.6.
3. Return the string-concatenation of head and tail.

TemplateMiddleList : TemplateMiddle Expression

1. Let head be the TV of TemplateMiddle as defined in 12.9.6.

2. Let subRef be ? Evaluation of Expression.
3. Let sub be ? GetValue(subRef).
4. Let middle be ? ToString(sub).
5. Return the string-concatenation of head and middle.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 2 The string conversion semantics applied to the Expression value are like [Link]
rather than the + operator.

TemplateMiddleList : TemplateMiddleList TemplateMiddle Expression

1. Let rest be ? Evaluation of TemplateMiddleList.

2. Let middle be the TV of TemplateMiddle as defined in 12.9.6.
3. Let subRef be ? Evaluation of Expression.
4. Let sub be ? GetValue(subRef).
5. Let last be ? ToString(sub).
6. Return the string-concatenation of rest, middle, and last.

NOTE 3 The string conversion semantics applied to the Expression value are like [Link]
rather than the + operator.

13.2.9 The Grouping Operator

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

PrimaryExpression : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList must cover a ParenthesizedExpression.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

PrimaryExpression : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let expr be the ParenthesizedExpression that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return ? Evaluation of expr.

ParenthesizedExpression : ( Expression )

1. Return ? Evaluation of Expression. This may be of type Reference.

NOTE This algorithm does not apply GetValue to Evaluation of Expression. The principal motivation for this is so
that operators such as delete and typeof may be applied to parenthesized expressions.

13.3 Left-Hand-Side Expressions

Syntax

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

SuperProperty[Yield, Await] :
super [ Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ]
super . IdentifierName

MetaProperty :
NewTarget
ImportMeta

NewTarget :
new . target

ImportMeta :
import . meta

NewExpression[Yield, Await] :
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
new NewExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

CallExpression[Yield, Await] :
CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead[?Yield, ?Await]
SuperCall[?Yield, ?Await]
ImportCall[?Yield, ?Await]
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await] Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await] [ Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ]
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await] . IdentifierName
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await] TemplateLiteral[?Yield, ?Await, +Tagged]
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await] . PrivateIdentifier

SuperCall[Yield, Await] :
super Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]

ImportCall[Yield, Await] :
import ( AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ,opt )
import ( AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ,
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ,opt )

Arguments[Yield, Await] :
( )
( ArgumentList[?Yield, ?Await] )
( ArgumentList[?Yield, ?Await] , )

ArgumentList[Yield, Await] :
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
... AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
ArgumentList[?Yield, ?Await] , AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
ArgumentList[?Yield, ?Await] , ... AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]

OptionalExpression[Yield, Await] :
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await] OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await]
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await] OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await]
OptionalExpression[?Yield, ?Await] OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await]

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

OptionalChain[Yield, Await] :
?. Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]
?. [ Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ]
?. IdentifierName
?. TemplateLiteral[?Yield, ?Await, +Tagged]
?. PrivateIdentifier
OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await] Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]
OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await] [ Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ]
OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await] . IdentifierName
OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await] TemplateLiteral[?Yield, ?Await, +Tagged]
OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await] . PrivateIdentifier

LeftHandSideExpression[Yield, Await] :
NewExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
OptionalExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

Supplemental Syntax

When processing an instance of the production

CallExpression : CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead
the interpretation of CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead is refined using the following grammar:

CallMemberExpression[Yield, Await] :
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await] Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]

13.3.1 Static Semantics

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

OptionalChain :
?. TemplateLiteral
OptionalChain TemplateLiteral

It is a Syntax Error if any source text is matched by this production.

NOTE This production exists in order to prevent automatic semicolon insertion rules (12.10) from being applied to
the following code:

a?.b
`c`

so that it would be interpreted as two valid statements. The purpose is to maintain consistency with similar
code without optional chaining:

a.b
`c`

which is a valid statement and where automatic semicolon insertion does not apply.

ImportMeta :
import . meta

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

It is a Syntax Error if the syntactic goal symbol is not Module.

13.3.2 Property Accessors

NOTE Properties are accessed by name, using either the dot notation:
MemberExpression . IdentifierName
CallExpression . IdentifierName

or the bracket notation:

MemberExpression [ Expression ]
CallExpression [ Expression ]

The dot notation is explained by the following syntactic conversion:

MemberExpression . IdentifierName

is identical in its behaviour to

MemberExpression [ <identifier-name-string> ]

and similarly

CallExpression . IdentifierName

is identical in its behaviour to

CallExpression [ <identifier-name-string> ]

where <identifier-name-string> is the StringValue of IdentifierName.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

MemberExpression : MemberExpression [ Expression ]

1. Let baseReference be ? Evaluation of MemberExpression.

2. Let baseValue be ? GetValue(baseReference).
3. Let strict be IsStrict(this MemberExpression).
4. Return ? EvaluatePropertyAccessWithExpressionKey(baseValue, Expression, strict).

MemberExpression : MemberExpression . IdentifierName

1. Let baseReference be ? Evaluation of MemberExpression.

2. Let baseValue be ? GetValue(baseReference).
3. Let strict be IsStrict(this MemberExpression).
4. Return EvaluatePropertyAccessWithIdentifierKey(baseValue, IdentifierName, strict).

MemberExpression : MemberExpression . PrivateIdentifier

1. Let baseReference be ? Evaluation of MemberExpression.

2. Let baseValue be ? GetValue(baseReference).
3. Let fieldNameString be the StringValue of PrivateIdentifier.
4. Return MakePrivateReference(baseValue, fieldNameString).

CallExpression : CallExpression [ Expression ]

1. Let baseReference be ? Evaluation of CallExpression.

2. Let baseValue be ? GetValue(baseReference).
3. Let strict be IsStrict(this CallExpression).
4. Return ? EvaluatePropertyAccessWithExpressionKey(baseValue, Expression, strict).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

CallExpression : CallExpression . IdentifierName

1. Let baseReference be ? Evaluation of CallExpression.

2. Let baseValue be ? GetValue(baseReference).
3. Let strict be IsStrict(this CallExpression).
4. Return EvaluatePropertyAccessWithIdentifierKey(baseValue, IdentifierName, strict).

CallExpression : CallExpression . PrivateIdentifier

1. Let baseReference be ? Evaluation of CallExpression.

2. Let baseValue be ? GetValue(baseReference).
3. Let fieldNameString be the StringValue of PrivateIdentifier.
4. Return MakePrivateReference(baseValue, fieldNameString).

13.3.3 EvaluatePropertyAccessWithExpressionKey ( baseValue, expression, strict )

The abstract operation EvaluatePropertyAccessWithExpressionKey takes arguments baseValue (an ECMAScript lan-
guage value), expression (an Expression Parse Node), and strict (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion
containing a Reference Record or an abrupt completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let propertyNameReference be ? Evaluation of expression.

2. Let propertyNameValue be ? GetValue(propertyNameReference).
3. NOTE: In most cases, ToPropertyKey will be performed on propertyNameValue immediately after this step.
However, in the case of a[b] = c, it will not be performed until after evaluation of c.
4. Return the Reference Record { ⁠[[Base]]: baseValue, ⁠[[ReferencedName]]: propertyNameValue, ⁠[[Strict]]: strict,
⁠[[ThisValue]]: EMPTY }.

13.3.4 EvaluatePropertyAccessWithIdentifierKey ( baseValue, identifierName, strict )

The abstract operation EvaluatePropertyAccessWithIdentifierKey takes arguments baseValue (an ECMAScript lan-
guage value), identifierName (an IdentifierName Parse Node), and strict (a Boolean) and returns a Reference Record. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Let propertyNameString be the StringValue of identifierName.

2. Return the Reference Record { ⁠[[Base]]: baseValue, ⁠[[ReferencedName]]: propertyNameString, ⁠[[Strict]]: strict,
⁠[[ThisValue]]: EMPTY }.

13.3.5 The new Operator

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

NewExpression : new NewExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateNew(NewExpression, EMPTY).

MemberExpression : new MemberExpression Arguments

1. Return ? EvaluateNew(MemberExpression, Arguments).

[Link].1 EvaluateNew ( constructExpr, arguments )

The abstract operation EvaluateNew takes arguments constructExpr (a NewExpression Parse Node or a
MemberExpression Parse Node) and arguments (EMPTY or an Arguments Parse Node) and returns either a normal
completion containing an ECMAScript language value or an abrupt completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let ref be ? Evaluation of constructExpr.

2. Let constructor be ? GetValue(ref).
3. If arguments is EMPTY, then
a. Let argList be a new empty List.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4. Else,
a. Let argList be ? ArgumentListEvaluation of arguments.
5. If IsConstructor(constructor) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
6. Return ? Construct(constructor, argList).

13.3.6 Function Calls

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

CallExpression : CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead

1. Let expr be the CallMemberExpression that is covered by CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead.

2. Let memberExpr be the MemberExpression of expr.
3. Let arguments be the Arguments of expr.
4. Let ref be ? Evaluation of memberExpr.
5. Let func be ? GetValue(ref).
6. If ref is a Reference Record, IsPropertyReference(ref) is false, and ref.⁠[[ReferencedName]] is "eval", then
a. If SameValue(func, %eval%) is true, then
i. Let argList be ? ArgumentListEvaluation of arguments.
ii. If argList has no elements, return undefined.
iii. Let evalArg be the first element of argList.
iv. If IsStrict(this CallExpression) is true, let strictCaller be true; otherwise let strictCaller be false.
v. Return ? PerformEval(evalArg, strictCaller, true).
7. Let thisCall be this CallExpression.
8. Let tailCall be IsInTailPosition(thisCall).
9. Return ? EvaluateCall(func, ref, arguments, tailCall).

A CallExpression evaluation that executes step 6.a.v is a direct eval.

CallExpression : CallExpression Arguments

1. Let ref be ? Evaluation of CallExpression.

2. Let func be ? GetValue(ref).
3. Let thisCall be this CallExpression.
4. Let tailCall be IsInTailPosition(thisCall).
5. Return ? EvaluateCall(func, ref, Arguments, tailCall).

[Link] EvaluateCall ( func, ref, arguments, tailPosition )

The abstract operation EvaluateCall takes arguments func (an ECMAScript language value), ref (an ECMAScript
language value or a Reference Record), arguments (a Parse Node), and tailPosition (a Boolean) and returns either a
normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or an abrupt completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. If ref is a Reference Record, then

a. If IsPropertyReference(ref) is true, then
i. Let thisValue be GetThisValue(ref).
b. Else,
i. Let refEnv be ref.⁠[[Base]].
ii. Assert: refEnv is an Environment Record.
iii. Let thisValue be [Link]().
2. Else,
a. Let thisValue be undefined.
3. Let argList be ? ArgumentListEvaluation of arguments.
4. If func is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
5. If IsCallable(func) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
6. If tailPosition is true, perform PrepareForTailCall().
7. Return ? Call(func, thisValue, argList).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

13.3.7 The super Keyword

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

SuperProperty : super [ Expression ]

1. Let env be GetThisEnvironment().

2. Let actualThis be ? [Link]().
3. Let propertyNameReference be ? Evaluation of Expression.
4. Let propertyNameValue be ? GetValue(propertyNameReference).
5. Let strict be IsStrict(this SuperProperty).
6. NOTE: In most cases, ToPropertyKey will be performed on propertyNameValue immediately after this step.
However, in the case of super[b] = c, it will not be performed until after evaluation of c.
7. Return MakeSuperPropertyReference(actualThis, propertyNameValue, strict).

SuperProperty : super . IdentifierName

1. Let env be GetThisEnvironment().

2. Let actualThis be ? [Link]().
3. Let propertyKey be the StringValue of IdentifierName.
4. Let strict be IsStrict(this SuperProperty).
5. Return MakeSuperPropertyReference(actualThis, propertyKey, strict).

SuperCall : super Arguments

1. Let newTarget be GetNewTarget().

2. Assert: newTarget is a constructor.
3. Let func be GetSuperConstructor().
4. Let argList be ? ArgumentListEvaluation of Arguments.
5. If IsConstructor(func) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
6. Let result be ? Construct(func, argList, newTarget).
7. Let thisER be GetThisEnvironment().
8. Assert: thisER is a Function Environment Record.
9. Perform ? BindThisValue(thisER, result).
10. Let F be thisER.⁠[[FunctionObject]].
11. Assert: F is an ECMAScript function object.
12. Perform ? InitializeInstanceElements(result, F).
13. Return result.

[Link] GetSuperConstructor ( )

The abstract operation GetSuperConstructor takes no arguments and returns an ECMAScript language value. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Let envRec be GetThisEnvironment().

2. Assert: envRec is a Function Environment Record.
3. Let activeFunction be envRec.⁠[[FunctionObject]].
4. Assert: activeFunction is an ECMAScript function object.
5. Let superConstructor be ! activeFunction.⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
6. Return superConstructor.

[Link] MakeSuperPropertyReference ( actualThis, propertyKey, strict )

The abstract operation MakeSuperPropertyReference takes arguments actualThis (an ECMAScript language value),
propertyKey (an ECMAScript language value), and strict (a Boolean) and returns a Super Reference Record. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Let env be GetThisEnvironment().

2. Assert: [Link]() is true.
3. Assert: env is a Function Environment Record.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4. Let baseValue be GetSuperBase(env).

5. Return the Reference Record { ⁠[[Base]]: baseValue, ⁠[[ReferencedName]]: propertyKey, ⁠[[Strict]]: strict, ⁠[[ThisValue]]:
actualThis }.

13.3.8 Argument Lists

NOTE The evaluation of an argument list produces a List of values.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: ArgumentListEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation ArgumentListEvaluation takes no arguments and returns either a normal completion
containing a List of ECMAScript language values or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise over the
following productions:
Arguments : ( )

1. Return a new empty List.

ArgumentList : AssignmentExpression

1. Let ref be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.

2. Let arg be ? GetValue(ref).
3. Return « arg ».

ArgumentList : ... AssignmentExpression

1. Let list be a new empty List.

2. Let spreadRef be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.
3. Let spreadObj be ? GetValue(spreadRef).
4. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(spreadObj, SYNC).
5. Repeat,
a. Let next be ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is DONE, return list.
c. Append next to list.

ArgumentList : ArgumentList , AssignmentExpression

1. Let precedingArgs be ? ArgumentListEvaluation of ArgumentList.

2. Let ref be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.
3. Let arg be ? GetValue(ref).
4. Return the list-concatenation of precedingArgs and « arg ».

ArgumentList : ArgumentList , ... AssignmentExpression

1. Let precedingArgs be ? ArgumentListEvaluation of ArgumentList.

2. Let spreadRef be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.
3. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(? GetValue(spreadRef), SYNC).
4. Repeat,
a. Let next be ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is DONE, return precedingArgs.
c. Append next to precedingArgs.

TemplateLiteral : NoSubstitutionTemplate

1. Let templateLiteral be this TemplateLiteral.

2. Let siteObj be GetTemplateObject(templateLiteral).
3. Return « siteObj ».

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

TemplateLiteral : SubstitutionTemplate

1. Let templateLiteral be this TemplateLiteral.

2. Let siteObj be GetTemplateObject(templateLiteral).
3. Let remaining be ? ArgumentListEvaluation of SubstitutionTemplate.
4. Return the list-concatenation of « siteObj » and remaining.

SubstitutionTemplate : TemplateHead Expression TemplateSpans

1. Let firstSubRef be ? Evaluation of Expression.

2. Let firstSub be ? GetValue(firstSubRef).
3. Let restSub be ? SubstitutionEvaluation of TemplateSpans.
4. Assert: restSub is a possibly empty List.
5. Return the list-concatenation of « firstSub » and restSub.

13.3.9 Optional Chains

NOTE An optional chain is a chain of one or more property accesses and function calls, the first of which begins
with the token ?..

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

OptionalExpression :
MemberExpression OptionalChain

1. Let baseReference be ? Evaluation of MemberExpression.

2. Let baseValue be ? GetValue(baseReference).
3. If baseValue is either undefined or null, then
a. Return undefined.
4. Return ? ChainEvaluation of OptionalChain with arguments baseValue and baseReference.

OptionalExpression :
CallExpression OptionalChain

1. Let baseReference be ? Evaluation of CallExpression.

OptionalExpression :
OptionalExpression OptionalChain

1. Let baseReference be ? Evaluation of OptionalExpression.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: ChainEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation ChainEvaluation takes arguments baseValue (an ECMAScript language value) and
baseReference (an ECMAScript language value or a Reference Record) and returns either a normal completion con-
taining either an ECMAScript language value or a Reference Record, or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

over the following productions:

OptionalChain : ?. Arguments

1. Let thisChain be this OptionalChain.

2. Let tailCall be IsInTailPosition(thisChain).
3. Return ? EvaluateCall(baseValue, baseReference, Arguments, tailCall).

OptionalChain : ?. [ Expression ]

1. Let strict be IsStrict(this OptionalChain).

2. Return ? EvaluatePropertyAccessWithExpressionKey(baseValue, Expression, strict).

OptionalChain : ?. IdentifierName

1. Let strict be IsStrict(this OptionalChain).

2. Return EvaluatePropertyAccessWithIdentifierKey(baseValue, IdentifierName, strict).

OptionalChain : ?. PrivateIdentifier

1. Let fieldNameString be the StringValue of PrivateIdentifier.

2. Return MakePrivateReference(baseValue, fieldNameString).

OptionalChain : OptionalChain Arguments

1. Let optionalChain be OptionalChain.

2. Let newReference be ? ChainEvaluation of optionalChain with arguments baseValue and baseReference.
3. Let newValue be ? GetValue(newReference).
4. Let thisChain be this OptionalChain.
5. Let tailCall be IsInTailPosition(thisChain).
6. Return ? EvaluateCall(newValue, newReference, Arguments, tailCall).

OptionalChain : OptionalChain [ Expression ]

1. Let optionalChain be OptionalChain.

2. Let newReference be ? ChainEvaluation of optionalChain with arguments baseValue and baseReference.
3. Let newValue be ? GetValue(newReference).
4. Let strict be IsStrict(this OptionalChain).
5. Return ? EvaluatePropertyAccessWithExpressionKey(newValue, Expression, strict).

OptionalChain : OptionalChain . IdentifierName

1. Let optionalChain be OptionalChain.

2. Let newReference be ? ChainEvaluation of optionalChain with arguments baseValue and baseReference.
3. Let newValue be ? GetValue(newReference).
4. Let strict be IsStrict(this OptionalChain).
5. Return EvaluatePropertyAccessWithIdentifierKey(newValue, IdentifierName, strict).

OptionalChain : OptionalChain . PrivateIdentifier

1. Let optionalChain be OptionalChain.

2. Let newReference be ? ChainEvaluation of optionalChain with arguments baseValue and baseReference.
3. Let newValue be ? GetValue(newReference).
4. Let fieldNameString be the StringValue of PrivateIdentifier.
5. Return MakePrivateReference(newValue, fieldNameString).

13.3.10 Import Calls

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ImportCall : import ( AssignmentExpression ,opt )

1. Return ? EvaluateImportCall(AssignmentExpression).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ImportCall : import ( AssignmentExpression , AssignmentExpression ,opt )

1. Return ? EvaluateImportCall(the first AssignmentExpression, the second AssignmentExpression).

[Link] EvaluateImportCall ( specifierExpression [ , optionsExpression ] )

The abstract operation EvaluateImportCall takes argument specifierExpression (a Parse Node) and optional argument
optionsExpression (a Parse Node) and returns either a normal completion containing a Promise or an abrupt comple-
tion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let referrer be GetActiveScriptOrModule().

2. If referrer is null, set referrer to the current Realm Record.
3. Let specifierRef be ? Evaluation of specifierExpression.
4. Let specifier be ? GetValue(specifierRef).
5. If optionsExpression is present, then
a. Let optionsRef be ? Evaluation of optionsExpression.
b. Let options be ? GetValue(optionsRef).
6. Else,
a. Let options be undefined.
7. Let promiseCapability be ! NewPromiseCapability(%Promise%).
8. Let specifierString be Completion(ToString(specifier)).
9. IfAbruptRejectPromise(specifierString, promiseCapability).
10. Let attributes be a new empty List.
11. If options is not undefined, then
a. If options is not an Object, then
i. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « a newly created TypeError object »).
ii. Return promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]].
b. Let attributesObj be Completion(Get(options, "with")).
c. IfAbruptRejectPromise(attributesObj, promiseCapability).
d. If attributesObj is not undefined, then
i. If attributesObj is not an Object, then
1. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « a newly created TypeError object »).
2. Return promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]].
ii. Let entries be Completion(EnumerableOwnProperties(attributesObj, KEY+VALUE)).
iii. IfAbruptRejectPromise(entries, promiseCapability).
iv. For each element entry of entries, do
1. Let key be ! Get(entry, "0").
2. Let value be ! Get(entry, "1").
3. If key is a String, then
a. If value is not a String, then
i. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « a newly created TypeError
object »).
ii. Return promiseCapability.[[Promise]].
b. Append the ImportAttribute Record { ⁠[[Key]]: key, ⁠[[Value]]: value } to attributes.
e. If AllImportAttributesSupported(attributes) is false, then
i. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « a newly created TypeError object »).
ii. Return promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]].
f. Sort attributes according to the lexicographic order of their ⁠[[Key]] field, treating the value of each such field as a
sequence of UTF-16 code unit values. NOTE: This sorting is observable only in that hosts are prohibited from
changing behaviour based on the order in which attributes are enumerated.
12. Let moduleRequest be a new ModuleRequest Record { ⁠[[Specifier]]: specifierString, ⁠[[Attributes]]: attributes }.
13. Perform HostLoadImportedModule(referrer, moduleRequest, EMPTY, promiseCapability).
14. Return promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]].

[Link] ContinueDynamicImport ( promiseCapability, moduleCompletion )

The abstract operation ContinueDynamicImport takes arguments promiseCapability (a PromiseCapability Record) and
moduleCompletion (either a normal completion containing a Module Record or a throw completion) and returns
UNUSED. It completes the process of a dynamic import originally started by an import() call, resolving or rejecting the

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

promise returned by that call as appropriate. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If moduleCompletion is an abrupt completion, then

a. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « moduleCompletion.⁠[[Value]] »).
b. Return UNUSED.
2. Let module be moduleCompletion.⁠[[Value]].
3. Let loadPromise be [Link]().
4. Let rejectedClosure be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (reason) that captures promiseCapability and
performs the following steps when called:
a. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « reason »).
b. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).
5. Let onRejected be CreateBuiltinFunction(rejectedClosure, 1, "", « »).
6. Let linkAndEvaluateClosure be a new Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures module, promiseCapability,
and onRejected and performs the following steps when called:
a. Let link be Completion([Link]()).
b. If link is an abrupt completion, then
i. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « link.⁠[[Value]] »).
ii. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).
c. Let evaluatePromise be [Link]().
d. Let fulfilledClosure be a new Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures module and promiseCapability
and performs the following steps when called:
i. Let namespace be GetModuleNamespace(module).
ii. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « namespace »).
iii. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).
e. Let onFulfilled be CreateBuiltinFunction(fulfilledClosure, 0, "", « »).
f. Perform PerformPromiseThen(evaluatePromise, onFulfilled, onRejected).
g. Return UNUSED.
7. Let linkAndEvaluate be CreateBuiltinFunction(linkAndEvaluateClosure, 0, "", « »).
8. Perform PerformPromiseThen(loadPromise, linkAndEvaluate, onRejected).
9. Return UNUSED.

13.3.11 Tagged Templates

NOTE A tagged template is a function call where the arguments of the call are derived from a TemplateLiteral
(13.2.8). The actual arguments include a template object ([Link]) and the values produced by evaluating
the expressions embedded within the TemplateLiteral.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

MemberExpression : MemberExpression TemplateLiteral

1. Let tagRef be ? Evaluation of MemberExpression.

2. Let tagFunc be ? GetValue(tagRef).
3. Let thisCall be this MemberExpression.
4. Let tailCall be IsInTailPosition(thisCall).
5. Return ? EvaluateCall(tagFunc, tagRef, TemplateLiteral, tailCall).

CallExpression : CallExpression TemplateLiteral

1. Let tagRef be ? Evaluation of CallExpression.

2. Let tagFunc be ? GetValue(tagRef).
3. Let thisCall be this CallExpression.
4. Let tailCall be IsInTailPosition(thisCall).
5. Return ? EvaluateCall(tagFunc, tagRef, TemplateLiteral, tailCall).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

13.3.12 Meta Properties

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

NewTarget : new . target

1. Return GetNewTarget().

ImportMeta : import . meta

1. Let module be GetActiveScriptOrModule().

2. Assert: module is a Source Text Module Record.
3. Let importMeta be module.⁠[[ImportMeta]].
4. If importMeta is EMPTY, then
a. Set importMeta to OrdinaryObjectCreate(null).
b. Let importMetaValues be HostGetImportMetaProperties(module).
c. For each Record { ⁠[[Key]], ⁠[[Value]] } p of importMetaValues, do
i. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(importMeta, p.⁠[[Key]], p.⁠[[Value]]).
d. Perform HostFinalizeImportMeta(importMeta, module).
e. Set module.⁠[[ImportMeta]] to importMeta.
f. Return importMeta.
5. Else,
a. Assert: importMeta is an Object.
b. Return importMeta.

[Link].1 HostGetImportMetaProperties ( moduleRecord )

The host-defined abstract operation HostGetImportMetaProperties takes argument moduleRecord (a Module Record)
and returns a List of Records with fields ⁠[[Key]] (a property key) and ⁠[[Value]] (an ECMAScript language value). It allows
hosts to provide property keys and values for the object returned from [Link].

The default implementation of HostGetImportMetaProperties is to return a new empty List.

[Link].2 HostFinalizeImportMeta ( importMeta, moduleRecord )

The host-defined abstract operation HostFinalizeImportMeta takes arguments importMeta (an Object) and moduleRe-
cord (a Module Record) and returns UNUSED. It allows hosts to perform any extraordinary operations to prepare the
object returned from [Link].

Most hosts will be able to simply define HostGetImportMetaProperties, and leave HostFinalizeImportMeta with its
default behaviour. However, HostFinalizeImportMeta provides an "escape hatch" for hosts which need to directly
manipulate the object before it is exposed to ECMAScript code.

The default implementation of HostFinalizeImportMeta is to return UNUSED.

13.4 Update Expressions

Syntax

UpdateExpression[Yield, Await] :
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] [no LineTerminator here] ++
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] [no LineTerminator here] --
++ UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
-- UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

13.4.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

UpdateExpression :
LeftHandSideExpression ++
LeftHandSideExpression --

It is an early Syntax Error if the AssignmentTargetType of LeftHandSideExpression is INVALID.

UpdateExpression :
++ UnaryExpression
-- UnaryExpression

It is an early Syntax Error if the AssignmentTargetType of UnaryExpression is INVALID.

13.4.2 Postfix Increment Operator

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UpdateExpression : LeftHandSideExpression ++

1. Let lhs be ? Evaluation of LeftHandSideExpression.

2. If the AssignmentTargetType of LeftHandSideExpression is WEB-COMPAT, throw a ReferenceError exception.
3. Let oldValue be ? ToNumeric(? GetValue(lhs)).
4. If oldValue is a Number, then
a. Let newValue be Number::add(oldValue, 1𝔽).
5. Else,
a. Assert: oldValue is a BigInt.
b. Let newValue be BigInt::add(oldValue, 1ℤ).
6. Perform ? PutValue(lhs, newValue).
7. Return oldValue.

13.4.3 Postfix Decrement Operator

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UpdateExpression : LeftHandSideExpression --

1. Let lhs be ? Evaluation of LeftHandSideExpression.

2. If the AssignmentTargetType of LeftHandSideExpression is WEB-COMPAT, throw a ReferenceError exception.
3. Let oldValue be ? ToNumeric(? GetValue(lhs)).
4. If oldValue is a Number, then
a. Let newValue be Number::subtract(oldValue, 1𝔽).
5. Else,
a. Assert: oldValue is a BigInt.
b. Let newValue be BigInt::subtract(oldValue, 1ℤ).
6. Perform ? PutValue(lhs, newValue).
7. Return oldValue.

13.4.4 Prefix Increment Operator

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UpdateExpression : ++ UnaryExpression

1. Let expr be ? Evaluation of UnaryExpression.

2. If the AssignmentTargetType of UnaryExpression is WEB-COMPAT, throw a ReferenceError exception.
3. Let oldValue be ? ToNumeric(? GetValue(expr)).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4. If oldValue is a Number, then

a. Let newValue be Number::add(oldValue, 1𝔽).
5. Else,
a. Assert: oldValue is a BigInt.
b. Let newValue be BigInt::add(oldValue, 1ℤ).
6. Perform ? PutValue(expr, newValue).
7. Return newValue.

13.4.5 Prefix Decrement Operator

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UpdateExpression : -- UnaryExpression

1. Let expr be ? Evaluation of UnaryExpression.

2. If the AssignmentTargetType of UnaryExpression is WEB-COMPAT, throw a ReferenceError exception.
3. Let oldValue be ? ToNumeric(? GetValue(expr)).
4. If oldValue is a Number, then
a. Let newValue be Number::subtract(oldValue, 1𝔽).
5. Else,
a. Assert: oldValue is a BigInt.
b. Let newValue be BigInt::subtract(oldValue, 1ℤ).
6. Perform ? PutValue(expr, newValue).
7. Return newValue.

13.5 Unary Operators

Syntax

UnaryExpression[Yield, Await] :
UpdateExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
delete UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
void UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
typeof UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
+ UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
- UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
~ UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
! UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
[+Await] AwaitExpression[?Yield]

13.5.1 The delete Operator

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

UnaryExpression : delete UnaryExpression

It is a Syntax Error if IsStrict(the UnaryExpression) is true and the derived UnaryExpression is

PrimaryExpression : IdentifierReference , MemberExpression : MemberExpression . PrivateIdentifier ,
CallExpression : CallExpression . PrivateIdentifier , OptionalChain : ?. PrivateIdentifier , or
OptionalChain : OptionalChain . PrivateIdentifier .

It is a Syntax Error if the derived UnaryExpression is

PrimaryExpression : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList
and CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList ultimately derives a phrase that, if used in place of
UnaryExpression, would produce a Syntax Error according to these rules. This rule is recursively applied.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE The last rule means that expressions such as delete (((foo))) produce early errors because of
recursive application of the first rule.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UnaryExpression : delete UnaryExpression

1. Let ref be ? Evaluation of UnaryExpression.

2. If ref is not a Reference Record, return true.
3. If IsUnresolvableReference(ref) is true, then
a. Assert: ref.⁠[[Strict]] is false.
b. Return true.
4. If IsPropertyReference(ref) is true, then
a. Assert: IsPrivateReference(ref) is false.
b. If IsSuperReference(ref) is true, throw a ReferenceError exception.
c. Let baseObj be ? ToObject(ref.⁠[[Base]]).
d. If ref.⁠[[ReferencedName]] is not a property key, then
i. Set ref.⁠[[ReferencedName]] to ? ToPropertyKey(ref.⁠[[ReferencedName]]).
e. Let deleteStatus be ? baseObj.⁠[[Delete]](ref.⁠[[ReferencedName]]).
f. If deleteStatus is false and ref.⁠[[Strict]] is true, throw a TypeError exception.
g. Return deleteStatus.
5. Else,
a. Let base be ref.⁠[[Base]].
b. Assert: base is an Environment Record.
c. Return ? [Link](ref.⁠[[ReferencedName]]).

NOTE 1 When a delete operator occurs within strict mode code, a SyntaxError exception is thrown if its
UnaryExpression is a direct reference to a variable, function argument, or function name. In addition, if a
delete operator occurs within strict mode code and the property to be deleted has the attribute {
[[Configurable]]: false } (or otherwise cannot be deleted), a TypeError exception is thrown.

NOTE 2 The object that may be created in step 4.c is not accessible outside of the above abstract operation and the
ordinary object ⁠[[Delete]] internal method. An implementation might choose to avoid the actual creation of
that object.

13.5.2 The void Operator

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UnaryExpression : void UnaryExpression

1. Let expr be ? Evaluation of UnaryExpression.

2. Perform ? GetValue(expr).
3. Return undefined.

NOTE GetValue must be called even though its value is not used because it may have observable side-effects.

13.5.3 The typeof Operator

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UnaryExpression : typeof UnaryExpression

1. Let val be ? Evaluation of UnaryExpression.

2. If val is a Reference Record, then
a. If IsUnresolvableReference(val) is true, return "undefined".
3. Set val to ? GetValue(val).
4. If val is undefined, return "undefined".
5. If val is null, return "object".
6. If val is a String, return "string".
7. If val is a Symbol, return "symbol".
8. If val is a Boolean, return "boolean".
9. If val is a Number, return "number".
10. If val is a BigInt, return "bigint".
11. Assert: val is an Object.
12. NOTE: This step is replaced in section B.3.6.3.
13. If val has a ⁠[[Call]] internal method, return "function".
14. Return "object".

13.5.4 Unary + Operator

NOTE The unary + operator converts its operand to Number type.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UnaryExpression : + UnaryExpression

1. Let expr be ? Evaluation of UnaryExpression.

2. Return ? ToNumber(? GetValue(expr)).

13.5.5 Unary - Operator

NOTE The unary - operator converts its operand to a numeric value and then negates it. Negating +0𝔽 produces
-0𝔽, and negating -0𝔽 produces +0𝔽.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UnaryExpression : - UnaryExpression

1. Let expr be ? Evaluation of UnaryExpression.

2. Let oldValue be ? ToNumeric(? GetValue(expr)).
3. If oldValue is a Number, then
a. Return Number::unaryMinus(oldValue).
4. Else,
a. Assert: oldValue is a BigInt.
b. Return BigInt::unaryMinus(oldValue).

13.5.6 Bitwise NOT Operator ( ~ )

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UnaryExpression : ~ UnaryExpression

1. Let expr be ? Evaluation of UnaryExpression.

2. Let oldValue be ? ToNumeric(? GetValue(expr)).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. If oldValue is a Number, then

a. Return Number::bitwiseNOT(oldValue).
4. Else,
a. Assert: oldValue is a BigInt.
b. Return BigInt::bitwiseNOT(oldValue).

13.5.7 Logical NOT Operator ( ! )

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UnaryExpression : ! UnaryExpression

1. Let expr be ? Evaluation of UnaryExpression.

2. Let oldValue be ToBoolean(? GetValue(expr)).
3. If oldValue is true, return false.
4. Return true.

13.6 Exponentiation Operator

Syntax

ExponentiationExpression[Yield, Await] :
UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
UpdateExpression[?Yield, ?Await] ** ExponentiationExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

13.6.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ExponentiationExpression : UpdateExpression ** ExponentiationExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(UpdateExpression, **, ExponentiationExpression).

13.7 Multiplicative Operators

Syntax

MultiplicativeExpression[Yield, Await] :
ExponentiationExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
MultiplicativeExpression[?Yield, ?Await] MultiplicativeOperator
ExponentiationExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

MultiplicativeOperator : one of
* / %

NOTE
The * operator performs multiplication, producing the product of its operands.
The / operator performs division, producing the quotient of its operands.
The % operator yields the remainder of its operands from an implied division.

13.7.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

MultiplicativeExpression : MultiplicativeExpression MultiplicativeOperator ExponentiationExpression

1. Let opText be the source text matched by MultiplicativeOperator.

2. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(MultiplicativeExpression, opText, ExponentiationExpression).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

13.8 Additive Operators

Syntax

AdditiveExpression[Yield, Await] :
MultiplicativeExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await] + MultiplicativeExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await] - MultiplicativeExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

13.8.1 The Addition Operator ( + )

NOTE The addition operator either performs string concatenation or numeric addition.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

AdditiveExpression : AdditiveExpression + MultiplicativeExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(AdditiveExpression, +, MultiplicativeExpression).

13.8.2 The Subtraction Operator ( - )

NOTE The - operator performs subtraction, producing the difference of its operands.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

AdditiveExpression : AdditiveExpression - MultiplicativeExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(AdditiveExpression, -, MultiplicativeExpression).

13.9 Bitwise Shift Operators

Syntax

ShiftExpression[Yield, Await] :
AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await] << AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await] >> AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await] >>> AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

13.9.1 The Left Shift Operator ( << )

NOTE Performs a bitwise left shift operation on the left operand by the amount specified by the right operand.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ShiftExpression : ShiftExpression << AdditiveExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(ShiftExpression, <<, AdditiveExpression).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

13.9.2 The Signed Right Shift Operator ( >> )

NOTE Performs a sign-filling bitwise right shift operation on the left operand by the amount specified by the
right operand.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ShiftExpression : ShiftExpression >> AdditiveExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(ShiftExpression, >>, AdditiveExpression).

13.9.3 The Unsigned Right Shift Operator ( >>> )

NOTE Performs a zero-filling bitwise right shift operation on the left operand by the amount specified by the
right operand.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ShiftExpression : ShiftExpression >>> AdditiveExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(ShiftExpression, >>>, AdditiveExpression).

13.10 Relational Operators

NOTE 1 The result of evaluating a relational operator is always of type Boolean, reflecting whether the relationship
named by the operator holds between its two operands.

Syntax

RelationalExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] < ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] > ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] <= ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] >= ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] instanceof ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
[+In] RelationalExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] in ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

[+In] PrivateIdentifier in ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

NOTE 2 The [In] grammar parameter is needed to avoid confusing the in operator in a relational expression with the
in operator in a for statement.

13.10.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

RelationalExpression : RelationalExpression < ShiftExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of RelationalExpression.

2. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
3. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of ShiftExpression.
4. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

5. Let r be ? IsLessThan(lVal, rVal, true).

6. If r is undefined, return false; otherwise return r.
RelationalExpression : RelationalExpression > ShiftExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of RelationalExpression.

2. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
3. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of ShiftExpression.
4. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).
5. Let r be ? IsLessThan(rVal, lVal, false).
6. If r is undefined, return false; otherwise return r.

RelationalExpression : RelationalExpression <= ShiftExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of RelationalExpression.

2. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
3. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of ShiftExpression.
4. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).
5. Let r be ? IsLessThan(rVal, lVal, false).
6. If r is either true or undefined, return false; otherwise return true.

RelationalExpression : RelationalExpression >= ShiftExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of RelationalExpression.

2. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
3. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of ShiftExpression.
4. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).
5. Let r be ? IsLessThan(lVal, rVal, true).
6. If r is either true or undefined, return false; otherwise return true.

RelationalExpression : RelationalExpression instanceof ShiftExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of RelationalExpression.

2. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
3. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of ShiftExpression.
4. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).
5. Return ? InstanceofOperator(lVal, rVal).

RelationalExpression : RelationalExpression in ShiftExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of RelationalExpression.

2. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
3. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of ShiftExpression.
4. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).
5. If rVal is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
6. Return ? HasProperty(rVal, ? ToPropertyKey(lVal)).

RelationalExpression : PrivateIdentifier in ShiftExpression

1. Let privateIdentifier be the StringValue of PrivateIdentifier.

2. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of ShiftExpression.
3. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).
4. If rVal is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
6. Assert: privateEnv is not null.
7. Let privateName be ResolvePrivateIdentifier(privateEnv, privateIdentifier).
8. If PrivateElementFind(rVal, privateName) is not EMPTY, return true.
9. Return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

13.10.2 InstanceofOperator ( V, target )

The abstract operation InstanceofOperator takes arguments V (an ECMAScript language value) and target (an
ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It im-
plements the generic algorithm for determining if V is an instance of target either by consulting target's
%[Link]% method or, if absent, determining whether the value of target's "prototype" property is present
in V's prototype chain. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If target is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let instOfHandler be ? GetMethod(target, %[Link]%).
3. If instOfHandler is not undefined, then
a. Return ToBoolean(? Call(instOfHandler, target, « V »)).
4. If IsCallable(target) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Return ? OrdinaryHasInstance(target, V).

NOTE Steps 4 and 5 provide compatibility with previous editions of ECMAScript that did not use a
%[Link]% method to define the instanceof operator semantics. If an object does not define
or inherit %[Link]% it uses the default instanceof semantics.

13.11 Equality Operators

NOTE The result of evaluating an equality operator is always of type Boolean, reflecting whether the relationship
named by the operator holds between its two operands.

Syntax

EqualityExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] == RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] != RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] === RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] !== RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

13.11.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

EqualityExpression : EqualityExpression == RelationalExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of EqualityExpression.

2. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
3. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of RelationalExpression.
4. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).
5. Return ? IsLooselyEqual(rVal, lVal).

EqualityExpression : EqualityExpression != RelationalExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of EqualityExpression.

2. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
3. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of RelationalExpression.
4. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).
5. Let r be ? IsLooselyEqual(rVal, lVal).
6. If r is true, return false; otherwise return true.

EqualityExpression : EqualityExpression === RelationalExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of EqualityExpression.

2. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
3. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of RelationalExpression.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).

5. Return IsStrictlyEqual(rVal, lVal).
EqualityExpression : EqualityExpression !== RelationalExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of EqualityExpression.

2. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
3. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of RelationalExpression.
4. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).
5. Let r be IsStrictlyEqual(rVal, lVal).
6. If r is true, return false; otherwise return true.

NOTE 1 Given the above definition of equality:

String comparison can be forced by: `${a}` == `${b}`.

Numeric comparison can be forced by: +a == +b.
Boolean comparison can be forced by: !a == !b.

NOTE 2 The equality operators maintain the following invariants:

A != B is equivalent to !(A == B).

A == B is equivalent to B == A, except in the order of evaluation of A and B.

NOTE 3 The equality operator is not always transitive. For example, there might be two distinct String objects, each
representing the same String value; each String object would be considered equal to the String value by the
== operator, but the two String objects would not be equal to each other. For example:

new String("a") == "a" and "a" == new String("a") are both true.
new String("a") == new String("a") is false.

NOTE 4 Comparison of Strings uses a simple equality test on sequences of code unit values. There is no attempt to
use the more complex, semantically oriented definitions of character or string equality and collating order
defined in the Unicode specification. Therefore Strings values that are canonically equal according to the
Unicode Standard could test as unequal. In effect this algorithm assumes that both Strings are already in
normalized form.

13.12 Binary Bitwise Operators

Syntax

BitwiseANDExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BitwiseANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] & EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

BitwiseXORExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

BitwiseANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BitwiseXORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] ^ BitwiseANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

BitwiseORExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

BitwiseXORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BitwiseORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] | BitwiseXORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

13.12.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

BitwiseANDExpression : BitwiseANDExpression & EqualityExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(BitwiseANDExpression, &, EqualityExpression).

BitwiseXORExpression : BitwiseXORExpression ^ BitwiseANDExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(BitwiseXORExpression, ^, BitwiseANDExpression).

BitwiseORExpression : BitwiseORExpression | BitwiseXORExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(BitwiseORExpression, |, BitwiseXORExpression).

13.13 Binary Logical Operators

Syntax

LogicalANDExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

BitwiseORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LogicalANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] && BitwiseORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

LogicalORExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

LogicalANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LogicalORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] || LogicalANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

CoalesceExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

CoalesceExpressionHead[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] ?? BitwiseORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

CoalesceExpressionHead[In, Yield, Await] :

CoalesceExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BitwiseORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

ShortCircuitExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

LogicalORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
CoalesceExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

NOTE The value produced by a && or || operator is not necessarily of type Boolean. The value produced will
always be the value of one of the two operand expressions.

13.13.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

LogicalANDExpression : LogicalANDExpression && BitwiseORExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of LogicalANDExpression.

2. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
3. If ToBoolean(lVal) is false, return lVal.
4. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of BitwiseORExpression.
5. Return ? GetValue(rRef).

LogicalORExpression : LogicalORExpression || LogicalANDExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of LogicalORExpression.

2. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
3. If ToBoolean(lVal) is true, return lVal.
4. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of LogicalANDExpression.
5. Return ? GetValue(rRef).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

CoalesceExpression : CoalesceExpressionHead ?? BitwiseORExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of CoalesceExpressionHead.

2. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
3. If lVal is either undefined or null, then
a. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of BitwiseORExpression.
b. Return ? GetValue(rRef).
4. Else,
a. Return lVal.

13.14 Conditional Operator ( ? : )

Syntax

ConditionalExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

ShortCircuitExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
ShortCircuitExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] ? AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] :
AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

NOTE The grammar for a ConditionalExpression in ECMAScript is slightly different from that in C and Java, which
each allow the second subexpression to be an Expression but restrict the third expression to be a
ConditionalExpression. The motivation for this difference in ECMAScript is to allow an assignment
expression to be governed by either arm of a conditional and to eliminate the confusing and fairly useless
case of a comma expression as the centre expression.

13.14.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ConditionalExpression : ShortCircuitExpression ? AssignmentExpression : AssignmentExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of ShortCircuitExpression.

2. Let lVal be ToBoolean(? GetValue(lRef)).
3. If lVal is true, then
a. Let trueRef be ? Evaluation of the first AssignmentExpression.
b. Return ? GetValue(trueRef).
4. Else,
a. Let falseRef be ? Evaluation of the second AssignmentExpression.
b. Return ? GetValue(falseRef).

13.15 Assignment Operators

Syntax

AssignmentExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

ConditionalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
YieldExpression[?In, ?Await]
[+Yield]

ArrowFunction[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

AsyncArrowFunction[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] = AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] AssignmentOperator
AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] &&= AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] ||= AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] ??= AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

AssignmentOperator : one of
*= /= %= += -= <<= >>= >>>= &= ^= |= **=

13.15.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

AssignmentExpression : LeftHandSideExpression = AssignmentExpression

If LeftHandSideExpression is either an ObjectLiteral or an ArrayLiteral, LeftHandSideExpression must cover an

AssignmentPattern.
If LeftHandSideExpression is neither an ObjectLiteral nor an ArrayLiteral, it is a Syntax Error if the
AssignmentTargetType of LeftHandSideExpression is INVALID.

AssignmentExpression :
LeftHandSideExpression AssignmentOperator AssignmentExpression

It is a Syntax Error if the AssignmentTargetType of LeftHandSideExpression is INVALID.

AssignmentExpression :
LeftHandSideExpression &&= AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression ||= AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression ??= AssignmentExpression

It is a Syntax Error if the AssignmentTargetType of LeftHandSideExpression is not SIMPLE.

13.15.2 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

AssignmentExpression : LeftHandSideExpression = AssignmentExpression

1. If LeftHandSideExpression is neither an ObjectLiteral nor an ArrayLiteral, then

a. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of LeftHandSideExpression.
b. If the AssignmentTargetType of LeftHandSideExpression is WEB-COMPAT, throw a ReferenceError exception.
c. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(AssignmentExpression) is true and IsIdentifierRef of
LeftHandSideExpression is true, then
i. Let lhs be the StringValue of LeftHandSideExpression.
ii. Let rVal be ? NamedEvaluation of AssignmentExpression with argument lhs.
d. Else,
i. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.
ii. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).
e. Perform ? PutValue(lRef, rVal).
f. Return rVal.
2. Let assignmentPattern be the AssignmentPattern that is covered by LeftHandSideExpression.
3. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.
4. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).
5. Perform ? DestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of assignmentPattern with argument rVal.
6. Return rVal.

AssignmentExpression : LeftHandSideExpression AssignmentOperator AssignmentExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of LeftHandSideExpression.

2. If the AssignmentTargetType of LeftHandSideExpression is WEB-COMPAT, throw a ReferenceError exception.
3. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
4. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.
5. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).
6. Let assignmentOpText be the source text matched by AssignmentOperator.
7. Let opText be the sequence of Unicode code points associated with assignmentOpText in the following table:

assignmentOpText opText
**= **
*= *
/= /
%= %

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

assignmentOpText opText
+= +
-= -
<<= <<
>>= >>
>>>= >>>
&= &
^= ^
|= |
8. Let r be ? ApplyStringOrNumericBinaryOperator(lVal, opText, rVal).
9. Perform ? PutValue(lRef, r).
10. Return r.
AssignmentExpression : LeftHandSideExpression &&= AssignmentExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of LeftHandSideExpression.

2. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
3. If ToBoolean(lVal) is false, return lVal.
4. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(AssignmentExpression) is true and IsIdentifierRef of LeftHandSideExpression is
true, then
a. Let lhs be the StringValue of LeftHandSideExpression.
b. Let rVal be ? NamedEvaluation of AssignmentExpression with argument lhs.
5. Else,
a. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.
b. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).
6. Perform ? PutValue(lRef, rVal).
7. Return rVal.

AssignmentExpression : LeftHandSideExpression ||= AssignmentExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of LeftHandSideExpression.

2. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
3. If ToBoolean(lVal) is true, return lVal.
4. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(AssignmentExpression) is true and IsIdentifierRef of LeftHandSideExpression is
true, then
a. Let lhs be the StringValue of LeftHandSideExpression.
b. Let rVal be ? NamedEvaluation of AssignmentExpression with argument lhs.
5. Else,
a. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.
b. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).
6. Perform ? PutValue(lRef, rVal).
7. Return rVal.

AssignmentExpression : LeftHandSideExpression ??= AssignmentExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of LeftHandSideExpression.

2. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
3. If lVal is neither undefined nor null, return lVal.
4. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(AssignmentExpression) is true and IsIdentifierRef of LeftHandSideExpression is
true, then
a. Let lhs be the StringValue of LeftHandSideExpression.
b. Let rVal be ? NamedEvaluation of AssignmentExpression with argument lhs.
5. Else,
a. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.
b. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).
6. Perform ? PutValue(lRef, rVal).
7. Return rVal.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE When this expression occurs within strict mode code, it is a runtime error if lRef in step 1.e, 3, 2, 2, 2 is an
unresolvable reference. If it is, a ReferenceError exception is thrown. Additionally, it is a runtime error if the
lRef in step 9, 6, 6, 6 is a reference to a data property with the attribute value { ⁠[[Writable]]: false }, to an
accessor property with the attribute value { ⁠[[Set]]: undefined }, or to a non-existent property of an object for
which the IsExtensible predicate returns the value false. In these cases a TypeError exception is thrown.

13.15.3 ApplyStringOrNumericBinaryOperator ( lVal, opText, rVal )

The abstract operation ApplyStringOrNumericBinaryOperator takes arguments lVal (an ECMAScript language value),
opText (**, *, /, %, +, -, <<, >>, >>>, &, ^, or |), and rVal (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal
completion containing either a String, a BigInt, or a Number, or a throw completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. If opText is +, then
a. Let lPrim be ? ToPrimitive(lVal).
b. Let rPrim be ? ToPrimitive(rVal).
c. If lPrim is a String or rPrim is a String, then
i. Let lStr be ? ToString(lPrim).
ii. Let rStr be ? ToString(rPrim).
iii. Return the string-concatenation of lStr and rStr.
d. Set lVal to lPrim.
e. Set rVal to rPrim.
2. NOTE: At this point, it must be a numeric operation.
3. Let lNum be ? ToNumeric(lVal).
4. Let rNum be ? ToNumeric(rVal).
5. If SameType(lNum, rNum) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
6. If lNum is a BigInt, then
a. If opText is **, return ? BigInt::exponentiate(lNum, rNum).
b. If opText is /, return ? BigInt::divide(lNum, rNum).
c. If opText is %, return ? BigInt::remainder(lNum, rNum).
d. If opText is >>>, return ? BigInt::unsignedRightShift(lNum, rNum).
e. Let operation be the abstract operation associated with opText in the following table:

opText operation
* BigInt::multiply
+ BigInt::add
- BigInt::subtract
<< BigInt::leftShift
>> BigInt::signedRightShift
& BigInt::bitwiseAND
^ BigInt::bitwiseXOR
| BigInt::bitwiseOR

7. Else,
a. Assert: lNum is a Number.
b. Let operation be the abstract operation associated with opText in the following table:

opText operation
** Number::exponentiate
* Number::multiply
/ Number::divide
% Number::remainder
+ Number::add
- Number::subtract
<< Number::leftShift
>> Number::signedRightShift
>>> Number::unsignedRightShift
& Number::bitwiseAND

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

opText operation
^ Number::bitwiseXOR
| Number::bitwiseOR
8. Return operation(lNum, rNum).

NOTE 1 No hint is provided in the calls to ToPrimitive in steps 1.a and 1.b. All standard objects except Dates handle
the absence of a hint as if NUMBER were given; Dates handle the absence of a hint as if STRING were
given. Exotic objects may handle the absence of a hint in some other manner.

NOTE 2 Step 1.c differs from step 3 of the IsLessThan algorithm, by using the logical-or operation instead of the
logical-and operation.

13.15.4 EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression ( leftOperand, opText, rightOperand )

The abstract operation EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression takes arguments leftOperand (a Parse Node), opText
(a sequence of Unicode code points), and rightOperand (a Parse Node) and returns either a normal completion contain-
ing either a String, a BigInt, or a Number, or an abrupt completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of leftOperand.

2. Let lVal be ? GetValue(lRef).
3. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of rightOperand.
4. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rRef).
5. Return ? ApplyStringOrNumericBinaryOperator(lVal, opText, rVal).

13.15.5 Destructuring Assignment

Supplemental Syntax

In certain circumstances when processing an instance of the production

AssignmentExpression : LeftHandSideExpression = AssignmentExpression
the interpretation of LeftHandSideExpression is refined using the following grammar:

AssignmentPattern[Yield, Await] :
ObjectAssignmentPattern[?Yield, ?Await]
ArrayAssignmentPattern[?Yield, ?Await]

ObjectAssignmentPattern[Yield, Await] :
{ }
{ AssignmentRestProperty[?Yield, ?Await] }
{ AssignmentPropertyList[?Yield, ?Await] }
{ AssignmentPropertyList[?Yield, ?Await] , AssignmentRestProperty[?Yield, ?Await] opt }

ArrayAssignmentPattern[Yield, Await] :
[ Elisionopt AssignmentRestElement[?Yield, ?Await] opt ]
[ AssignmentElementList[?Yield, ?Await] ]
[ AssignmentElementList[?Yield, ?Await] , Elisionopt
AssignmentRestElement[?Yield, ?Await] opt ]

AssignmentRestProperty[Yield, Await] :
... DestructuringAssignmentTarget[?Yield, ?Await]

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

AssignmentPropertyList[Yield, Await] :
AssignmentProperty[?Yield, ?Await]
AssignmentPropertyList[?Yield, ?Await] , AssignmentProperty[?Yield, ?Await]

AssignmentElementList[Yield, Await] :
AssignmentElisionElement[?Yield, ?Await]
AssignmentElementList[?Yield, ?Await] , AssignmentElisionElement[?Yield, ?Await]

AssignmentElisionElement[Yield, Await] :
Elisionopt AssignmentElement[?Yield, ?Await]

AssignmentProperty[Yield, Await] :
IdentifierReference[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt
PropertyName[?Yield, ?Await] : AssignmentElement[?Yield, ?Await]

AssignmentElement[Yield, Await] :
DestructuringAssignmentTarget[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt

AssignmentRestElement[Yield, Await] :
... DestructuringAssignmentTarget[?Yield, ?Await]

DestructuringAssignmentTarget[Yield, Await] :
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

AssignmentProperty : IdentifierReference Initializeropt

It is a Syntax Error if the AssignmentTargetType of IdentifierReference is not SIMPLE.

AssignmentRestProperty : ... DestructuringAssignmentTarget

It is a Syntax Error if DestructuringAssignmentTarget is either an ArrayLiteral or an ObjectLiteral.

DestructuringAssignmentTarget : LeftHandSideExpression

If LeftHandSideExpression is either an ObjectLiteral or an ArrayLiteral, LeftHandSideExpression must cover an

AssignmentPattern.
If LeftHandSideExpression is neither an ObjectLiteral nor an ArrayLiteral, it is a Syntax Error if the
AssignmentTargetType of LeftHandSideExpression is not SIMPLE.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: DestructuringAssignmentEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation DestructuringAssignmentEvaluation takes argument value (an ECMAScript language
value) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise over
the following productions:
ObjectAssignmentPattern : { }

1. Perform ? RequireObjectCoercible(value).
2. Return UNUSED.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ObjectAssignmentPattern :
{ AssignmentPropertyList }
{ AssignmentPropertyList , }

1. Perform ? RequireObjectCoercible(value).
2. Perform ? PropertyDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentPropertyList with argument value.
3. Return UNUSED.

ObjectAssignmentPattern : { AssignmentRestProperty }

1. Perform ? RequireObjectCoercible(value).
2. Let excludedNames be a new empty List.
3. Return ? RestDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentRestProperty with arguments value and
excludedNames.

ObjectAssignmentPattern : { AssignmentPropertyList , AssignmentRestProperty }

1. Perform ? RequireObjectCoercible(value).
2. Let excludedNames be ? PropertyDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentPropertyList with argument
value.
3. Return ? RestDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentRestProperty with arguments value and
excludedNames.

ArrayAssignmentPattern : [ ]

1. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(value, SYNC).

2. Return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, NormalCompletion(UNUSED)).

ArrayAssignmentPattern : [ Elision ]

1. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(value, SYNC).

2. Let result be Completion(IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with argument iteratorRecord).
3. If iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false, return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, result).
4. Return result.

ArrayAssignmentPattern : [ Elisionopt AssignmentRestElement ]

1. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(value, SYNC).

2. If Elision is present, then
a. Let status be Completion(IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with argument iteratorRecord).
b. If status is an abrupt completion, then
i. Assert: iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is true.
ii. Return ? status.
3. Let result be Completion(IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentRestElement with argument
iteratorRecord).
4. If iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false, return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, result).
5. Return result.

ArrayAssignmentPattern : [ AssignmentElementList ]

1. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(value, SYNC).

2. Let result be Completion(IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentElementList with argument
iteratorRecord).
3. If iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false, return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, result).
4. Return result.

ArrayAssignmentPattern : [ AssignmentElementList , Elisionopt AssignmentRestElementopt ]

1. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(value, SYNC).

2. Let status be Completion(IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentElementList with argument
iteratorRecord).
3. If status is an abrupt completion, then

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

a. If iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false, return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, status).

b. Return ? status.
4. If Elision is present, then
a. Set status to Completion(IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with argument iteratorRecord).
b. If status is an abrupt completion, then
i. Assert: iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is true.
ii. Return ? status.
5. If AssignmentRestElement is present, then
a. Set status to Completion(IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentRestElement with argument
iteratorRecord).
6. If iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false, return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, status).
7. Return ? status.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: PropertyDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation PropertyDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation takes argument value (an ECMAScript

language value) and returns either a normal completion containing a List of property keys or an abrupt completion. It
collects a list of all destructured property keys. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
AssignmentPropertyList : AssignmentPropertyList , AssignmentProperty

1. Let propertyNames be ? PropertyDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentPropertyList with argument

value.
2. Let nextNames be ? PropertyDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentProperty with argument value.
3. Return the list-concatenation of propertyNames and nextNames.

AssignmentProperty : IdentifierReference Initializeropt

1. Let P be the StringValue of IdentifierReference.

2. Let lRef be ? ResolveBinding(P).
3. Let v be ? GetV(value, P).
4. If Initializer is present and v is undefined, then
a. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(Initializer) is true, then
i. Set v to ? NamedEvaluation of Initializer with argument P.
b. Else,
i. Let defaultValue be ? Evaluation of Initializer.
ii. Set v to ? GetValue(defaultValue).
5. Perform ? PutValue(lRef, v).
6. Return « P ».

AssignmentProperty : PropertyName : AssignmentElement

1. Let name be ? Evaluation of PropertyName.

2. Perform ? KeyedDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentElement with arguments value and name.
3. Return « name ».

[Link] Runtime Semantics: RestDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation RestDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation takes arguments value (an ECMAScript lan-
guage value) and excludedNames (a List of property keys) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED
or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
AssignmentRestProperty : ... DestructuringAssignmentTarget

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of DestructuringAssignmentTarget.

2. Let restObj be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%).
3. Perform ? CopyDataProperties(restObj, value, excludedNames).
4. Return ? PutValue(lRef, restObj).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Runtime Semantics: IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation takes argument iteratorRecord (an Iterator

Record) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise
over the following productions:
AssignmentElementList : AssignmentElisionElement

1. Return ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentElisionElement with argument iteratorRecord.

AssignmentElementList : AssignmentElementList , AssignmentElisionElement

1. Perform ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentElementList with argument iteratorRecord.

2. Return ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentElisionElement with argument iteratorRecord.

AssignmentElisionElement : AssignmentElement

1. Return ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentElement with argument iteratorRecord.

AssignmentElisionElement : Elision AssignmentElement

1. Perform ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with argument iteratorRecord.

2. Return ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentElement with argument iteratorRecord.

Elision : ,

1. If iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false, then

a. Perform ? IteratorStep(iteratorRecord).
2. Return UNUSED.

Elision : Elision ,

1. Perform ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with argument iteratorRecord.

2. If iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false, then
a. Perform ? IteratorStep(iteratorRecord).
3. Return UNUSED.

AssignmentElement : DestructuringAssignmentTarget Initializeropt

1. If DestructuringAssignmentTarget is neither an ObjectLiteral nor an ArrayLiteral, then

a. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of DestructuringAssignmentTarget.
2. Let value be undefined.
3. If iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false, then
a. Let next be ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is not DONE, then
i. Set value to next.
4. If Initializer is present and value is undefined, then
a. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(Initializer) is true and IsIdentifierRef of DestructuringAssignmentTarget is
true, then
i. Let target be the StringValue of DestructuringAssignmentTarget.
ii. Let v be ? NamedEvaluation of Initializer with argument target.
b. Else,
i. Let defaultValue be ? Evaluation of Initializer.
ii. Let v be ? GetValue(defaultValue).
5. Else,
a. Let v be value.
6. If DestructuringAssignmentTarget is either an ObjectLiteral or an ArrayLiteral, then
a. Let nestedAssignmentPattern be the AssignmentPattern that is covered by DestructuringAssignmentTarget.
b. Return ? DestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of nestedAssignmentPattern with argument v.
7. Return ? PutValue(lRef, v).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE Left to right evaluation order is maintained by evaluating a DestructuringAssignmentTarget that is not a
destructuring pattern prior to accessing the iterator or evaluating the Initializer.

AssignmentRestElement : ... DestructuringAssignmentTarget

1. If DestructuringAssignmentTarget is neither an ObjectLiteral nor an ArrayLiteral, then

a. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of DestructuringAssignmentTarget.
2. Let A be ! ArrayCreate(0).
3. Let n be 0.
4. Repeat, while iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is false,
a. Let next be ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is not DONE, then
i. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(n)), next).
ii. Set n to n + 1.
5. If DestructuringAssignmentTarget is neither an ObjectLiteral nor an ArrayLiteral, then
a. Return ? PutValue(lRef, A).
6. Let nestedAssignmentPattern be the AssignmentPattern that is covered by DestructuringAssignmentTarget.
7. Return ? DestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of nestedAssignmentPattern with argument A.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: KeyedDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation KeyedDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation takes arguments value (an ECMAScript

language value) and propertyName (a property key) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or an
abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
AssignmentElement : DestructuringAssignmentTarget Initializeropt

1. If DestructuringAssignmentTarget is neither an ObjectLiteral nor an ArrayLiteral, then

a. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of DestructuringAssignmentTarget.
2. Let v be ? GetV(value, propertyName).
3. If Initializer is present and v is undefined, then
a. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(Initializer) is true and IsIdentifierRef of DestructuringAssignmentTarget is
true, then
i. Let target be the StringValue of DestructuringAssignmentTarget.
ii. Let rhsValue be ? NamedEvaluation of Initializer with argument target.
b. Else,
i. Let defaultValue be ? Evaluation of Initializer.
ii. Let rhsValue be ? GetValue(defaultValue).
4. Else,
a. Let rhsValue be v.
5. If DestructuringAssignmentTarget is either an ObjectLiteral or an ArrayLiteral, then
a. Let assignmentPattern be the AssignmentPattern that is covered by DestructuringAssignmentTarget.
b. Return ? DestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of assignmentPattern with argument rhsValue.
6. Return ? PutValue(lRef, rhsValue).

13.16 Comma Operator ( , )

Syntax

Expression[In, Yield, Await] :

AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
Expression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] , AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

13.16.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

Expression : Expression , AssignmentExpression

1. Let lRef be ? Evaluation of Expression.

2. Perform ? GetValue(lRef).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Let rRef be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.

4. Return ? GetValue(rRef).

NOTE GetValue must be called even though its value is not used because it may have observable side-effects.

14 ECMAScript Language: Statements and Declarations

Syntax

Statement[Yield, Await, Return] :

BlockStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
VariableStatement[?Yield, ?Await]
EmptyStatement
ExpressionStatement[?Yield, ?Await]
IfStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
BreakableStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
ContinueStatement[?Yield, ?Await]
BreakStatement[?Yield, ?Await]
[+Return] ReturnStatement[?Yield, ?Await]

WithStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

LabelledStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
ThrowStatement[?Yield, ?Await]
TryStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
DebuggerStatement

Declaration[Yield, Await] :
HoistableDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ~Default]
ClassDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ~Default]
LexicalDeclaration[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]

HoistableDeclaration[Yield, Await, Default] :

FunctionDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ?Default]
GeneratorDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ?Default]
AsyncFunctionDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ?Default]
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ?Default]

BreakableStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

IterationStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
SwitchStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

14.1 Statement Semantics

14.1.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

HoistableDeclaration :
GeneratorDeclaration
AsyncFunctionDeclaration
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration

1. Return EMPTY.

HoistableDeclaration : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return ? Evaluation of FunctionDeclaration.

BreakableStatement :
IterationStatement
SwitchStatement

1. Let newLabelSet be a new empty List.

2. Return ? LabelledEvaluation of this BreakableStatement with argument newLabelSet.

14.2 Block
Syntax

BlockStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

Block[Yield, Await, Return] :

{ StatementList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt }

StatementList[Yield, Await, Return] :

StatementListItem[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
StatementList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] StatementListItem[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

StatementListItem[Yield, Await, Return] :

Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
Declaration[?Yield, ?Await]

14.2.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

Block : { StatementList }

It is a Syntax Error if the LexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementList contains any duplicate entries.

It is a Syntax Error if any element of the LexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementList also occurs in the
VarDeclaredNames of StatementList.

14.2.2 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

Block : { }

1. Return EMPTY.

Block : { StatementList }

1. Let oldEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.

2. Let blockEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(oldEnv).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Perform BlockDeclarationInstantiation(StatementList, blockEnv).

4. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to blockEnv.
5. Let blockValue be Completion(Evaluation of StatementList).
6. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.
7. Return ? blockValue.

NOTE 1 No matter how control leaves the Block the LexicalEnvironment is always restored to its former state.

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let sl be ? Evaluation of StatementList.

2. Let s be Completion(Evaluation of StatementListItem).
3. Return ? UpdateEmpty(s, sl).

NOTE 2 The value of a StatementList is the value of the last value-producing item in the StatementList. For example,
the following calls to the eval function all return the value 1:

eval("1;;;;;")
eval("1;{}")
eval("1;var a;")

14.2.3 BlockDeclarationInstantiation ( code, env )

The abstract operation BlockDeclarationInstantiation takes arguments code (a Parse Node) and env (a Declarative
Environment Record) and returns UNUSED. code is the Parse Node corresponding to the body of the block. env is the
Environment Record in which bindings are to be created.

NOTE When a Block or CaseBlock is evaluated a new Declarative Environment Record is created and bindings for
each block scoped variable, constant, function, or class declared in the block are instantiated in the
Environment Record.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let declarations be the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of code.

2. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
3. For each element d of declarations, do
a. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do
i. If IsConstantDeclaration of d is true, then
1. Perform ! [Link](dn, true).
ii. Else,
1. Perform ! [Link](dn, false). NOTE: This step is replaced in section B.3.2.6.
b. If d is either a FunctionDeclaration, a GeneratorDeclaration, an AsyncFunctionDeclaration, or an
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, then
i. Let fn be the sole element of the BoundNames of d.
ii. Let fo be InstantiateFunctionObject of d with arguments env and privateEnv.
iii. Perform ! [Link](fn, fo). NOTE: This step is replaced in section B.3.2.6.
4. Return UNUSED.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

14.3 Declarations and the Variable Statement

14.3.1 Let and Const Declarations

NOTE let and const declarations define variables that are scoped to the running execution context's
LexicalEnvironment. The variables are created when their containing Environment Record is instantiated but
may not be accessed in any way until the variable's LexicalBinding is evaluated. A variable defined by a
LexicalBinding with an Initializer is assigned the value of its Initializer's AssignmentExpression when the
LexicalBinding is evaluated, not when the variable is created. If a LexicalBinding in a let declaration does
not have an Initializer the variable is assigned the value undefined when the LexicalBinding is evaluated.

Syntax

LexicalDeclaration[In, Yield, Await] :

LetOrConst BindingList[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;

LetOrConst :
let
const

BindingList[In, Yield, Await] :

LexicalBinding[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BindingList[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] , LexicalBinding[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

LexicalBinding[In, Yield, Await] :

BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt
BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

LexicalDeclaration : LetOrConst BindingList ;

It is a Syntax Error if the BoundNames of BindingList contains "let".

It is a Syntax Error if the BoundNames of BindingList contains any duplicate entries.

LexicalBinding : BindingIdentifier Initializeropt

It is a Syntax Error if Initializer is not present and IsConstantDeclaration of the LexicalDeclaration containing this
LexicalBinding is true.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

LexicalDeclaration : LetOrConst BindingList ;

1. Perform ? Evaluation of BindingList.

2. Return EMPTY.

BindingList : BindingList , LexicalBinding

1. Perform ? Evaluation of BindingList.

2. Return ? Evaluation of LexicalBinding.

LexicalBinding : BindingIdentifier

1. Let lhs be ! ResolveBinding(StringValue of BindingIdentifier).

2. Perform ! InitializeReferencedBinding(lhs, undefined).
3. Return EMPTY.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE A static semantics rule ensures that this form of LexicalBinding never occurs in a const declaration.

LexicalBinding : BindingIdentifier Initializer

1. Let bindingId be the StringValue of BindingIdentifier.

2. Let lhs be ! ResolveBinding(bindingId).
3. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(Initializer) is true, then
a. Let value be ? NamedEvaluation of Initializer with argument bindingId.
4. Else,
a. Let rhs be ? Evaluation of Initializer.
b. Let value be ? GetValue(rhs).
5. Perform ! InitializeReferencedBinding(lhs, value).
6. Return EMPTY.

LexicalBinding : BindingPattern Initializer

1. Let rhs be ? Evaluation of Initializer.

2. Let value be ? GetValue(rhs).
3. Let env be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
4. Return ? BindingInitialization of BindingPattern with arguments value and env.

14.3.2 Variable Statement

NOTE A var statement declares variables that are scoped to the running execution context's VariableEnvironment.
Var variables are created when their containing Environment Record is instantiated and are initialized to
undefined when created. Within the scope of any VariableEnvironment a common BindingIdentifier may
appear in more than one VariableDeclaration but those declarations collectively define only one variable. A
variable defined by a VariableDeclaration with an Initializer is assigned the value of its Initializer's
AssignmentExpression when the VariableDeclaration is executed, not when the variable is created.

Syntax

VariableStatement[Yield, Await] :
var VariableDeclarationList[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;

VariableDeclarationList[In, Yield, Await] :

VariableDeclaration[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
VariableDeclarationList[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] , VariableDeclaration[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

VariableDeclaration[In, Yield, Await] :

BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt
BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

VariableStatement : var VariableDeclarationList ;

1. Perform ? Evaluation of VariableDeclarationList.

2. Return EMPTY.

VariableDeclarationList : VariableDeclarationList , VariableDeclaration

1. Perform ? Evaluation of VariableDeclarationList.

2. Return ? Evaluation of VariableDeclaration.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

VariableDeclaration : BindingIdentifier

1. Return EMPTY.

VariableDeclaration : BindingIdentifier Initializer

1. Let bindingId be the StringValue of BindingIdentifier.

NOTE If a VariableDeclaration is nested within a with statement and the BindingIdentifier in the VariableDeclaration
is the same as a property name of the binding object of the with statement's Object Environment Record,
then step 5 will assign value to the property instead of assigning to the VariableEnvironment binding of
the Identifier.

VariableDeclaration : BindingPattern Initializer

1. Let rhs be ? Evaluation of Initializer.

2. Let rVal be ? GetValue(rhs).
3. Return ? BindingInitialization of BindingPattern with arguments rVal and undefined.

14.3.3 Destructuring Binding Patterns

Syntax

BindingPattern[Yield, Await] :
ObjectBindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await]
ArrayBindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await]

ArrayBindingPattern[Yield, Await] :
[ Elisionopt BindingRestElement[?Yield, ?Await] opt ]
[ BindingElementList[?Yield, ?Await] ]
[ BindingElementList[?Yield, ?Await] , Elisionopt BindingRestElement[?Yield, ?Await] opt ]

BindingRestProperty[Yield, Await] :
... BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await]

BindingPropertyList[Yield, Await] :
BindingProperty[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingPropertyList[?Yield, ?Await] , BindingProperty[?Yield, ?Await]

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

BindingElementList[Yield, Await] :
BindingElisionElement[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingElementList[?Yield, ?Await] , BindingElisionElement[?Yield, ?Await]

BindingElisionElement[Yield, Await] :
Elisionopt BindingElement[?Yield, ?Await]

BindingProperty[Yield, Await] :
SingleNameBinding[?Yield, ?Await]
PropertyName[?Yield, ?Await] : BindingElement[?Yield, ?Await]

BindingElement[Yield, Await] :
SingleNameBinding[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt

SingleNameBinding[Yield, Await] :
BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt

BindingRestElement[Yield, Await] :
... BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await]
... BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await]

[Link] Runtime Semantics: PropertyBindingInitialization

The syntax-directed operation PropertyBindingInitialization takes arguments value (an ECMAScript language value)
and environment (an Environment Record or undefined) and returns either a normal completion containing a List of
property keys or an abrupt completion. It collects a list of all bound property names. It is defined piecewise over the
following productions:
BindingPropertyList : BindingPropertyList , BindingProperty

1. Let boundNames be ? PropertyBindingInitialization of BindingPropertyList with arguments value and environment.

2. Let nextNames be ? PropertyBindingInitialization of BindingProperty with arguments value and environment.
3. Return the list-concatenation of boundNames and nextNames.

BindingProperty : SingleNameBinding

1. Let name be the sole element of the BoundNames of SingleNameBinding.

2. Perform ? KeyedBindingInitialization of SingleNameBinding with arguments value, environment, and name.
3. Return « name ».

BindingProperty : PropertyName : BindingElement

1. Let P be ? Evaluation of PropertyName.

2. Perform ? KeyedBindingInitialization of BindingElement with arguments value, environment, and P.
3. Return « P ».

[Link] Runtime Semantics: RestBindingInitialization

The syntax-directed operation RestBindingInitialization takes arguments value (an ECMAScript language value),
environment (an Environment Record or undefined), and excludedNames (a List of property keys) and returns either a
normal completion containing UNUSED or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
BindingRestProperty : ... BindingIdentifier

1. Let lhs be ? ResolveBinding(StringValue of BindingIdentifier, environment).

2. Let restObj be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%).
3. Perform ? CopyDataProperties(restObj, value, excludedNames).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4. If environment is undefined, return ? PutValue(lhs, restObj).

5. Return ? InitializeReferencedBinding(lhs, restObj).

[Link] Runtime Semantics: KeyedBindingInitialization

The syntax-directed operation KeyedBindingInitialization takes arguments value (an ECMAScript language value),
environment (an Environment Record or undefined), and propertyName (a property key) and returns either a normal
completion containing UNUSED or an abrupt completion.

It is defined piecewise over the following productions:

BindingElement : BindingPattern Initializeropt

1. Let v be ? GetV(value, propertyName).

2. If Initializer is present and v is undefined, then
a. Let defaultValue be ? Evaluation of Initializer.
b. Set v to ? GetValue(defaultValue).
3. Return ? BindingInitialization of BindingPattern with arguments v and environment.

SingleNameBinding : BindingIdentifier Initializeropt

1. Let bindingId be the StringValue of BindingIdentifier.

2. Let lhs be ? ResolveBinding(bindingId, environment).
3. Let v be ? GetV(value, propertyName).
4. If Initializer is present and v is undefined, then
a. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(Initializer) is true, then
i. Set v to ? NamedEvaluation of Initializer with argument bindingId.
b. Else,
i. Let defaultValue be ? Evaluation of Initializer.
ii. Set v to ? GetValue(defaultValue).
5. If environment is undefined, return ? PutValue(lhs, v).
6. Return ? InitializeReferencedBinding(lhs, v).

14.4 Empty Statement

Syntax

EmptyStatement :
;

14.4.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

EmptyStatement : ;

1. Return EMPTY.

14.5 Expression Statement

Syntax

ExpressionStatement[Yield, Await] :
[lookahead ∉ { { , function , async [no LineTerminator here] function , class , let [ }]
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE An ExpressionStatement cannot start with a U+007B (LEFT CURLY BRACKET) because that might make it
ambiguous with a Block. An ExpressionStatement cannot start with the function or class keywords
because that would make it ambiguous with a FunctionDeclaration, a GeneratorDeclaration, or a
ClassDeclaration. An ExpressionStatement cannot start with async function because that would make it
ambiguous with an AsyncFunctionDeclaration or a AsyncGeneratorDeclaration. An ExpressionStatement
cannot start with the two token sequence let [ because that would make it ambiguous with a let
LexicalDeclaration whose first LexicalBinding was an ArrayBindingPattern.

14.5.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ExpressionStatement : Expression ;

1. Let exprRef be ? Evaluation of Expression.

2. Return ? GetValue(exprRef).

14.6 The if Statement

Syntax

IfStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

if ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] else
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
if ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] [lookahead ≠
else]

NOTE The lookahead-restriction [lookahead ≠ else] resolves the classic "dangling else" problem in the usual
way. That is, when the choice of associated if is otherwise ambiguous, the else is associated with the
nearest (innermost) of the candidate ifs

14.6.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement else Statement

It is a Syntax Error if IsLabelledFunction(the first Statement) is true.

It is a Syntax Error if IsLabelledFunction(the second Statement) is true.

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement

It is a Syntax Error if IsLabelledFunction(Statement) is true.

NOTE It is only necessary to apply this rule if the extension specified in B.3.1 is implemented.

14.6.2 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement else Statement

1. Let exprRef be ? Evaluation of Expression.

2. Let exprValue be ToBoolean(? GetValue(exprRef)).
3. If exprValue is true, then
a. Let stmtCompletion be Completion(Evaluation of the first Statement).
4. Else,
a. Let stmtCompletion be Completion(Evaluation of the second Statement).
5. Return ? UpdateEmpty(stmtCompletion, undefined).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement

1. Let exprRef be ? Evaluation of Expression.

2. Let exprValue be ToBoolean(? GetValue(exprRef)).
3. If exprValue is false, then
a. Return undefined.
4. Else,
a. Let stmtCompletion be Completion(Evaluation of Statement).
b. Return ? UpdateEmpty(stmtCompletion, undefined).

14.7 Iteration Statements

Syntax

IterationStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

DoWhileStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
WhileStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
ForStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
ForInOfStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

14.7.1 Semantics

[Link] LoopContinues ( completion, labelSet )

The abstract operation LoopContinues takes arguments completion (a Completion Record) and labelSet (a List of
Strings) and returns a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If completion is a normal completion, return true.

2. If completion is not a continue completion, return false.
3. If completion.⁠[[Target]] is EMPTY, return true.
4. If labelSet contains completion.⁠[[Target]], return true.
5. Return false.

NOTE Within the Statement part of an IterationStatement a ContinueStatement may be used to begin a
new iteration.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: LoopEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation LoopEvaluation takes argument labelSet (a List of Strings) and returns either a normal
completion containing an ECMAScript language value or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise over the
following productions:
IterationStatement : DoWhileStatement

1. Return ? DoWhileLoopEvaluation of DoWhileStatement with argument labelSet.

IterationStatement : WhileStatement

1. Return ? WhileLoopEvaluation of WhileStatement with argument labelSet.

IterationStatement : ForStatement

1. Return ? ForLoopEvaluation of ForStatement with argument labelSet.

IterationStatement : ForInOfStatement

1. Return ? ForInOfLoopEvaluation of ForInOfStatement with argument labelSet.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

14.7.2 The do-while Statement

Syntax

DoWhileStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

do Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] while ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) ;

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

DoWhileStatement : do Statement while ( Expression ) ;

It is a Syntax Error if IsLabelledFunction(Statement) is true.

NOTE It is only necessary to apply this rule if the extension specified in B.3.1 is implemented.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: DoWhileLoopEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation DoWhileLoopEvaluation takes argument labelSet (a List of Strings) and returns either a
normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise over the
following productions:
DoWhileStatement : do Statement while ( Expression ) ;

1. Let V be undefined.
2. Repeat,
a. Let stmtResult be Completion(Evaluation of Statement).
b. If LoopContinues(stmtResult, labelSet) is false, return ? UpdateEmpty(stmtResult, V).
c. If stmtResult.⁠[[Value]] is not EMPTY, set V to stmtResult.⁠[[Value]].
d. Let exprRef be ? Evaluation of Expression.
e. Let exprValue be ? GetValue(exprRef).
f. If ToBoolean(exprValue) is false, return V.

14.7.3 The while Statement

Syntax

WhileStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

while ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

WhileStatement : while ( Expression ) Statement

It is a Syntax Error if IsLabelledFunction(Statement) is true.

NOTE It is only necessary to apply this rule if the extension specified in B.3.1 is implemented.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: WhileLoopEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation WhileLoopEvaluation takes argument labelSet (a List of Strings) and returns either a
normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise over the
following productions:
WhileStatement : while ( Expression ) Statement

1. Let V be undefined.
2. Repeat,
a. Let exprRef be ? Evaluation of Expression.
b. Let exprValue be ? GetValue(exprRef).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

c. If ToBoolean(exprValue) is false, return V.

d. Let stmtResult be Completion(Evaluation of Statement).
e. If LoopContinues(stmtResult, labelSet) is false, return ? UpdateEmpty(stmtResult, V).
f. If stmtResult.⁠[[Value]] is not EMPTY, set V to stmtResult.⁠[[Value]].

14.7.4 The for Statement

Syntax

ForStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

for ( [lookahead ≠ let [] Expression[~In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt ;
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt ; Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( var VariableDeclarationList[~In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt ; Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( LexicalDeclaration[~In, ?Yield, ?Await] Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt ;
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

It is a Syntax Error if IsLabelledFunction(Statement) is true.

NOTE It is only necessary to apply this rule if the extension specified in B.3.1 is implemented.

ForStatement : for ( LexicalDeclaration Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of LexicalDeclaration also occurs in the VarDeclaredNames
of Statement.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: ForLoopEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation ForLoopEvaluation takes argument labelSet (a List of Strings) and returns either a
normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise over the
following productions:
ForStatement : for ( Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. If the first Expression is present, then

a. Let exprRef be ? Evaluation of the first Expression.
b. Perform ? GetValue(exprRef).
2. If the second Expression is present, let test be the second Expression; otherwise let test be EMPTY.
3. If the third Expression is present, let increment be the third Expression; otherwise let increment be EMPTY.
4. Return ? ForBodyEvaluation(test, increment, Statement, « », labelSet).

ForStatement : for ( var VariableDeclarationList ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. Perform ? Evaluation of VariableDeclarationList.

2. If the first Expression is present, let test be the first Expression; otherwise let test be EMPTY.
3. If the second Expression is present, let increment be the second Expression; otherwise let increment be EMPTY.
4. Return ? ForBodyEvaluation(test, increment, Statement, « », labelSet).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ForStatement : for ( LexicalDeclaration Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. Let oldEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.

2. Let loopEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(oldEnv).
3. Let isConst be IsConstantDeclaration of LexicalDeclaration.
4. Let boundNames be the BoundNames of LexicalDeclaration.
5. For each element dn of boundNames, do
a. If isConst is true, then
i. Perform ! [Link](dn, true).
b. Else,
i. Perform ! [Link](dn, false).
6. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to loopEnv.
7. Let forDcl be Completion(Evaluation of LexicalDeclaration).
8. If forDcl is an abrupt completion, then
a. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.
b. Return ? forDcl.
9. If isConst is false, let perIterationLets be boundNames; otherwise let perIterationLets be a new empty List.
10. If the first Expression is present, let test be the first Expression; otherwise let test be EMPTY.
11. If the second Expression is present, let increment be the second Expression; otherwise let increment be EMPTY.
12. Let bodyResult be Completion(ForBodyEvaluation(test, increment, Statement, perIterationLets, labelSet)).
13. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.
14. Return ? bodyResult.

[Link] ForBodyEvaluation ( test, increment, stmt, perIterationBindings, labelSet )

The abstract operation ForBodyEvaluation takes arguments test (an Expression Parse Node or EMPTY), increment (an
Expression Parse Node or EMPTY), stmt (a Statement Parse Node), perIterationBindings (a List of Strings), and la-
belSet (a List of Strings) and returns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or an abrupt
completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let V be undefined.
2. Perform ? CreatePerIterationEnvironment(perIterationBindings).
3. Repeat,
a. If test is not EMPTY, then
i. Let testRef be ? Evaluation of test.
ii. Let testValue be ? GetValue(testRef).
iii. If ToBoolean(testValue) is false, return V.
b. Let result be Completion(Evaluation of stmt).
c. If LoopContinues(result, labelSet) is false, return ? UpdateEmpty(result, V).
d. If result.⁠[[Value]] is not EMPTY, set V to result.⁠[[Value]].
e. Perform ? CreatePerIterationEnvironment(perIterationBindings).
f. If increment is not EMPTY, then
i. Let incRef be ? Evaluation of increment.
ii. Perform ? GetValue(incRef).

[Link] CreatePerIterationEnvironment ( perIterationBindings )

The abstract operation CreatePerIterationEnvironment takes argument perIterationBindings (a List of Strings) and re-
turns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If perIterationBindings has any elements, then

a. Let lastIterationEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
b. Let outer be lastIterationEnv.⁠[[OuterEnv]].
c. Assert: outer is not null.
d. Let thisIterationEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(outer).
e. For each element bn of perIterationBindings, do
i. Perform ! [Link](bn, false).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ii. Let lastValue be ? [Link](bn, true).

iii. Perform ! [Link](bn, lastValue).
f. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to thisIterationEnv.
2. Return UNUSED.

14.7.5 The for-in, for-of, and for-await-of Statements

Syntax

ForInOfStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

for ( [lookahead ≠ let [] LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] in
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( var ForBinding[?Yield, ?Await] in Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( ForDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await] in Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( [lookahead ∉ { let , async of }] LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] of
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( var ForBinding[?Yield, ?Await] of AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( ForDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await] of AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for await ( [lookahead ≠ let] LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] of
[+Await]
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
[+Await] for await ( var ForBinding[?Yield, ?Await] of
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
[+Await] for await ( ForDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await] of
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

ForDeclaration[Yield, Await] :
LetOrConst ForBinding[?Yield, ?Await]

ForBinding[Yield, Await] :
BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await]

NOTE This section is extended by Annex B.3.5.

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

It is a Syntax Error if IsLabelledFunction(Statement) is true.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE It is only necessary to apply this rule if the extension specified in B.3.1 is implemented.

ForInOfStatement :
for ( LeftHandSideExpression in Expression ) Statement
for ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

If LeftHandSideExpression is either an ObjectLiteral or an ArrayLiteral, LeftHandSideExpression must cover an

AssignmentPattern.
If LeftHandSideExpression is neither an ObjectLiteral nor an ArrayLiteral, it is a Syntax Error if the
AssignmentTargetType of LeftHandSideExpression is INVALID.

ForInOfStatement :
for ( ForDeclaration in Expression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

It is a Syntax Error if the BoundNames of ForDeclaration contains "let".

It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of ForDeclaration also occurs in the VarDeclaredNames of
Statement.
It is a Syntax Error if the BoundNames of ForDeclaration contains any duplicate entries.

[Link] Static Semantics: IsDestructuring

The syntax-directed operation IsDestructuring takes no arguments and returns a Boolean. It is defined piecewise over
the following productions:
MemberExpression : PrimaryExpression

1. If PrimaryExpression is either an ObjectLiteral or an ArrayLiteral, return true.

2. Return false.

MemberExpression :
MemberExpression [ Expression ]
MemberExpression . IdentifierName
MemberExpression TemplateLiteral
SuperProperty
MetaProperty
new MemberExpression Arguments
MemberExpression . PrivateIdentifier
NewExpression :
new NewExpression
LeftHandSideExpression :
CallExpression
OptionalExpression

1. Return false.

ForDeclaration : LetOrConst ForBinding

1. Return IsDestructuring of ForBinding.

ForBinding : BindingIdentifier

1. Return false.

ForBinding : BindingPattern

1. Return true.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE This section is extended by Annex B.3.5.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: ForDeclarationBindingInitialization

The syntax-directed operation ForDeclarationBindingInitialization takes arguments value (an ECMAScript language
value) and environment (an Environment Record or undefined) and returns either a normal completion containing
UNUSED or an abrupt completion.

NOTE undefined is passed for environment to indicate that a PutValue operation should be used to assign the
initialization value. This is the case for var statements and the formal parameter lists of some non-strict
functions (see 10.2.11). In those cases a lexical binding is hoisted and preinitialized prior to evaluation of
its initializer.

It is defined piecewise over the following productions:

ForDeclaration : LetOrConst ForBinding

1. Return ? BindingInitialization of ForBinding with arguments value and environment.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: ForDeclarationBindingInstantiation

The syntax-directed operation ForDeclarationBindingInstantiation takes argument environment (a Declarative

Environment Record) and returns UNUSED. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
ForDeclaration : LetOrConst ForBinding

1. For each element name of the BoundNames of ForBinding, do

a. If IsConstantDeclaration of LetOrConst is true, then
i. Perform ! [Link](name, true).
b. Else,
i. Perform ! [Link](name, false).
2. Return UNUSED.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: ForInOfLoopEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation ForInOfLoopEvaluation takes argument labelSet (a List of Strings) and returns either a
normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise over the
following productions:
ForInOfStatement : for ( LeftHandSideExpression in Expression ) Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(« », Expression, ENUMERATE).

2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(LeftHandSideExpression, Statement, keyResult, ENUMERATE, ASSIGNMENT,
labelSet).

ForInOfStatement : for ( var ForBinding in Expression ) Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(« », Expression, ENUMERATE).

2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(ForBinding, Statement, keyResult, ENUMERATE, VAR-BINDING, labelSet).

ForInOfStatement : for ( ForDeclaration in Expression ) Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(BoundNames of ForDeclaration, Expression, ENUMERATE).

2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(ForDeclaration, Statement, keyResult, ENUMERATE, LEXICAL-BINDING,
labelSet).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ForInOfStatement : for ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(« », AssignmentExpression, ITERATE).

2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(LeftHandSideExpression, Statement, keyResult, ITERATE, ASSIGNMENT,
labelSet).

ForInOfStatement : for ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(« », AssignmentExpression, ITERATE).

2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(ForBinding, Statement, keyResult, ITERATE, VAR-BINDING, labelSet).

ForInOfStatement : for ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(BoundNames of ForDeclaration, AssignmentExpression, ITERATE).

2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(ForDeclaration, Statement, keyResult, ITERATE, LEXICAL-BINDING, labelSet).

ForInOfStatement : for await ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(« », AssignmentExpression, ASYNC-ITERATE).

2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(LeftHandSideExpression, Statement, keyResult, ITERATE, ASSIGNMENT,
labelSet, ASYNC).

ForInOfStatement : for await ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(« », AssignmentExpression, ASYNC-ITERATE).

2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(ForBinding, Statement, keyResult, ITERATE, VAR-BINDING, labelSet, ASYNC).

ForInOfStatement : for await ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(BoundNames of ForDeclaration, AssignmentExpression, ASYNC-

ITERATE).
2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(ForDeclaration, Statement, keyResult, ITERATE, LEXICAL-BINDING, labelSet,
ASYNC).

NOTE This section is extended by Annex B.3.5.

[Link] ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation ( uninitializedBoundNames, expr, iterationKind )

The abstract operation ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation takes arguments uninitializedBoundNames (a List of Strings), expr (an
Expression Parse Node or an AssignmentExpression Parse Node), and iterationKind (ENUMERATE, ITERATE, or
ASYNC-ITERATE) and returns either a normal completion containing an Iterator Record or an abrupt completion. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Let oldEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.

2. If uninitializedBoundNames is not empty, then
a. Assert: uninitializedBoundNames has no duplicate entries.
b. Let newEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(oldEnv).
c. For each String name of uninitializedBoundNames, do
i. Perform ! [Link](name, false).
d. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to newEnv.
3. Let exprRef be Completion(Evaluation of expr).
4. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.
5. Let exprValue be ? GetValue(? exprRef).
6. If iterationKind is ENUMERATE, then
a. If exprValue is either undefined or null, then
i. Return Completion Record { ⁠[[Type]]: BREAK, ⁠[[Value]]: EMPTY, ⁠[[Target]]: EMPTY }.
b. Let obj be ! ToObject(exprValue).
c. Let iterator be EnumerateObjectProperties(obj).
d. Let nextMethod be ! GetV(iterator, "next").
e. Return the Iterator Record { ⁠[[Iterator]]: iterator, ⁠[[NextMethod]]: nextMethod, ⁠[[Done]]: false }.
7. Else,

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

a. Assert: iterationKind is either ITERATE or ASYNC-ITERATE.

b. If iterationKind is ASYNC-ITERATE, let iteratorKind be ASYNC.
c. Else, let iteratorKind be SYNC.
d. Return ? GetIterator(exprValue, iteratorKind).

[Link] ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation ( lhs, stmt, iteratorRecord, iterationKind, lhsKind, labelSet [ , iteratorKind ] )

The abstract operation ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation takes arguments lhs (a Parse Node), stmt (a Statement Parse Node),
iteratorRecord (an Iterator Record), iterationKind (ENUMERATE or ITERATE), lhsKind (ASSIGNMENT, VAR-BINDING, or
LEXICAL-BINDING), and labelSet (a List of Strings) and optional argument iteratorKind (SYNC or ASYNC) and returns
either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or an abrupt completion. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. If iteratorKind is not present, set iteratorKind to SYNC.

2. Let oldEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
3. Let V be undefined.
4. Let destructuring be IsDestructuring of lhs.
5. If destructuring is true and lhsKind is ASSIGNMENT, then
a. Assert: lhs is a LeftHandSideExpression.
b. Let assignmentPattern be the AssignmentPattern that is covered by lhs.
6. Repeat,
a. Let nextResult be ? Call(iteratorRecord.⁠[[NextMethod]], iteratorRecord.⁠[[Iterator]]).
b. If iteratorKind is ASYNC, set nextResult to ? Await(nextResult).
c. If nextResult is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
d. Let done be ? IteratorComplete(nextResult).
e. If done is true, return V.
f. Let nextValue be ? IteratorValue(nextResult).
g. If lhsKind is either ASSIGNMENT or VAR-BINDING, then
i. If destructuring is true, then
1. If lhsKind is ASSIGNMENT, then
a. Let status be Completion(DestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of assignmentPattern with
argument nextValue).
2. Else,
a. Assert: lhsKind is VAR-BINDING.
b. Assert: lhs is a ForBinding.
c. Let status be Completion(BindingInitialization of lhs with arguments nextValue and undefined).
ii. Else,
1. Let lhsRef be Completion(Evaluation of lhs). (It may be evaluated repeatedly.)
2. If lhsKind is ASSIGNMENT and the AssignmentTargetType of lhs is WEB-COMPAT, throw a
ReferenceError exception.
3. If lhsRef is an abrupt completion, then
a. Let status be lhsRef.
4. Else,
a. Let status be Completion(PutValue(lhsRef.⁠[[Value]], nextValue)).
h. Else,
i. Assert: lhsKind is LEXICAL-BINDING.
ii. Assert: lhs is a ForDeclaration.
iii. Let iterationEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(oldEnv).
iv. Perform ForDeclarationBindingInstantiation of lhs with argument iterationEnv.
v. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to iterationEnv.
vi. If destructuring is true, then
1. Let status be Completion(ForDeclarationBindingInitialization of lhs with arguments nextValue and
iterationEnv).
vii. Else,
1. Assert: lhs binds a single name.
2. Let lhsName be the sole element of the BoundNames of lhs.
3. Let lhsRef be ! ResolveBinding(lhsName).
4. Let status be Completion(InitializeReferencedBinding(lhsRef, nextValue)).
i. If status is an abrupt completion, then
i. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.
ii. If iteratorKind is ASYNC, return ? AsyncIteratorClose(iteratorRecord, status).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

iii. If iterationKind is ENUMERATE, then

1. Return ? status.
iv. Else,
1. Assert: iterationKind is ITERATE.
2. Return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, status).
j. Let result be Completion(Evaluation of stmt).
k. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.
l. If LoopContinues(result, labelSet) is false, then
i. If iterationKind is ENUMERATE, then
1. Return ? UpdateEmpty(result, V).
ii. Else,
1. Assert: iterationKind is ITERATE.
2. Set status to Completion(UpdateEmpty(result, V)).
3. If iteratorKind is ASYNC, return ? AsyncIteratorClose(iteratorRecord, status).
4. Return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, status).
m. If result.⁠[[Value]] is not EMPTY, set V to result.⁠[[Value]].

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

BindingIdentifier :
Identifier
yield
await

1. Let bindingId be the StringValue of BindingIdentifier.

2. Return ? ResolveBinding(bindingId).

[Link] EnumerateObjectProperties ( O )

The abstract operation EnumerateObjectProperties takes argument O (an Object) and returns an iterator object. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Return an iterator object whose next method iterates over all the String-valued keys of enumerable properties of O.
The iterator object is never directly accessible to ECMAScript code. The mechanics and order of enumerating the
properties is not specified but must conform to the rules specified below.

The iterator's throw and return methods are null and are never invoked. The iterator's next method processes ob-
ject properties to determine whether the property key should be returned as an iterator value. Returned property keys do
not include keys that are Symbols. Properties of the target object may be deleted during enumeration. A property that is
deleted before it is processed by the iterator's next method is ignored. If new properties are added to the target object
during enumeration, the newly added properties are not guaranteed to be processed in the active enumeration. A prop-
erty name will be returned by the iterator's next method at most once in any enumeration.

Enumerating the properties of the target object includes enumerating properties of its prototype, and the prototype of the
prototype, and so on, recursively; but a property of a prototype is not processed if it has the same name as a property
that has already been processed by the iterator's next method. The values of ⁠[[Enumerable]] attributes are not con-
sidered when determining if a property of a prototype object has already been processed. The enumerable property
names of prototype objects must be obtained by invoking EnumerateObjectProperties passing the prototype object as
the argument. EnumerateObjectProperties must obtain the own property keys of the target object by calling its
[[OwnPropertyKeys]] internal method. Property attributes of the target object must be obtained by calling its
[[GetOwnProperty]] internal method.

In addition, if neither O nor any object in its prototype chain is a Proxy exotic object, TypedArray, module namespace
exotic object, or implementation provided exotic object, then the iterator must behave as would the iterator given by
CreateForInIterator(O) until one of the following occurs:

the value of the ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot of O or an object in its prototype chain changes,
a property is removed from O or an object in its prototype chain,
a property is added to an object in O's prototype chain, or
the value of the ⁠[[Enumerable]] attribute of a property of O or an object in its prototype chain changes.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 1 ECMAScript implementations are not required to implement the algorithm in [Link].2.1 directly. They may
choose any implementation whose behaviour will not deviate from that algorithm unless one of the
constraints in the previous paragraph is violated.

The following is an informative definition of an ECMAScript generator function that conforms to these rules:

function* EnumerateObjectProperties(obj) {
const visited = new Set();
for (const key of [Link](obj)) {
if (typeof key === "symbol") continue;
const desc = [Link](obj, key);
if (desc) {
[Link](key);
if ([Link]) yield key;
}
}
const proto = [Link](obj);
if (proto === null) return;
for (const protoKey of EnumerateObjectProperties(proto)) {
if (![Link](protoKey)) yield protoKey;
}
}

NOTE 2 The list of exotic objects for which implementations are not required to match CreateForInIterator was
chosen because implementations historically differed in behaviour for those cases, and agreed in all others.

[Link] For-In Iterator Objects

A For-In Iterator is an object that represents a specific iteration over some specific object. For-In Iterator
objects are never directly accessible to ECMAScript code; they exist solely to illustrate the behaviour
of EnumerateObjectProperties.

[Link].1 CreateForInIterator ( object )

The abstract operation CreateForInIterator takes argument object (an Object) and returns a For-In Iterator. It is used to
create a For-In Iterator object which iterates over the own and inherited enumerable string properties of object in a spe-
cific order. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let iterator be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%ForInIteratorPrototype%, « ⁠[[Object]], ⁠[[ObjectWasVisited]], ⁠[[VisitedKeys]],

⁠[[RemainingKeys]] »).
2. Set iterator.⁠[[Object]] to object.
3. Set iterator.⁠[[ObjectWasVisited]] to false.
4. Set iterator.⁠[[VisitedKeys]] to a new empty List.
5. Set iterator.⁠[[RemainingKeys]] to a new empty List.
6. Return iterator.

[Link].2 The %ForInIteratorPrototype% Object

The %ForInIteratorPrototype% object:

has properties that are inherited by all For-In Iterator objects.

is an ordinary object.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
is never directly accessible to ECMAScript code.
has the following properties:

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].2.1 %ForInIteratorPrototype%.next ( )

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Assert: O is an Object.
3. Assert: O has all of the internal slots of a For-In Iterator instance ([Link].3).
4. Let object be O.⁠[[Object]].
5. Repeat,
a. If O.⁠[[ObjectWasVisited]] is false, then
i. Let keys be ? object.⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
ii. For each element key of keys, do
1. If key is a String, then
a. Append key to O.[[RemainingKeys]].
iii. Set O.⁠[[ObjectWasVisited]] to true.
b. Repeat, while O.⁠[[RemainingKeys]] is not empty,
i. Let r be the first element of O.⁠[[RemainingKeys]].
ii. Remove the first element from O.⁠[[RemainingKeys]].
iii. If O.⁠[[VisitedKeys]] does not contain r, then
1. Let desc be ? object.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](r).
2. If desc is not undefined, then
a. Append r to O.⁠[[VisitedKeys]].
b. If desc.⁠[[Enumerable]] is true, return CreateIteratorResultObject(r, false).
c. Set object to ? object.⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
d. Set O.⁠[[Object]] to object.
e. Set O.⁠[[ObjectWasVisited]] to false.
f. If object is null, return CreateIteratorResultObject(undefined, true).

[Link].3 Properties of For-In Iterator Instances

For-In Iterator instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the %ForInIteratorPrototype% intrinsic object.
For-In Iterator instances are initially created with the internal slots listed in Table 38.

Table 38: Internal Slots of For-In Iterator Instances

Internal Slot Type Description
⁠[[Object]] an Object The Object value whose properties are being iterated.
⁠[[ObjectWasVisited]] a Boolean true if the iterator has invoked ⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]] on ⁠[[Object]], false otherwise.
⁠[[VisitedKeys]] a List of The values that have been emitted by this iterator thus far.
Strings
⁠[[RemainingKeys]] a List of The values remaining to be emitted for the current object, before iterating the
Strings properties of its prototype (if its prototype is not null).

14.8 The continue Statement

Syntax

ContinueStatement[Yield, Await] :
continue ;
continue [no LineTerminator here] LabelIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] ;

14.8.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

ContinueStatement :
continue ;
continue LabelIdentifier ;

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

It is a Syntax Error if this ContinueStatement is not nested, directly or indirectly (but not crossing function or static
initialization block boundaries), within an IterationStatement.

14.8.2 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ContinueStatement : continue ;

1. Return Completion Record { ⁠[[Type]]: CONTINUE, ⁠[[Value]]: EMPTY, ⁠[[Target]]: EMPTY }.

ContinueStatement : continue LabelIdentifier ;

1. Let label be the StringValue of LabelIdentifier.

2. Return Completion Record { ⁠[[Type]]: CONTINUE, ⁠[[Value]]: EMPTY, ⁠[[Target]]: label }.

14.9 The break Statement

Syntax

BreakStatement[Yield, Await] :
break ;
break [no LineTerminator here] LabelIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] ;

14.9.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

BreakStatement : break ;

It is a Syntax Error if this BreakStatement is not nested, directly or indirectly (but not crossing function or static
initialization block boundaries), within an IterationStatement or a SwitchStatement.

14.9.2 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

BreakStatement : break ;

1. Return Completion Record { ⁠[[Type]]: BREAK, ⁠[[Value]]: EMPTY, ⁠[[Target]]: EMPTY }.

BreakStatement : break LabelIdentifier ;

1. Let label be the StringValue of LabelIdentifier.

2. Return Completion Record { ⁠[[Type]]: BREAK, ⁠[[Value]]: EMPTY, ⁠[[Target]]: label }.

14.10 The return Statement

Syntax

ReturnStatement[Yield, Await] :
return ;
return [no LineTerminator here] Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;

NOTE A return statement causes a function to cease execution and, in most cases, returns a value to the caller.
If Expression is omitted, the return value is undefined. Otherwise, the return value is the value of
Expression. A return statement may not actually return a value to the caller depending on surrounding
context. For example, in a try block, a return statement's Completion Record may be replaced with
another Completion Record during evaluation of the finally block.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

14.10.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ReturnStatement : return ;

1. Return ReturnCompletion(undefined).

ReturnStatement : return Expression ;

1. Let exprRef be ? Evaluation of Expression.

2. Let exprValue be ? GetValue(exprRef).
3. If GetGeneratorKind() is ASYNC, set exprValue to ? Await(exprValue).
4. Return ReturnCompletion(exprValue).

LEGACY

14.11 The with Statement

NOTE 1 Use of the Legacy with statement is discouraged in new ECMAScript code. Consider alternatives that
are permitted in both strict mode code and non-strict code, such as destructuring assignment.

Syntax

WithStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

with ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

NOTE 2 The with statement adds an Object Environment Record for a computed object to the lexical
environment of the running execution context. It then executes a statement using this augmented lexical
environment. Finally, it restores the original lexical environment.

14.11.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

WithStatement : with ( Expression ) Statement

It is a Syntax Error if IsStrict(this production) is true.

It is a Syntax Error if IsLabelledFunction(Statement) is true.

NOTE It is only necessary to apply the second rule if the extension specified in B.3.1 is implemented.

14.11.2 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

WithStatement : with ( Expression ) Statement

1. Let val be ? Evaluation of Expression.

2. Let obj be ? ToObject(? GetValue(val)).
3. Let oldEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
4. Let newEnv be NewObjectEnvironment(obj, true, oldEnv).
5. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to newEnv.
6. Let C be Completion(Evaluation of Statement).
7. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.
8. Return ? UpdateEmpty(C, undefined).

NOTE No matter how control leaves the embedded Statement, whether normally or by some form of abrupt
completion or exception, the LexicalEnvironment is always restored to its former state.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

14.12 The switch Statement

Syntax

SwitchStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

switch ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) CaseBlock[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

CaseBlock[Yield, Await, Return] :

{ CaseClauses[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt }
{ CaseClauses[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt DefaultClause[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
CaseClauses[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt }

CaseClauses[Yield, Await, Return] :

CaseClause[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
CaseClauses[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] CaseClause[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

CaseClause[Yield, Await, Return] :

case Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] : StatementList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt

DefaultClause[Yield, Await, Return] :

default : StatementList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt

14.12.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

SwitchStatement : switch ( Expression ) CaseBlock

It is a Syntax Error if the LexicallyDeclaredNames of CaseBlock contains any duplicate entries.

It is a Syntax Error if any element of the LexicallyDeclaredNames of CaseBlock also occurs in the
VarDeclaredNames of CaseBlock.

14.12.2 Runtime Semantics: CaseBlockEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation CaseBlockEvaluation takes argument input (an ECMAScript language value) and returns
either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise
over the following productions:
CaseBlock : { }

1. Return undefined.

CaseBlock : { CaseClauses }

1. Let V be undefined.
2. Let A be the List of CaseClause items in CaseClauses, in source text order.
3. Let found be false.
4. For each CaseClause C of A, do
a. If found is false, then
i. Set found to ? CaseClauseIsSelected(C, input).
b. If found is true, then
i. Let R be Completion(Evaluation of C).
ii. If R.⁠[[Value]] is not EMPTY, set V to R.⁠[[Value]].
iii. If R is an abrupt completion, return ? UpdateEmpty(R, V).
5. Return V.

CaseBlock : { CaseClausesopt DefaultClause CaseClausesopt }

1. Let V be undefined.
2. If the first CaseClauses is present, then
a. Let A be the List of CaseClause items in the first CaseClauses, in source text order.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Else,
a. Let A be a new empty List.
4. Let found be false.
5. For each CaseClause C of A, do
a. If found is false, then
i. Set found to ? CaseClauseIsSelected(C, input).
b. If found is true, then
i. Let R be Completion(Evaluation of C).
ii. If R.⁠[[Value]] is not EMPTY, set V to R.⁠[[Value]].
iii. If R is an abrupt completion, return ? UpdateEmpty(R, V).
6. Let foundInB be false.
7. If the second CaseClauses is present, then
a. Let B be the List of CaseClause items in the second CaseClauses, in source text order.
8. Else,
a. Let B be a new empty List.
9. If found is false, then
a. For each CaseClause C of B, do
i. If foundInB is false, then
1. Set foundInB to ? CaseClauseIsSelected(C, input).
ii. If foundInB is true, then
1. Let R be Completion(Evaluation of CaseClause C).
2. If R.⁠[[Value]] is not EMPTY, set V to R.⁠[[Value]].
3. If R is an abrupt completion, return ? UpdateEmpty(R, V).
10. If foundInB is true, return V.
11. Let defaultR be Completion(Evaluation of DefaultClause).
12. If defaultR.⁠[[Value]] is not EMPTY, set V to defaultR.⁠[[Value]].
13. If defaultR is an abrupt completion, return ? UpdateEmpty(defaultR, V).
14. NOTE: The following is another complete iteration of the second CaseClauses.
15. For each CaseClause C of B, do
a. Let R be Completion(Evaluation of CaseClause C).
b. If R.⁠[[Value]] is not EMPTY, set V to R.⁠[[Value]].
c. If R is an abrupt completion, return ? UpdateEmpty(R, V).
16. Return V.

14.12.3 CaseClauseIsSelected ( C, input )

The abstract operation CaseClauseIsSelected takes arguments C (a CaseClause Parse Node) and input (an
ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing a Boolean or an abrupt completion. It
determines whether C matches input. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: C is an instance of the production CaseClause : case Expression : StatementListopt .

2. Let exprRef be ? Evaluation of the Expression of C.
3. Let clauseSelector be ? GetValue(exprRef).
4. Return IsStrictlyEqual(input, clauseSelector).

NOTE This operation does not execute C's StatementList (if any). The CaseBlock algorithm uses its return value to
determine which StatementList to start executing.

14.12.4 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

SwitchStatement : switch ( Expression ) CaseBlock

1. Let exprRef be ? Evaluation of Expression.

2. Let switchValue be ? GetValue(exprRef).
3. Let oldEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
4. Let blockEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(oldEnv).
5. Perform BlockDeclarationInstantiation(CaseBlock, blockEnv).
6. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to blockEnv.
7. Let R be Completion(CaseBlockEvaluation of CaseBlock with argument switchValue).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

8. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.

9. Return R.

NOTE No matter how control leaves the SwitchStatement the LexicalEnvironment is always restored to its
former state.

CaseClause : case Expression :

1. Return EMPTY.

CaseClause : case Expression : StatementList

1. Return ? Evaluation of StatementList.

DefaultClause : default :

1. Return EMPTY.

DefaultClause : default : StatementList

1. Return ? Evaluation of StatementList.

14.13 Labelled Statements

Syntax

LabelledStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

LabelIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] : LabelledItem[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

LabelledItem[Yield, Await, Return] :

Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
FunctionDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ~Default]

NOTE A Statement may be prefixed by a label. Labelled statements are only used in conjunction with labelled
break and continue statements. ECMAScript has no goto statement. A Statement can be part of a
LabelledStatement, which itself can be part of a LabelledStatement, and so on. The labels introduced
this way are collectively referred to as the “current label set” when describing the semantics of
individual statements.

14.13.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

It is a Syntax Error if any source text is matched by this production.

NOTE An alternative definition for this rule is provided in B.3.1.

14.13.2 Static Semantics: IsLabelledFunction ( stmt )

The abstract operation IsLabelledFunction takes argument stmt (a Statement Parse Node) and returns a Boolean. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. If stmt is not a LabelledStatement, return false.

2. Let item be the LabelledItem of stmt.
3. If item is LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration , return true.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4. Let subStmt be the Statement of item.

5. Return IsLabelledFunction(subStmt).

14.13.3 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Return ? LabelledEvaluation of this LabelledStatement with argument « ».

14.13.4 Runtime Semantics: LabelledEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation LabelledEvaluation takes argument labelSet (a List of Strings) and returns either a normal
completion containing either an ECMAScript language value or EMPTY, or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise
over the following productions:
BreakableStatement : IterationStatement

1. Let stmtResult be Completion(LoopEvaluation of IterationStatement with argument labelSet).

2. If stmtResult is a break completion, then
a. If stmtResult.⁠[[Target]] is EMPTY, then
i. If stmtResult.⁠[[Value]] is EMPTY, set stmtResult to NormalCompletion(undefined).
ii. Else, set stmtResult to NormalCompletion(stmtResult.⁠[[Value]]).
3. Return ? stmtResult.

BreakableStatement : SwitchStatement

1. Let stmtResult be Completion(Evaluation of SwitchStatement).

NOTE 1 A BreakableStatement is one that can be exited via an unlabelled BreakStatement.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Let label be the StringValue of LabelIdentifier.

2. Let newLabelSet be the list-concatenation of labelSet and « label ».
3. Let stmtResult be Completion(LabelledEvaluation of LabelledItem with argument newLabelSet).
4. If stmtResult is a break completion and stmtResult.⁠[[Target]] is label, then
a. Set stmtResult to NormalCompletion(stmtResult.⁠[[Value]]).
5. Return ? stmtResult.

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return ? Evaluation of FunctionDeclaration.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Statement :
BlockStatement
VariableStatement
EmptyStatement
ExpressionStatement
IfStatement
ContinueStatement
BreakStatement
ReturnStatement
WithStatement
ThrowStatement
TryStatement
DebuggerStatement

1. Return ? Evaluation of Statement.

NOTE 2 The only two productions of Statement which have special semantics for LabelledEvaluation are
BreakableStatement and LabelledStatement.

14.14 The throw Statement

Syntax

ThrowStatement[Yield, Await] :
throw [no LineTerminator here] Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;

14.14.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ThrowStatement : throw Expression ;

1. Let exprRef be ? Evaluation of Expression.

2. Let exprValue be ? GetValue(exprRef).
3. Return ThrowCompletion(exprValue).

14.15 The try Statement

Syntax

TryStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

try Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] Catch[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
try Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] Finally[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
try Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] Catch[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
Finally[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

Catch[Yield, Await, Return] :

catch ( CatchParameter[?Yield, ?Await] ) Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
catch Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

Finally[Yield, Await, Return] :

finally Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

CatchParameter[Yield, Await] :
BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await]

NOTE The try statement encloses a block of code in which an exceptional condition can occur, such as a runtime
error or a throw statement. The catch clause provides the exception-handling code. When a catch clause
catches an exception, its CatchParameter is bound to that exception.

14.15.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

Catch : catch ( CatchParameter ) Block

It is a Syntax Error if the BoundNames of CatchParameter contains any duplicate elements.

It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of CatchParameter also occurs in the
LexicallyDeclaredNames of Block.
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of CatchParameter also occurs in the VarDeclaredNames of
Block.

NOTE An alternative static semantics for this production is given in B.3.4.

14.15.2 Runtime Semantics: CatchClauseEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation CatchClauseEvaluation takes argument thrownValue (an ECMAScript language value)
and returns either a normal completion containing either an ECMAScript language value or EMPTY, or an abrupt com-
pletion. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
Catch : catch ( CatchParameter ) Block

1. Let oldEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.

2. Let catchEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(oldEnv).
3. For each element argName of the BoundNames of CatchParameter, do
a. Perform ! [Link](argName, false).
4. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to catchEnv.
5. Let status be Completion(BindingInitialization of CatchParameter with arguments thrownValue and catchEnv).
6. If status is an abrupt completion, then
a. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.
b. Return ? status.
7. Let B be Completion(Evaluation of Block).
8. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.
9. Return ? B.

Catch : catch Block

1. Return ? Evaluation of Block.

NOTE No matter how control leaves the Block the LexicalEnvironment is always restored to its former state.

14.15.3 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

TryStatement : try Block Catch

1. Let B be Completion(Evaluation of Block).

2. If B is a throw completion, let C be Completion(CatchClauseEvaluation of Catch with argument B.⁠[[Value]]).
3. Else, let C be B.
4. Return ? UpdateEmpty(C, undefined).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:07 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

TryStatement : try Block Finally

1. Let B be Completion(Evaluation of Block).

2. Let F be Completion(Evaluation of Finally).
3. If F is a normal completion, set F to B.
4. Return ? UpdateEmpty(F, undefined).

TryStatement : try Block Catch Finally

1. Let B be Completion(Evaluation of Block).

2. If B is a throw completion, let C be Completion(CatchClauseEvaluation of Catch with argument B.⁠[[Value]]).
3. Else, let C be B.
4. Let F be Completion(Evaluation of Finally).
5. If F is a normal completion, set F to C.
6. Return ? UpdateEmpty(F, undefined).

14.16 The debugger Statement

Syntax

DebuggerStatement :
debugger ;

14.16.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

NOTE Evaluating a DebuggerStatement may allow an implementation to cause a breakpoint when run under a
debugger. If a debugger is not present or active this statement has no observable effect.

DebuggerStatement : debugger ;

1. If an implementation-defined debugging facility is available and enabled, then

a. Perform an implementation-defined debugging action.
b. Return a new implementation-defined Completion Record.
2. Else,
a. Return EMPTY.

15 ECMAScript Language: Functions and Classes

NOTE Various ECMAScript language elements cause the creation of ECMAScript function objects (10.2).
Evaluation of such functions starts with the execution of their ⁠[[Call]] internal method (10.2.1).

15.1 Parameter Lists

Syntax

UniqueFormalParameters[Yield, Await] :
FormalParameters[?Yield, ?Await]

FormalParameters[Yield, Await] :
[empty]
FunctionRestParameter[?Yield, ?Await]
FormalParameterList[?Yield, ?Await]
FormalParameterList[?Yield, ?Await] ,
FormalParameterList[?Yield, ?Await] , FunctionRestParameter[?Yield, ?Await]

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

FormalParameterList[Yield, Await] :
FormalParameter[?Yield, ?Await]
FormalParameterList[?Yield, ?Await] , FormalParameter[?Yield, ?Await]

FunctionRestParameter[Yield, Await] :
BindingRestElement[?Yield, ?Await]

FormalParameter[Yield, Await] :
BindingElement[?Yield, ?Await]

15.1.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

UniqueFormalParameters : FormalParameters

It is a Syntax Error if the BoundNames of FormalParameters contains any duplicate elements.

FormalParameters : FormalParameterList

It is a Syntax Error if IsSimpleParameterList of FormalParameterList is false and the BoundNames of

FormalParameterList contains any duplicate elements.

NOTE Multiple occurrences of the same BindingIdentifier in a FormalParameterList is only allowed for functions
which have simple parameter lists and which are not defined in strict mode code.

15.1.2 Static Semantics: ContainsExpression

The syntax-directed operation ContainsExpression takes no arguments and returns a Boolean. It is defined piecewise
over the following productions:

ObjectBindingPattern :
{ }
{ BindingRestProperty }

1. Return false.

ObjectBindingPattern : { BindingPropertyList , BindingRestProperty }

1. Return ContainsExpression of BindingPropertyList.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ Elisionopt ]

1. Return false.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ Elisionopt BindingRestElement ]

1. Return ContainsExpression of BindingRestElement.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ BindingElementList , Elisionopt ]

1. Return ContainsExpression of BindingElementList.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ BindingElementList , Elisionopt BindingRestElement ]

1. Let has be ContainsExpression of BindingElementList.

2. If has is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsExpression of BindingRestElement.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

BindingPropertyList : BindingPropertyList , BindingProperty

1. Let has be ContainsExpression of BindingPropertyList.

2. If has is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsExpression of BindingProperty.

BindingElementList : BindingElementList , BindingElisionElement

1. Let has be ContainsExpression of BindingElementList.

2. If has is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsExpression of BindingElisionElement.

BindingElisionElement : Elisionopt BindingElement

1. Return ContainsExpression of BindingElement.

BindingProperty : PropertyName : BindingElement

1. Let has be IsComputedPropertyKey of PropertyName.

2. If has is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsExpression of BindingElement.

BindingElement : BindingPattern Initializer

1. Return true.

SingleNameBinding : BindingIdentifier

1. Return false.

SingleNameBinding : BindingIdentifier Initializer

1. Return true.

BindingRestElement : ... BindingIdentifier

1. Return false.

BindingRestElement : ... BindingPattern

1. Return ContainsExpression of BindingPattern.

FormalParameters : [empty]

1. Return false.

FormalParameters : FormalParameterList , FunctionRestParameter

1. If ContainsExpression of FormalParameterList is true, return true.

2. Return ContainsExpression of FunctionRestParameter.

FormalParameterList : FormalParameterList , FormalParameter

1. If ContainsExpression of FormalParameterList is true, return true.

2. Return ContainsExpression of FormalParameter.

ArrowParameters : BindingIdentifier

FormalParameters : [empty]

1. Return true.

FormalParameters : FunctionRestParameter

1. Return false.

FormalParameters : FormalParameterList , FunctionRestParameter

1. Return false.

FormalParameterList : FormalParameterList , FormalParameter

1. If IsSimpleParameterList of FormalParameterList is false, return false.

2. Return IsSimpleParameterList of FormalParameter.

FormalParameter : BindingElement

1. Return IsSimpleParameterList of BindingElement.

ArrowParameters : BindingIdentifier

1. Return true.

ArrowParameters : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let formals be the ArrowFormalParameters that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return IsSimpleParameterList of formals.

AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier : BindingIdentifier

1. Return true.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead : MemberExpression Arguments

1. Let head be the AsyncArrowHead that is covered by CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead.

2. Return IsSimpleParameterList of head.

15.1.4 Static Semantics: HasInitializer

The syntax-directed operation HasInitializer takes no arguments and returns a Boolean. It is defined piecewise over the
following productions:
BindingElement : BindingPattern

1. Return false.

BindingElement : BindingPattern Initializer

1. Return true.

SingleNameBinding : BindingIdentifier

1. Return false.

SingleNameBinding : BindingIdentifier Initializer

1. Return true.

FormalParameterList : FormalParameterList , FormalParameter

1. If HasInitializer of FormalParameterList is true, return true.

2. Return HasInitializer of FormalParameter.

15.1.5 Static Semantics: ExpectedArgumentCount

The syntax-directed operation ExpectedArgumentCount takes no arguments and returns a non-negative integer. It is
defined piecewise over the following productions:
FormalParameters :
[empty]
FunctionRestParameter

1. Return 0.

FormalParameters : FormalParameterList , FunctionRestParameter

1. Return the ExpectedArgumentCount of FormalParameterList.

NOTE The ExpectedArgumentCount of a FormalParameterList is the number of FormalParameters to the left of

either the rest parameter or the first FormalParameter with an Initializer. A FormalParameter without an
initializer is allowed after the first parameter with an initializer but such parameters are considered to be
optional with undefined as their default value.

FormalParameterList : FormalParameter

1. If HasInitializer of FormalParameter is true, return 0.

2. Return 1.

FormalParameterList : FormalParameterList , FormalParameter

1. Let count be the ExpectedArgumentCount of FormalParameterList.

2. If HasInitializer of FormalParameterList is true or HasInitializer of FormalParameter is true, return count.
3. Return count + 1.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ArrowParameters : BindingIdentifier

1. Return 1.

ArrowParameters : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let formals be the ArrowFormalParameters that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return the ExpectedArgumentCount of formals.

PropertySetParameterList : FormalParameter

1. If HasInitializer of FormalParameter is true, return 0.

2. Return 1.

AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier : BindingIdentifier

1. Return 1.

15.2 Function Definitions

Syntax

FunctionDeclaration[Yield, Await, Default] :

function BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] ( FormalParameters[~Yield, ~Await] ) {
FunctionBody[~Yield, ~Await] }
[+Default] function ( FormalParameters[~Yield, ~Await] ) { FunctionBody[~Yield, ~Await] }

FunctionExpression :
function BindingIdentifier[~Yield, ~Await] opt ( FormalParameters[~Yield, ~Await] ) {
FunctionBody[~Yield, ~Await] }

FunctionBody[Yield, Await] :
FunctionStatementList[?Yield, ?Await]

FunctionStatementList[Yield, Await] :
StatementList[?Yield, ?Await, +Return] opt

15.2.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

If IsStrict(FormalParameters) is true, the Early Error rules for UniqueFormalParameters : FormalParameters are
applied.
If BindingIdentifier is present and IsStrict(BindingIdentifier) is true, it is a Syntax Error if the StringValue of
BindingIdentifier is either "eval" or "arguments".
It is a Syntax Error if FunctionBodyContainsUseStrict of FunctionBody is true and IsSimpleParameterList of
FormalParameters is false.
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of FormalParameters also occurs in the
LexicallyDeclaredNames of FunctionBody.
It is a Syntax Error if FormalParameters Contains SuperProperty is true.
It is a Syntax Error if FunctionBody Contains SuperProperty is true.
It is a Syntax Error if FormalParameters Contains SuperCall is true.
It is a Syntax Error if FunctionBody Contains SuperCall is true.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE The LexicallyDeclaredNames of a FunctionBody does not include identifiers bound using var or
function declarations.

FunctionBody : FunctionStatementList

It is a Syntax Error if the LexicallyDeclaredNames of FunctionStatementList contains any duplicate entries.

It is a Syntax Error if any element of the LexicallyDeclaredNames of FunctionStatementList also occurs in the
VarDeclaredNames of FunctionStatementList.
It is a Syntax Error if ContainsDuplicateLabels of FunctionStatementList with argument « » is true.
It is a Syntax Error if ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of FunctionStatementList with argument « » is true.
It is a Syntax Error if ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of FunctionStatementList with arguments « » and « » is
true.

15.2.2 Static Semantics: FunctionBodyContainsUseStrict

The syntax-directed operation FunctionBodyContainsUseStrict takes no arguments and returns a Boolean. It is defined
piecewise over the following productions:
FunctionBody : FunctionStatementList

1. If the Directive Prologue of FunctionBody contains a Use Strict Directive, return true; otherwise return false.

15.2.3 Runtime Semantics: EvaluateFunctionBody

The syntax-directed operation EvaluateFunctionBody takes arguments functionObject (an ECMAScript function object)
and argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns a return completion or a throw completion. It is
defined piecewise over the following productions:
FunctionBody : FunctionStatementList

1. Perform ? FunctionDeclarationInstantiation(functionObject, argumentsList).

2. Perform ? Evaluation of FunctionStatementList.
3. NOTE: If the previous step resulted in a normal completion, then evaluation finished by proceeding past the end of
the FunctionStatementList.
4. Return ReturnCompletion(undefined).

15.2.4 Runtime Semantics: InstantiateOrdinaryFunctionObject

The syntax-directed operation InstantiateOrdinaryFunctionObject takes arguments env (an Environment Record) and
privateEnv (a PrivateEnvironment Record or null) and returns an ECMAScript function object. It is defined piecewise
over the following productions:
FunctionDeclaration : function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. Let name be the StringValue of BindingIdentifier.

2. Let sourceText be the source text matched by FunctionDeclaration.
3. Let F be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, FormalParameters, FunctionBody, NON-
LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
4. Perform SetFunctionName(F, name).
5. Perform MakeConstructor(F).
6. Return F.

FunctionDeclaration : function ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. Let sourceText be the source text matched by FunctionDeclaration.

2. Let F be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, FormalParameters, FunctionBody, NON-
LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
3. Perform SetFunctionName(F, "default").
4. Perform MakeConstructor(F).
5. Return F.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE An anonymous FunctionDeclaration can only occur as part of an export default declaration, and its
function code is therefore always strict mode code.

15.2.5 Runtime Semantics: InstantiateOrdinaryFunctionExpression

The syntax-directed operation InstantiateOrdinaryFunctionExpression takes optional argument name (a property key or
a Private Name) and returns an ECMAScript function object. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
FunctionExpression : function ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. If name is not present, set name to "".

FunctionExpression : function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. Assert: name is not present.

2. Set name to the StringValue of BindingIdentifier.
3. Let outerEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
4. Let funcEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(outerEnv).
5. Perform ! [Link](name, false).
6. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
7. Let sourceText be the source text matched by FunctionExpression.
8. Let closure be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, FormalParameters, FunctionBody,
NON-LEXICAL-THIS, funcEnv, privateEnv).
9. Perform SetFunctionName(closure, name).
10. Perform MakeConstructor(closure).
11. Perform ! [Link](name, closure).
12. Return closure.

NOTE The BindingIdentifier in a FunctionExpression can be referenced from inside the FunctionExpression's
FunctionBody to allow the function to call itself recursively. However, unlike in a FunctionDeclaration, the
BindingIdentifier in a FunctionExpression cannot be referenced from and does not affect the scope
enclosing the FunctionExpression.

15.2.6 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

FunctionDeclaration : function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return EMPTY.

NOTE 1 An alternative semantics is provided in B.3.2.

FunctionDeclaration : function ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return EMPTY.

FunctionExpression : function BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return InstantiateOrdinaryFunctionExpression of FunctionExpression.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 2 A "prototype" property is automatically created for every function defined using a FunctionDeclaration or
FunctionExpression, to allow for the possibility that the function will be used as a constructor.

FunctionStatementList : [empty]

1. Return undefined.

15.3 Arrow Function Definitions

Syntax

ArrowFunction[In, Yield, Await] :

ArrowParameters[?Yield, ?Await] [no LineTerminator here] => ConciseBody[?In]

ArrowParameters[Yield, Await] :
BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await]
CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList[?Yield, ?Await]

ConciseBody[In] :
[lookahead ≠ {] ExpressionBody[?In, ~Await]
{ FunctionBody[~Yield, ~Await] }

ExpressionBody[In, Await] :
AssignmentExpression[?In, ~Yield, ?Await]

Supplemental Syntax

When processing an instance of the production

ArrowParameters[Yield, Await] : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList[?Yield, ?Await]
the interpretation of CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList is refined using the following grammar:

ArrowFormalParameters[Yield, Await] :
( UniqueFormalParameters[?Yield, ?Await] )

15.3.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

ArrowFunction : ArrowParameters => ConciseBody

It is a Syntax Error if ArrowParameters Contains YieldExpression is true.

It is a Syntax Error if ArrowParameters Contains AwaitExpression is true.
It is a Syntax Error if ConciseBodyContainsUseStrict of ConciseBody is true and IsSimpleParameterList of
ArrowParameters is false.
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of ArrowParameters also occurs in the
LexicallyDeclaredNames of ConciseBody.

ArrowParameters : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList must cover an ArrowFormalParameters.

15.3.2 Static Semantics: ConciseBodyContainsUseStrict

The syntax-directed operation ConciseBodyContainsUseStrict takes no arguments and returns a Boolean. It is defined
piecewise over the following productions:
ConciseBody : ExpressionBody

1. Return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ConciseBody : { FunctionBody }

1. Return FunctionBodyContainsUseStrict of FunctionBody.

15.3.3 Runtime Semantics: EvaluateConciseBody

The syntax-directed operation EvaluateConciseBody takes arguments functionObject (an ECMAScript function object)
and argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns a return completion or a throw completion. It is
defined piecewise over the following productions:
ConciseBody : ExpressionBody

1. Perform ? FunctionDeclarationInstantiation(functionObject, argumentsList).

2. Return ? Evaluation of ExpressionBody.

15.3.4 Runtime Semantics: InstantiateArrowFunctionExpression

The syntax-directed operation InstantiateArrowFunctionExpression takes optional argument name (a property key or a
Private Name) and returns an ECMAScript function object. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
ArrowFunction : ArrowParameters => ConciseBody

1. If name is not present, set name to "".

NOTE An ArrowFunction does not define local bindings for arguments, super, this, or [Link]. Any
reference to arguments, super, this, or [Link] within an ArrowFunction must resolve to a binding
in a lexically enclosing environment. Typically this will be the Function Environment of an immediately
enclosing function. Even though an ArrowFunction may contain references to super, the function object
created in step 5 is not made into a method by performing MakeMethod. An ArrowFunction that references
super is always contained within a non-ArrowFunction and the necessary state to implement super is
accessible via the env that is captured by the function object of the ArrowFunction.

15.3.5 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ArrowFunction : ArrowParameters => ConciseBody

1. Return InstantiateArrowFunctionExpression of ArrowFunction.

ExpressionBody : AssignmentExpression

1. Let exprRef be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.

2. Let exprValue be ? GetValue(exprRef).
3. Return ReturnCompletion(exprValue).

15.4 Method Definitions

Syntax

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

PropertySetParameterList :
FormalParameter[~Yield, ~Await]

15.4.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

MethodDefinition : ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

It is a Syntax Error if FunctionBodyContainsUseStrict of FunctionBody is true and IsSimpleParameterList of

UniqueFormalParameters is false.
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of UniqueFormalParameters also occurs in the
LexicallyDeclaredNames of FunctionBody.

MethodDefinition : set ClassElementName ( PropertySetParameterList ) { FunctionBody }

It is a Syntax Error if the BoundNames of PropertySetParameterList contains any duplicate elements.

It is a Syntax Error if FunctionBodyContainsUseStrict of FunctionBody is true and IsSimpleParameterList of
PropertySetParameterList is false.
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of PropertySetParameterList also occurs in the
LexicallyDeclaredNames of FunctionBody.

15.4.2 Static Semantics: HasDirectSuper

The syntax-directed operation HasDirectSuper takes no arguments and returns a Boolean. It is defined piecewise over
the following productions:
MethodDefinition : ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. If UniqueFormalParameters Contains SuperCall is true, return true.

2. Return FunctionBody Contains SuperCall.

MethodDefinition : get ClassElementName ( ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return FunctionBody Contains SuperCall.

MethodDefinition : set ClassElementName ( PropertySetParameterList ) { FunctionBody }

1. If PropertySetParameterList Contains SuperCall is true, return true.

2. Return FunctionBody Contains SuperCall.

GeneratorMethod : * ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. If UniqueFormalParameters Contains SuperCall is true, return true.

2. Return GeneratorBody Contains SuperCall.

AsyncGeneratorMethod : async * ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. If UniqueFormalParameters Contains SuperCall is true, return true.

2. Return AsyncGeneratorBody Contains SuperCall.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

AsyncMethod : async ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. If UniqueFormalParameters Contains SuperCall is true, return true.

2. Return AsyncFunctionBody Contains SuperCall.

15.4.3 Static Semantics: SpecialMethod

The syntax-directed operation SpecialMethod takes no arguments and returns a Boolean. It is defined piecewise over
the following productions:
MethodDefinition : ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return false.

MethodDefinition :
GeneratorMethod
AsyncMethod
AsyncGeneratorMethod
get ClassElementName ( ) { FunctionBody }
set ClassElementName ( PropertySetParameterList ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return true.

15.4.4 Runtime Semantics: DefineMethod

The syntax-directed operation DefineMethod takes argument object (an Object) and optional argument function-
Prototype (an Object) and returns either a normal completion containing a Record with fields ⁠[[Key]] (a property
key) and ⁠[[Closure]] (an ECMAScript function object) or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise over the
following productions:
MethodDefinition : ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. Let propKey be ? Evaluation of ClassElementName.

2. Let env be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
3. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
4. If functionPrototype is present, then
a. Let prototype be functionPrototype.
5. Else,
a. Let prototype be %[Link]%.
6. Let sourceText be the source text matched by MethodDefinition.
7. Let closure be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(prototype, sourceText, UniqueFormalParameters, FunctionBody, NON-
LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
8. Perform MakeMethod(closure, object).
9. Return the Record { ⁠[[Key]]: propKey, ⁠[[Closure]]: closure }.

15.4.5 Runtime Semantics: MethodDefinitionEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation MethodDefinitionEvaluation takes arguments object (an Object) and enumerable (a
Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing either a PrivateElement or UNUSED, or an abrupt comple-
tion. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
MethodDefinition : ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. Let methodDef be ? DefineMethod of MethodDefinition with argument object.

2. Perform SetFunctionName(methodDef.⁠[[Closure]], methodDef.⁠[[Key]]).
3. Return ? DefineMethodProperty(object, methodDef.⁠[[Key]], methodDef.⁠[[Closure]], enumerable).

MethodDefinition : get ClassElementName ( ) { FunctionBody }

1. Let propKey be ? Evaluation of ClassElementName.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

5. Let formalParameterList be an instance of the production FormalParameters : [empty] .

6. Let closure be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, formalParameterList, FunctionBody,
NON-LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
7. Perform MakeMethod(closure, object).
8. Perform SetFunctionName(closure, propKey, "get").
9. If propKey is a Private Name, then
a. Return PrivateElement { ⁠[[Key]]: propKey, ⁠[[Kind]]: ACCESSOR, ⁠[[Get]]: closure, ⁠[[Set]]: undefined }.
10. Else,
a. Let desc be the PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Get]]: closure, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: enumerable, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.
b. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(object, propKey, desc).
c. Return UNUSED.
MethodDefinition : set ClassElementName ( PropertySetParameterList ) { FunctionBody }

1. Let propKey be ? Evaluation of ClassElementName.

2. Let env be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
3. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
4. Let sourceText be the source text matched by MethodDefinition.
5. Let closure be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, PropertySetParameterList,
FunctionBody, NON-LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
6. Perform MakeMethod(closure, object).
7. Perform SetFunctionName(closure, propKey, "set").
8. If propKey is a Private Name, then
a. Return PrivateElement { ⁠[[Key]]: propKey, ⁠[[Kind]]: ACCESSOR, ⁠[[Get]]: undefined, ⁠[[Set]]: closure }.
9. Else,
a. Let desc be the PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Set]]: closure, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: enumerable, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.
b. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(object, propKey, desc).
c. Return UNUSED.

GeneratorMethod : * ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. Let propKey be ? Evaluation of ClassElementName.

2. Let env be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
3. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
4. Let sourceText be the source text matched by GeneratorMethod.
5. Let closure be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, UniqueFormalParameters,
GeneratorBody, NON-LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
6. Perform MakeMethod(closure, object).
7. Perform SetFunctionName(closure, propKey).
8. Let prototype be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%GeneratorPrototype%).
9. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(closure, "prototype", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: prototype, ⁠[[Writable]]: true,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
10. Return ? DefineMethodProperty(object, propKey, closure, enumerable).

AsyncGeneratorMethod : async * ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Let propKey be ? Evaluation of ClassElementName.

2. Let env be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
3. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
4. Let sourceText be the source text matched by AsyncGeneratorMethod.
5. Let closure be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText,
UniqueFormalParameters, AsyncGeneratorBody, NON-LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
6. Perform MakeMethod(closure, object).
7. Perform SetFunctionName(closure, propKey).
8. Let prototype be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%AsyncGeneratorPrototype%).
9. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(closure, "prototype", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: prototype, ⁠[[Writable]]: true,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
10. Return ? DefineMethodProperty(object, propKey, closure, enumerable).

AsyncMethod : async ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Let propKey be ? Evaluation of ClassElementName.

2. Let env be the LexicalEnvironment of the running execution context.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.

4. Let sourceText be the source text matched by AsyncMethod.
5. Let closure be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, UniqueFormalParameters,
AsyncFunctionBody, NON-LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
6. Perform MakeMethod(closure, object).
7. Perform SetFunctionName(closure, propKey).
8. Return ? DefineMethodProperty(object, propKey, closure, enumerable).

15.5 Generator Function Definitions

Syntax

GeneratorDeclaration[Yield, Await, Default] :

function * BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] ( FormalParameters[+Yield, ~Await] ) {
GeneratorBody }
[+Default] function * ( FormalParameters[+Yield, ~Await] ) { GeneratorBody }

GeneratorExpression :
function * BindingIdentifier[+Yield, ~Await] opt ( FormalParameters[+Yield, ~Await] ) {
GeneratorBody }

GeneratorMethod[Yield, Await] :
* ClassElementName[?Yield, ?Await] ( UniqueFormalParameters[+Yield, ~Await] ) {
GeneratorBody }

GeneratorBody :
FunctionBody[+Yield, ~Await]

YieldExpression[In, Await] :
yield
yield [no LineTerminator here] AssignmentExpression[?In, +Yield, ?Await]
yield [no LineTerminator here] * AssignmentExpression[?In, +Yield, ?Await]

NOTE 1 The syntactic context immediately following yield requires use of the InputElementRegExpOrTemplateTail
lexical goal.

NOTE 2 YieldExpression cannot be used within the FormalParameters of a generator function because any
expressions that are part of FormalParameters are evaluated before the resulting Generator is in a
resumable state.

NOTE 3 Abstract operations relating to Generators are defined in 27.5.3.

15.5.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

GeneratorMethod : * ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

It is a Syntax Error if HasDirectSuper of GeneratorMethod is true.

It is a Syntax Error if UniqueFormalParameters Contains YieldExpression is true.
It is a Syntax Error if FunctionBodyContainsUseStrict of GeneratorBody is true and IsSimpleParameterList of
UniqueFormalParameters is false.
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of UniqueFormalParameters also occurs in the
LexicallyDeclaredNames of GeneratorBody.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

GeneratorDeclaration :
function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
function * ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
GeneratorExpression :
function * BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

If IsStrict(FormalParameters) is true, the Early Error rules for UniqueFormalParameters : FormalParameters are
applied.
If BindingIdentifier is present and IsStrict(BindingIdentifier) is true, it is a Syntax Error if the StringValue of
BindingIdentifier is either "eval" or "arguments".
It is a Syntax Error if FunctionBodyContainsUseStrict of GeneratorBody is true and IsSimpleParameterList of
FormalParameters is false.
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of FormalParameters also occurs in the
LexicallyDeclaredNames of GeneratorBody.
It is a Syntax Error if FormalParameters Contains YieldExpression is true.
It is a Syntax Error if FormalParameters Contains SuperProperty is true.
It is a Syntax Error if GeneratorBody Contains SuperProperty is true.
It is a Syntax Error if FormalParameters Contains SuperCall is true.
It is a Syntax Error if GeneratorBody Contains SuperCall is true.

15.5.2 Runtime Semantics: EvaluateGeneratorBody

The syntax-directed operation EvaluateGeneratorBody takes arguments functionObject (an ECMAScript function object)
and argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns a throw completion or a return completion. It is
defined piecewise over the following productions:
GeneratorBody : FunctionBody

1. Perform ? FunctionDeclarationInstantiation(functionObject, argumentsList).

2. Let G be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(functionObject, "%GeneratorPrototype%", « ⁠[[GeneratorState]],
⁠[[GeneratorContext]], ⁠[[GeneratorBrand]] »).
3. Set G.⁠[[GeneratorBrand]] to EMPTY.
4. Set G.⁠[[GeneratorState]] to SUSPENDED-START.
5. Perform GeneratorStart(G, FunctionBody).
6. Return ReturnCompletion(G).

15.5.3 Runtime Semantics: InstantiateGeneratorFunctionObject

The syntax-directed operation InstantiateGeneratorFunctionObject takes arguments env (an Environment Record) and
privateEnv (a PrivateEnvironment Record or null) and returns an ECMAScript function object. It is defined piecewise
over the following productions:
GeneratorDeclaration : function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. Let name be the StringValue of BindingIdentifier.

2. Let sourceText be the source text matched by GeneratorDeclaration.
3. Let F be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, FormalParameters, GeneratorBody,
NON-LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
4. Perform SetFunctionName(F, name).
5. Let prototype be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%GeneratorPrototype%).
6. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(F, "prototype", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: prototype, ⁠[[Writable]]: true,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
7. Return F.

GeneratorDeclaration : function * ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. Let sourceText be the source text matched by GeneratorDeclaration.

2. Let F be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, FormalParameters, GeneratorBody,
NON-LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
3. Perform SetFunctionName(F, "default").
4. Let prototype be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%GeneratorPrototype%).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

5. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(F, "prototype", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: prototype, ⁠[[Writable]]: true,

⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
6. Return F.

NOTE An anonymous GeneratorDeclaration can only occur as part of an export default declaration, and its
function code is therefore always strict mode code.

15.5.4 Runtime Semantics: InstantiateGeneratorFunctionExpression

The syntax-directed operation InstantiateGeneratorFunctionExpression takes optional argument name (a property key
or a Private Name) and returns an ECMAScript function object. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
GeneratorExpression : function * ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. If name is not present, set name to "".

2. Let env be the LexicalEnvironment of the running execution context.
3. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
4. Let sourceText be the source text matched by GeneratorExpression.
5. Let closure be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, FormalParameters,
GeneratorBody, NON-LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
6. Perform SetFunctionName(closure, name).
7. Let prototype be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%GeneratorPrototype%).
8. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(closure, "prototype", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: prototype, ⁠[[Writable]]: true,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
9. Return closure.

GeneratorExpression : function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. Assert: name is not present.

2. Set name to the StringValue of BindingIdentifier.
3. Let outerEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
4. Let funcEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(outerEnv).
5. Perform ! [Link](name, false).
6. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
7. Let sourceText be the source text matched by GeneratorExpression.
8. Let closure be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, FormalParameters,
GeneratorBody, NON-LEXICAL-THIS, funcEnv, privateEnv).
9. Perform SetFunctionName(closure, name).
10. Let prototype be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%GeneratorPrototype%).
11. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(closure, "prototype", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: prototype, ⁠[[Writable]]: true,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
12. Perform ! [Link](name, closure).
13. Return closure.

NOTE The BindingIdentifier in a GeneratorExpression can be referenced from inside the GeneratorExpression's
FunctionBody to allow the generator code to call itself recursively. However, unlike in a
GeneratorDeclaration, the BindingIdentifier in a GeneratorExpression cannot be referenced from and does
not affect the scope enclosing the GeneratorExpression.

15.5.5 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

GeneratorExpression : function * BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. Return InstantiateGeneratorFunctionExpression of GeneratorExpression.

YieldExpression : yield

1. Return ? Yield(undefined).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

YieldExpression : yield AssignmentExpression

1. Let exprRef be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.

2. Let value be ? GetValue(exprRef).
3. Return ? Yield(value).

YieldExpression : yield * AssignmentExpression

1. Let generatorKind be GetGeneratorKind().

2. Assert: generatorKind is either SYNC or ASYNC.
3. Let exprRef be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.
4. Let value be ? GetValue(exprRef).
5. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(value, generatorKind).
6. Let iterator be iteratorRecord.⁠[[Iterator]].
7. Let received be NormalCompletion(undefined).
8. Repeat,
a. If received is a normal completion, then
i. Let innerResult be ? Call(iteratorRecord.⁠[[NextMethod]], iteratorRecord.⁠[[Iterator]], « received.⁠[[Value]] »).
ii. If generatorKind is ASYNC, set innerResult to ? Await(innerResult).
iii. If innerResult is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
iv. Let done be ? IteratorComplete(innerResult).
v. If done is true, then
1. Return ? IteratorValue(innerResult).
vi. If generatorKind is ASYNC, set received to Completion(AsyncGeneratorYield(? IteratorValue(innerResult))).
vii. Else, set received to Completion(GeneratorYield(innerResult)).
b. Else if received is a throw completion, then
i. Let throw be ? GetMethod(iterator, "throw").
ii. If throw is not undefined, then
1. Let innerResult be ? Call(throw, iterator, « received.⁠[[Value]] »).
2. If generatorKind is ASYNC, set innerResult to ? Await(innerResult).
3. NOTE: Exceptions from the inner iterator throw method are propagated. Normal completions from an
inner throw method are processed similarly to an inner next.
4. If innerResult is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Let done be ? IteratorComplete(innerResult).
6. If done is true, then
a. Return ? IteratorValue(innerResult).
7. If generatorKind is ASYNC, set received to Completion(AsyncGeneratorYield(?
IteratorValue(innerResult))).
8. Else, set received to Completion(GeneratorYield(innerResult)).
iii. Else,
1. NOTE: If iterator does not have a throw method, this throw is going to terminate the yield* loop.
But first we need to give iterator a chance to clean up.
2. Let closeCompletion be NormalCompletion(EMPTY).
3. If generatorKind is ASYNC, perform ? AsyncIteratorClose(iteratorRecord, closeCompletion).
4. Else, perform ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, closeCompletion).
5. NOTE: The next step throws a TypeError to indicate that there was a yield* protocol violation:
iterator does not have a throw method.
6. Throw a TypeError exception.
c. Else,
i. Assert: received is a return completion.
ii. Let return be ? GetMethod(iterator, "return").
iii. If return is undefined, then
1. Set value to received.⁠[[Value]].
2. If generatorKind is ASYNC, then
a. Set value to ? Await(value).
3. Return ReturnCompletion(value).
iv. Let innerReturnResult be ? Call(return, iterator, « received.⁠[[Value]] »).
v. If generatorKind is ASYNC, set innerReturnResult to ? Await(innerReturnResult).
vi. If innerReturnResult is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
vii. Let done be ? IteratorComplete(innerReturnResult).
viii. If done is true, then

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

1. Set value to ? IteratorValue(innerReturnResult).

2. Return ReturnCompletion(value).
ix. If generatorKind is ASYNC, set received to Completion(AsyncGeneratorYield(?
IteratorValue(innerReturnResult))).
x. Else, set received to Completion(GeneratorYield(innerReturnResult)).

15.6 Async Generator Function Definitions

Syntax

AsyncGeneratorDeclaration[Yield, Await, Default] :

AsyncGeneratorExpression :
async [no LineTerminator here] function * BindingIdentifier[+Yield, +Await] opt (
FormalParameters[+Yield, +Await] ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }

AsyncGeneratorMethod[Yield, Await] :
async [no LineTerminator here] * ClassElementName[?Yield, ?Await] (
UniqueFormalParameters[+Yield, +Await] ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }

AsyncGeneratorBody :
FunctionBody[+Yield, +Await]

NOTE 1 YieldExpression and AwaitExpression cannot be used within the FormalParameters of an async generator
function because any expressions that are part of FormalParameters are evaluated before the resulting
AsyncGenerator is in a resumable state.

NOTE 2 Abstract operations relating to AsyncGenerators are defined in 27.6.3.

15.6.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

AsyncGeneratorMethod : async * ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }

It is a Syntax Error if HasDirectSuper of AsyncGeneratorMethod is true.

It is a Syntax Error if UniqueFormalParameters Contains YieldExpression is true.
It is a Syntax Error if UniqueFormalParameters Contains AwaitExpression is true.
It is a Syntax Error if FunctionBodyContainsUseStrict of AsyncGeneratorBody is true and IsSimpleParameterList of
UniqueFormalParameters is false.
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of UniqueFormalParameters also occurs in the
LexicallyDeclaredNames of AsyncGeneratorBody.

AsyncGeneratorDeclaration :
async function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
async function * ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorExpression :
async function * BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

It is a Syntax Error if FunctionBodyContainsUseStrict of AsyncGeneratorBody is true and IsSimpleParameterList of

FormalParameters is false.
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of FormalParameters also occurs in the
LexicallyDeclaredNames of AsyncGeneratorBody.
It is a Syntax Error if FormalParameters Contains YieldExpression is true.
It is a Syntax Error if FormalParameters Contains AwaitExpression is true.
It is a Syntax Error if FormalParameters Contains SuperProperty is true.
It is a Syntax Error if AsyncGeneratorBody Contains SuperProperty is true.
It is a Syntax Error if FormalParameters Contains SuperCall is true.
It is a Syntax Error if AsyncGeneratorBody Contains SuperCall is true.

15.6.2 Runtime Semantics: EvaluateAsyncGeneratorBody

The syntax-directed operation EvaluateAsyncGeneratorBody takes arguments functionObject (an ECMAScript function
object) and argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns a throw completion or a return comple-
tion. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
AsyncGeneratorBody : FunctionBody

1. Perform ? FunctionDeclarationInstantiation(functionObject, argumentsList).

2. Let generator be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(functionObject, "%AsyncGeneratorPrototype%", «
⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]], ⁠[[AsyncGeneratorContext]], ⁠[[AsyncGeneratorQueue]], ⁠[[GeneratorBrand]] »).
3. Set generator.⁠[[GeneratorBrand]] to EMPTY.
4. Set generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]] to SUSPENDED-START.
5. Perform AsyncGeneratorStart(generator, FunctionBody).
6. Return ReturnCompletion(generator).

15.6.3 Runtime Semantics: InstantiateAsyncGeneratorFunctionObject

The syntax-directed operation InstantiateAsyncGeneratorFunctionObject takes arguments env (an Environment Record)
and privateEnv (a PrivateEnvironment Record or null) and returns an ECMAScript function object. It is defined piece-
wise over the following productions:
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration : async function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) {
AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Let name be the StringValue of BindingIdentifier.

2. Let sourceText be the source text matched by AsyncGeneratorDeclaration.
3. Let F be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, FormalParameters,
AsyncGeneratorBody, NON-LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
4. Perform SetFunctionName(F, name).
5. Let prototype be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%AsyncGeneratorPrototype%).
6. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(F, "prototype", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: prototype, ⁠[[Writable]]: true,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
7. Return F.

AsyncGeneratorDeclaration : async function * ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Let sourceText be the source text matched by AsyncGeneratorDeclaration.

2. Let F be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, FormalParameters,
AsyncGeneratorBody, NON-LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
3. Perform SetFunctionName(F, "default").
4. Let prototype be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%AsyncGeneratorPrototype%).
5. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(F, "prototype", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: prototype, ⁠[[Writable]]: true,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
6. Return F.

NOTE An anonymous AsyncGeneratorDeclaration can only occur as part of an export default declaration.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

15.6.4 Runtime Semantics: InstantiateAsyncGeneratorFunctionExpression

The syntax-directed operation InstantiateAsyncGeneratorFunctionExpression takes optional argument name

(a property key or a Private Name) and returns an ECMAScript function object. It is defined piecewise over the
following productions:
AsyncGeneratorExpression : async function * ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. If name is not present, set name to "".

2. Let env be the LexicalEnvironment of the running execution context.
3. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
4. Let sourceText be the source text matched by AsyncGeneratorExpression.
5. Let closure be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, FormalParameters,
AsyncGeneratorBody, NON-LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
6. Perform SetFunctionName(closure, name).
7. Let prototype be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%AsyncGeneratorPrototype%).
8. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(closure, "prototype", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: prototype, ⁠[[Writable]]: true,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
9. Return closure.

AsyncGeneratorExpression : async function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) {

AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Assert: name is not present.

2. Set name to the StringValue of BindingIdentifier.
3. Let outerEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
4. Let funcEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(outerEnv).
5. Perform ! [Link](name, false).
6. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
7. Let sourceText be the source text matched by AsyncGeneratorExpression.
8. Let closure be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, FormalParameters,
AsyncGeneratorBody, NON-LEXICAL-THIS, funcEnv, privateEnv).
9. Perform SetFunctionName(closure, name).
10. Let prototype be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%AsyncGeneratorPrototype%).
11. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(closure, "prototype", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: prototype, ⁠[[Writable]]: true,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
12. Perform ! [Link](name, closure).
13. Return closure.

NOTE The BindingIdentifier in an AsyncGeneratorExpression can be referenced from inside the

AsyncGeneratorExpression's AsyncGeneratorBody to allow the generator code to call itself recursively.
However, unlike in an AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, the BindingIdentifier in an AsyncGeneratorExpression
cannot be referenced from and does not affect the scope enclosing the AsyncGeneratorExpression.

15.6.5 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

AsyncGeneratorExpression : async function * BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) {
AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Return InstantiateAsyncGeneratorFunctionExpression of AsyncGeneratorExpression.

15.7 Class Definitions

Syntax

ClassDeclaration[Yield, Await, Default] :

class BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] ClassTail[?Yield, ?Await]
[+Default] class ClassTail[?Yield, ?Await]

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ClassExpression[Yield, Await] :
class BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] opt ClassTail[?Yield, ?Await]

ClassTail[Yield, Await] :
ClassHeritage[?Yield, ?Await] opt { ClassBody[?Yield, ?Await] opt }

ClassHeritage[Yield, Await] :
extends LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

ClassBody[Yield, Await] :
ClassElementList[?Yield, ?Await]

ClassElementList[Yield, Await] :
ClassElement[?Yield, ?Await]
ClassElementList[?Yield, ?Await] ClassElement[?Yield, ?Await]

ClassElement[Yield, Await] :
MethodDefinition[?Yield, ?Await]
static MethodDefinition[?Yield, ?Await]
FieldDefinition[?Yield, ?Await] ;
static FieldDefinition[?Yield, ?Await] ;
ClassStaticBlock
;

FieldDefinition[Yield, Await] :
ClassElementName[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt

ClassElementName[Yield, Await] :
PropertyName[?Yield, ?Await]
PrivateIdentifier

ClassStaticBlock :
static { ClassStaticBlockBody }

ClassStaticBlockBody :
ClassStaticBlockStatementList

ClassStaticBlockStatementList :
StatementList[~Yield, +Await, ~Return] opt

NOTE A class definition is always strict mode code.

15.7.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

ClassTail : ClassHeritageopt { ClassBody }

It is a Syntax Error if ClassHeritage is not present and the following algorithm returns true:
1. Let constructor be the ConstructorMethod of ClassBody.
2. If constructor is EMPTY, return false.
3. Return HasDirectSuper of constructor.

ClassBody : ClassElementList

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

It is a Syntax Error if the PrototypePropertyNameList of ClassElementList contains more than one occurrence of
"constructor".
It is a Syntax Error if the PrivateBoundIdentifiers of ClassElementList contains any duplicate entries, unless the
name is used once for a getter and once for a setter and in no other entries, and the getter and setter are either both
static or both non-static.

ClassElement : MethodDefinition

It is a Syntax Error if the PropName of MethodDefinition is not "constructor" and HasDirectSuper of

MethodDefinition is true.
It is a Syntax Error if the PropName of MethodDefinition is "constructor" and SpecialMethod of MethodDefinition is
true.

ClassElement : static MethodDefinition

It is a Syntax Error if HasDirectSuper of MethodDefinition is true.

It is a Syntax Error if the PropName of MethodDefinition is "prototype".

ClassElement : FieldDefinition ;

It is a Syntax Error if the PropName of FieldDefinition is "constructor".

ClassElement : static FieldDefinition ;

It is a Syntax Error if the PropName of FieldDefinition is either "prototype" or "constructor".

FieldDefinition :
ClassElementName Initializeropt

It is a Syntax Error if Initializer is present and ContainsArguments of Initializer is true.

It is a Syntax Error if Initializer is present and Initializer Contains SuperCall is true.

ClassElementName : PrivateIdentifier

It is a Syntax Error if the StringValue of PrivateIdentifier is "#constructor".

ClassStaticBlockBody : ClassStaticBlockStatementList

It is a Syntax Error if the LexicallyDeclaredNames of ClassStaticBlockStatementList contains any duplicate entries.

It is a Syntax Error if any element of the LexicallyDeclaredNames of ClassStaticBlockStatementList also occurs in
the VarDeclaredNames of ClassStaticBlockStatementList.
It is a Syntax Error if ContainsDuplicateLabels of ClassStaticBlockStatementList with argument « » is true.
It is a Syntax Error if ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of ClassStaticBlockStatementList with argument « » is true.
It is a Syntax Error if ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of ClassStaticBlockStatementList with arguments « » and «
» is true.
It is a Syntax Error if ContainsArguments of ClassStaticBlockStatementList is true.
It is a Syntax Error if ClassStaticBlockStatementList Contains SuperCall is true.
It is a Syntax Error if ClassStaticBlockStatementList Contains await is true.

15.7.2 Static Semantics: ClassElementKind

The syntax-directed operation ClassElementKind takes no arguments and returns CONSTRUCTOR-METHOD, NON-
CONSTRUCTOR-METHOD, or EMPTY. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
ClassElement : MethodDefinition

1. If the PropName of MethodDefinition is "constructor", return CONSTRUCTOR-METHOD.

2. Return NON-CONSTRUCTOR-METHOD.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ClassElement :
static MethodDefinition
FieldDefinition ;
static FieldDefinition ;

1. Return NON-CONSTRUCTOR-METHOD.

ClassElement : ClassStaticBlock

1. Return NON-CONSTRUCTOR-METHOD.

ClassElement : ;

1. Return EMPTY.

15.7.3 Static Semantics: ConstructorMethod

The syntax-directed operation ConstructorMethod takes no arguments and returns a ClassElement Parse Node or
EMPTY. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
ClassElementList : ClassElement

1. If the ClassElementKind of ClassElement is CONSTRUCTOR-METHOD, return ClassElement.

2. Return EMPTY.

ClassElementList : ClassElementList ClassElement

1. Let head be the ConstructorMethod of ClassElementList.

2. If head is not EMPTY, return head.
3. If the ClassElementKind of ClassElement is CONSTRUCTOR-METHOD, return ClassElement.
4. Return EMPTY.

NOTE Early Error rules ensure that there is only one method definition named "constructor" and that it is not an
accessor property or generator definition.

15.7.4 Static Semantics: IsStatic

The syntax-directed operation IsStatic takes no arguments and returns a Boolean. It is defined piecewise over the fol-
lowing productions:
ClassElement : MethodDefinition

1. Let list be the NonConstructorElements of ClassElementList.

2. If the ClassElementKind of ClassElement is NON-CONSTRUCTOR-METHOD, then
a. Append ClassElement to the end of list.
3. Return list.

15.7.6 Static Semantics: PrototypePropertyNameList

The syntax-directed operation PrototypePropertyNameList takes no arguments and returns a List of property keys. It is
defined piecewise over the following productions:
ClassElementList : ClassElement

1. Let propName be the PropName of ClassElement.

2. If propName is EMPTY, return a new empty List.
3. If IsStatic of ClassElement is true, return a new empty List.
4. Return « propName ».

ClassElementList : ClassElementList ClassElement

1. Let list be the PrototypePropertyNameList of ClassElementList.

2. Let propName be the PropName of ClassElement.
3. If propName is EMPTY, return list.
4. If IsStatic of ClassElement is true, return list.
5. Return the list-concatenation of list and « propName ».

15.7.7 Static Semantics: AllPrivateIdentifiersValid

The syntax-directed operation AllPrivateIdentifiersValid takes argument names (a List of Strings) and returns a Boolean.

Every grammar production alternative in this specification which is not listed below implicitly has the following default
definition of AllPrivateIdentifiersValid:

1. For each child node child of this Parse Node, do

a. If child is an instance of a nonterminal, then
i. If AllPrivateIdentifiersValid of child with argument names is false, return false.
2. Return true.

MemberExpression : MemberExpression . PrivateIdentifier

1. If names contains the StringValue of PrivateIdentifier, then

a. Return AllPrivateIdentifiersValid of MemberExpression with argument names.
2. Return false.

CallExpression : CallExpression . PrivateIdentifier

1. If names contains the StringValue of PrivateIdentifier, then

a. Return AllPrivateIdentifiersValid of CallExpression with argument names.
2. Return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

OptionalChain : ?. PrivateIdentifier

1. If names contains the StringValue of PrivateIdentifier, return true.

2. Return false.

OptionalChain : OptionalChain . PrivateIdentifier

1. If names contains the StringValue of PrivateIdentifier, then

a. Return AllPrivateIdentifiersValid of OptionalChain with argument names.
2. Return false.

ClassBody : ClassElementList

1. Let newNames be the list-concatenation of names and the PrivateBoundIdentifiers of ClassBody.

2. Return AllPrivateIdentifiersValid of ClassElementList with argument newNames.

RelationalExpression : PrivateIdentifier in ShiftExpression

1. If names contains the StringValue of PrivateIdentifier, then

a. Return AllPrivateIdentifiersValid of ShiftExpression with argument names.
2. Return false.

15.7.8 Static Semantics: PrivateBoundIdentifiers

The syntax-directed operation PrivateBoundIdentifiers takes no arguments and returns a List of Strings. It is defined
piecewise over the following productions:
FieldDefinition : ClassElementName Initializeropt

1. Return the PrivateBoundIdentifiers of ClassElementName.

ClassElementName : PrivateIdentifier

1. Return a List whose sole element is the StringValue of PrivateIdentifier.

ClassElementName :
PropertyName
ClassElement :
ClassStaticBlock
;

1. Return a new empty List.

ClassElementList : ClassElementList ClassElement

1. Let names1 be the PrivateBoundIdentifiers of ClassElementList.

2. Let names2 be the PrivateBoundIdentifiers of ClassElement.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

MethodDefinition :
ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
get ClassElementName ( ) { FunctionBody }
set ClassElementName ( PropertySetParameterList ) { FunctionBody }
GeneratorMethod :
* ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
AsyncMethod :
async ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
AsyncGeneratorMethod :
async * ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Return the PrivateBoundIdentifiers of ClassElementName.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

15.7.9 Static Semantics: ContainsArguments

The syntax-directed operation ContainsArguments takes no arguments and returns a Boolean.

Every grammar production alternative in this specification which is not listed below implicitly has the following default
definition of ContainsArguments:

1. For each child node child of this Parse Node, do

a. If child is an instance of a nonterminal, then
i. If ContainsArguments of child is true, return true.
2. Return false.

IdentifierReference : Identifier

1. If the StringValue of Identifier is "arguments", return true.

2. Return false.

1. Return false.

MethodDefinition :
ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
get ClassElementName ( ) { FunctionBody }
set ClassElementName ( PropertySetParameterList ) { FunctionBody }
GeneratorMethod :
* ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorMethod :
async * ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncMethod :
async ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Return ContainsArguments of ClassElementName.

15.7.10 Runtime Semantics: ClassFieldDefinitionEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation ClassFieldDefinitionEvaluation takes argument homeObject (an Object) and returns
either a normal completion containing a ClassFieldDefinition Record or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

over the following productions:

FieldDefinition : ClassElementName Initializeropt

1. Let name be ? Evaluation of ClassElementName.

2. If Initializer is present, then
a. Let formalParameterList be an instance of the production FormalParameters : [empty] .
b. Let env be the LexicalEnvironment of the running execution context.
c. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
d. Let sourceText be the empty sequence of Unicode code points.
e. Let initializer be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, formalParameterList, Initializer,
NON-LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
f. Perform MakeMethod(initializer, homeObject).
g. Set initializer.⁠[[ClassFieldInitializerName]] to name.
3. Else,
a. Let initializer be EMPTY.
4. Return the ClassFieldDefinition Record { ⁠[[Name]]: name, ⁠[[Initializer]]: initializer }.

NOTE The function created for initializer is never directly accessible to ECMAScript code.

15.7.11 Runtime Semantics: ClassStaticBlockDefinitionEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation ClassStaticBlockDefinitionEvaluation takes argument homeObject (an Object) and re-
turns a ClassStaticBlockDefinition Record. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
ClassStaticBlock : static { ClassStaticBlockBody }

1. Let lex be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.

2. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
3. Let sourceText be the empty sequence of Unicode code points.
4. Let formalParameters be an instance of the production FormalParameters : [empty] .
5. Let bodyFunction be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, formalParameters,
ClassStaticBlockBody, NON-LEXICAL-THIS, lex, privateEnv).
6. Perform MakeMethod(bodyFunction, homeObject).
7. Return the ClassStaticBlockDefinition Record { ⁠[[BodyFunction]]: bodyFunction }.

NOTE The function bodyFunction is never directly accessible to ECMAScript code.

15.7.12 Runtime Semantics: EvaluateClassStaticBlockBody

The syntax-directed operation EvaluateClassStaticBlockBody takes argument functionObject (an ECMAScript function
object) and returns a return completion or a throw completion. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
ClassStaticBlockBody : ClassStaticBlockStatementList

1. Assert: functionObject is a synthetic function created by ClassStaticBlockDefinitionEvaluation step 5.

2. Perform ! FunctionDeclarationInstantiation(functionObject, « »).
3. Perform ? Evaluation of ClassStaticBlockStatementList.
4. Return ReturnCompletion(undefined).

15.7.13 Runtime Semantics: ClassElementEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation ClassElementEvaluation takes argument object (an Object) and returns either a normal
completion containing either a ClassFieldDefinition Record, a ClassStaticBlockDefinition Record, a PrivateElement, or
UNUSED, or an abrupt completion. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
ClassElement :
FieldDefinition ;
static FieldDefinition ;

1. Return ? ClassFieldDefinitionEvaluation of FieldDefinition with argument object.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ClassElement :
MethodDefinition
static MethodDefinition

1. Return ? MethodDefinitionEvaluation of MethodDefinition with arguments object and false.

ClassElement : ClassStaticBlock

1. Return the ClassStaticBlockDefinitionEvaluation of ClassStaticBlock with argument object.

ClassElement : ;

1. Return UNUSED.

15.7.14 Runtime Semantics: ClassDefinitionEvaluation

The syntax-directed operation ClassDefinitionEvaluation takes arguments classBinding (a String or undefined) and
className (a property key or a Private Name) and returns either a normal completion containing a function object or an
abrupt completion.

NOTE For ease of specification, private methods and accessors are included alongside private fields in the
[[PrivateElements]] slot of class instances. However, any given object has either all or none of the private
methods and accessors defined by a given class. This feature has been designed so that implementations
may choose to implement private methods and accessors using a strategy which does not require tracking
each method or accessor individually.

For example, an implementation could directly associate instance private methods with their corresponding
Private Name and track, for each object, which class constructors have run with that object as their this
value. Looking up an instance private method on an object then consists of checking that the class
constructor which defines the method has been used to initialize the object, then returning the method
associated with the Private Name.

ClassDeclaration : class BindingIdentifier ClassTail

1. Perform ? BindingClassDeclarationEvaluation of this ClassDeclaration.

2. Return EMPTY.

NOTE ClassDeclaration : class ClassTail only occurs as part of an ExportDeclaration and is never
directly evaluated.

ClassExpression : class ClassTail

1. Let value be ? ClassDefinitionEvaluation of ClassTail with arguments undefined and "".

2. Set value.⁠[[SourceText]] to the source text matched by ClassExpression.
3. Return value.

ClassExpression : class BindingIdentifier ClassTail

1. Let className be the StringValue of BindingIdentifier.

2. Let value be ? ClassDefinitionEvaluation of ClassTail with arguments className and className.
3. Set value.⁠[[SourceText]] to the source text matched by ClassExpression.
4. Return value.

ClassElementName : PrivateIdentifier

1. Let privateIdentifier be the StringValue of PrivateIdentifier.

2. Let privateEnvRec be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
3. Let names be privateEnvRec.⁠[[Names]].
4. Assert: Exactly one element of names is a Private Name whose ⁠[[Description]] is privateIdentifier.
5. Let privateName be the Private Name in names whose ⁠[[Description]] is privateIdentifier.
6. Return privateName.

ClassStaticBlockStatementList : [empty]

1. Return undefined.

15.8 Async Function Definitions

Syntax

AsyncFunctionDeclaration[Yield, Await, Default] :

AsyncFunctionExpression :
async [no LineTerminator here] function BindingIdentifier[~Yield, +Await] opt (
FormalParameters[~Yield, +Await] ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

AsyncMethod[Yield, Await] :
async [no LineTerminator here] ClassElementName[?Yield, ?Await] (
UniqueFormalParameters[~Yield, +Await] ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

AsyncFunctionBody :
FunctionBody[~Yield, +Await]

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

AwaitExpression[Yield] :
await UnaryExpression[?Yield, +Await]

NOTE 1 await is parsed as a keyword of an AwaitExpression when the [Await] parameter is present. The [Await]
parameter is present in the top level of the following contexts, although the parameter may be absent in
some contexts depending on the nonterminals, such as FunctionBody:

In an AsyncFunctionBody.
In the FormalParameters of an AsyncFunctionDeclaration, AsyncFunctionExpression,
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, or AsyncGeneratorExpression. AwaitExpression in this position is a Syntax
error via static semantics.
In a Module.

When Script is the syntactic goal symbol, await may be parsed as an identifier when the [Await] parameter
is absent. This includes the following contexts:

Anywhere outside of an AsyncFunctionBody or FormalParameters of an AsyncFunctionDeclaration,

AsyncFunctionExpression, AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, or AsyncGeneratorExpression.
In the BindingIdentifier of a FunctionExpression, GeneratorExpression, or AsyncGeneratorExpression.

NOTE 2 Unlike YieldExpression, it is a Syntax Error to omit the operand of an AwaitExpression. You must
await something.

15.8.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

AsyncMethod : async ClassElementName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

It is a Syntax Error if FunctionBodyContainsUseStrict of AsyncFunctionBody is true and IsSimpleParameterList of

UniqueFormalParameters is false.
It is a Syntax Error if HasDirectSuper of AsyncMethod is true.
It is a Syntax Error if UniqueFormalParameters Contains AwaitExpression is true.
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of UniqueFormalParameters also occurs in the
LexicallyDeclaredNames of AsyncFunctionBody.

It is a Syntax Error if FunctionBodyContainsUseStrict of AsyncFunctionBody is true and IsSimpleParameterList of

FormalParameters is false.
It is a Syntax Error if FormalParameters Contains AwaitExpression is true.
If IsStrict(FormalParameters) is true, the Early Error rules for UniqueFormalParameters : FormalParameters are
applied.
If BindingIdentifier is present and IsStrict(BindingIdentifier) is true, it is a Syntax Error if the StringValue of
BindingIdentifier is either "eval" or "arguments".
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of FormalParameters also occurs in the
LexicallyDeclaredNames of AsyncFunctionBody.
It is a Syntax Error if FormalParameters Contains SuperProperty is true.
It is a Syntax Error if AsyncFunctionBody Contains SuperProperty is true.
It is a Syntax Error if FormalParameters Contains SuperCall is true.
It is a Syntax Error if AsyncFunctionBody Contains SuperCall is true.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

15.8.2 Runtime Semantics: InstantiateAsyncFunctionObject

The syntax-directed operation InstantiateAsyncFunctionObject takes arguments env (an Environment Record) and pri-
vateEnv (a PrivateEnvironment Record or null) and returns an ECMAScript function object. It is defined piecewise over
the following productions:
AsyncFunctionDeclaration : async function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Let name be the StringValue of BindingIdentifier.

2. Let sourceText be the source text matched by AsyncFunctionDeclaration.
3. Let F be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, FormalParameters,
AsyncFunctionBody, NON-LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
4. Perform SetFunctionName(F, name).
5. Return F.

AsyncFunctionDeclaration : async function ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Let sourceText be the source text matched by AsyncFunctionDeclaration.

2. Let F be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, FormalParameters,
AsyncFunctionBody, NON-LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
3. Perform SetFunctionName(F, "default").
4. Return F.

15.8.3 Runtime Semantics: InstantiateAsyncFunctionExpression

The syntax-directed operation InstantiateAsyncFunctionExpression takes optional argument name (a property key or a
Private Name) and returns an ECMAScript function object. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
AsyncFunctionExpression : async function ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. If name is not present, set name to "".

AsyncFunctionExpression : async function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Assert: name is not present.

2. Set name to the StringValue of BindingIdentifier.
3. Let outerEnv be the LexicalEnvironment of the running execution context.
4. Let funcEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(outerEnv).
5. Perform ! [Link](name, false).
6. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
7. Let sourceText be the source text matched by AsyncFunctionExpression.
8. Let closure be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, FormalParameters,
AsyncFunctionBody, NON-LEXICAL-THIS, funcEnv, privateEnv).
9. Perform SetFunctionName(closure, name).
10. Perform ! [Link](name, closure).
11. Return closure.

NOTE The BindingIdentifier in an AsyncFunctionExpression can be referenced from inside the

AsyncFunctionExpression's AsyncFunctionBody to allow the function to call itself recursively. However,
unlike in a FunctionDeclaration, the BindingIdentifier in a AsyncFunctionExpression cannot be referenced
from and does not affect the scope enclosing the AsyncFunctionExpression.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

15.8.4 Runtime Semantics: EvaluateAsyncFunctionBody

The syntax-directed operation EvaluateAsyncFunctionBody takes arguments functionObject (an ECMAScript function
object) and argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns a return completion. It is defined piece-
wise over the following productions:
AsyncFunctionBody : FunctionBody

1. Let promiseCapability be ! NewPromiseCapability(%Promise%).

2. Let completion be Completion(FunctionDeclarationInstantiation(functionObject, argumentsList)).
3. If completion is an abrupt completion, then
a. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « completion.⁠[[Value]] »).
4. Else,
a. Perform AsyncFunctionStart(promiseCapability, FunctionBody).
5. Return ReturnCompletion(promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]]).

15.8.5 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

AsyncFunctionExpression :
async function BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Return InstantiateAsyncFunctionExpression of AsyncFunctionExpression.

AwaitExpression : await UnaryExpression

1. Let exprRef be ? Evaluation of UnaryExpression.

2. Let value be ? GetValue(exprRef).
3. Return ? Await(value).

15.9 Async Arrow Function Definitions

Syntax

AsyncArrowFunction[In, Yield, Await] :

AsyncConciseBody[In] :
[lookahead ≠ {] ExpressionBody[?In, +Await]
{ AsyncFunctionBody }

AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier[Yield] :
BindingIdentifier[?Yield, +Await]

CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead[Yield, Await] :
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await] Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]

Supplemental Syntax

When processing an instance of the production

AsyncArrowFunction : CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead => AsyncConciseBody
the interpretation of CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead is refined using the following grammar:

AsyncArrowHead :
async [no LineTerminator here] ArrowFormalParameters[~Yield, +Await]

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

15.9.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

AsyncArrowFunction : async AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier => AsyncConciseBody

It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier also occurs in the
LexicallyDeclaredNames of AsyncConciseBody.

AsyncArrowFunction : CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead => AsyncConciseBody

CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead must cover an AsyncArrowHead.

It is a Syntax Error if CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead Contains YieldExpression is true.
It is a Syntax Error if CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead Contains AwaitExpression is true.
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead also occurs in
the LexicallyDeclaredNames of AsyncConciseBody.
It is a Syntax Error if AsyncConciseBodyContainsUseStrict of AsyncConciseBody is true and IsSimpleParameterList
of CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead is false.

15.9.2 Static Semantics: AsyncConciseBodyContainsUseStrict

The syntax-directed operation AsyncConciseBodyContainsUseStrict takes no arguments and returns a Boolean. It is

defined piecewise over the following productions:
AsyncConciseBody : ExpressionBody

1. Return false.

AsyncConciseBody : { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Return FunctionBodyContainsUseStrict of AsyncFunctionBody.

15.9.3 Runtime Semantics: EvaluateAsyncConciseBody

The syntax-directed operation EvaluateAsyncConciseBody takes arguments functionObject (an ECMAScript function
object) and argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns a return completion. It is defined piece-
wise over the following productions:
AsyncConciseBody : ExpressionBody

1. Let promiseCapability be ! NewPromiseCapability(%Promise%).

2. Let completion be Completion(FunctionDeclarationInstantiation(functionObject, argumentsList)).
3. If completion is an abrupt completion, then
a. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « completion.⁠[[Value]] »).
4. Else,
a. Perform AsyncFunctionStart(promiseCapability, ExpressionBody).
5. Return ReturnCompletion(promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]]).

15.9.4 Runtime Semantics: InstantiateAsyncArrowFunctionExpression

The syntax-directed operation InstantiateAsyncArrowFunctionExpression takes optional argument name (a property key
or a Private Name) and returns an ECMAScript function object. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
AsyncArrowFunction : async AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier => AsyncConciseBody

1. If name is not present, set name to "".

2. Let env be the LexicalEnvironment of the running execution context.
3. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
4. Let sourceText be the source text matched by AsyncArrowFunction.
5. Let parameters be AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier.
6. Let closure be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, parameters, AsyncConciseBody,
LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
7. Perform SetFunctionName(closure, name).
8. Return closure.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

AsyncArrowFunction : CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead => AsyncConciseBody

1. If name is not present, set name to "".

2. Let env be the LexicalEnvironment of the running execution context.
3. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
4. Let sourceText be the source text matched by AsyncArrowFunction.
5. Let head be the AsyncArrowHead that is covered by CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead.
6. Let parameters be the ArrowFormalParameters of head.
7. Let closure be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(%[Link]%, sourceText, parameters, AsyncConciseBody,
LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
8. Perform SetFunctionName(closure, name).
9. Return closure.

15.9.5 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

AsyncArrowFunction :
async AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier => AsyncConciseBody
CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead => AsyncConciseBody

1. Return InstantiateAsyncArrowFunctionExpression of AsyncArrowFunction.

15.10 Tail Position Calls

15.10.1 Static Semantics: IsInTailPosition ( call )

The abstract operation IsInTailPosition takes argument call (a CallExpression Parse Node, a MemberExpression Parse
Node, or an OptionalChain Parse Node) and returns a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If IsStrict(call) is false, return false.

2. If call is not contained within a FunctionBody, a ConciseBody, or an AsyncConciseBody, return false.
3. Let body be the FunctionBody, ConciseBody, or AsyncConciseBody that most closely contains call.
4. If body is the FunctionBody of a GeneratorBody, return false.
5. If body is the FunctionBody of an AsyncFunctionBody, return false.
6. If body is the FunctionBody of an AsyncGeneratorBody, return false.
7. If body is an AsyncConciseBody, return false.
8. Return the result of HasCallInTailPosition of body with argument call.

NOTE Tail Position calls are only defined in strict mode code because of a common non-standard language
extension (see 10.2.4) that enables observation of the chain of caller contexts.

15.10.2 Static Semantics: HasCallInTailPosition

The syntax-directed operation HasCallInTailPosition takes argument call (a CallExpression Parse Node, a
MemberExpression Parse Node, or an OptionalChain Parse Node) and returns a Boolean.

NOTE 1 call is a Parse Node that represents a specific range of source text. When the following algorithms compare
call to another Parse Node, it is a test of whether they represent the same source text.

NOTE 2 A potential tail position call that is immediately followed by return GetValue of the call result is also a possible
tail position call. A function call cannot return a Reference Record, so such a GetValue operation will always
return the same value as the actual function call result.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

It is defined piecewise over the following productions:

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let has be HasCallInTailPosition of StatementList with argument call.

2. If has is true, return true.
3. Return HasCallInTailPosition of StatementListItem with argument call.

FunctionStatementList :
[empty]
StatementListItem :
Declaration
Statement :
VariableStatement
EmptyStatement
ExpressionStatement
ContinueStatement
BreakStatement
ThrowStatement
DebuggerStatement
Block :
{ }
ReturnStatement :
return ;
LabelledItem :
FunctionDeclaration
ForInOfStatement :
for ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
CaseBlock :
{ }

1. Return false.

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement else Statement

1. Let has be HasCallInTailPosition of the first Statement with argument call.

2. If has is true, return true.
3. Return HasCallInTailPosition of the second Statement with argument call.

IfStatement :
if ( Expression ) Statement
DoWhileStatement :
do Statement while ( Expression ) ;
WhileStatement :
while ( Expression ) Statement
ForStatement :
for ( Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( var VariableDeclarationList ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( LexicalDeclaration Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
ForInOfStatement :
for ( LeftHandSideExpression in Expression ) Statement
for ( var ForBinding in Expression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration in Expression ) Statement

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

WithStatement :
with ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return HasCallInTailPosition of Statement with argument call.

LabelledStatement :
LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Return HasCallInTailPosition of LabelledItem with argument call.

ReturnStatement : return Expression ;

1. Return HasCallInTailPosition of Expression with argument call.

SwitchStatement : switch ( Expression ) CaseBlock

1. Return HasCallInTailPosition of CaseBlock with argument call.

CaseBlock : { CaseClausesopt DefaultClause CaseClausesopt }

1. Let has be false.

2. If the first CaseClauses is present, set has to HasCallInTailPosition of the first CaseClauses with argument call.
3. If has is true, return true.
4. Set has to HasCallInTailPosition of DefaultClause with argument call.
5. If has is true, return true.
6. If the second CaseClauses is present, set has to HasCallInTailPosition of the second CaseClauses with argument
call.
7. Return has.

CaseClauses : CaseClauses CaseClause

1. Let has be HasCallInTailPosition of CaseClauses with argument call.

2. If has is true, return true.
3. Return HasCallInTailPosition of CaseClause with argument call.

CaseClause : case Expression : StatementListopt

DefaultClause : default : StatementListopt

1. If StatementList is present, return HasCallInTailPosition of StatementList with argument call.

2. Return false.

TryStatement : try Block Catch

1. Return HasCallInTailPosition of Catch with argument call.

TryStatement :
try Block Finally
try Block Catch Finally

1. Return HasCallInTailPosition of Finally with argument call.

Catch : catch ( CatchParameter ) Block

1. Return HasCallInTailPosition of Block with argument call.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

AssignmentExpression :
YieldExpression
ArrowFunction
AsyncArrowFunction
LeftHandSideExpression = AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression AssignmentOperator AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression &&= AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression ||= AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression ??= AssignmentExpression
BitwiseANDExpression :
BitwiseANDExpression & EqualityExpression
BitwiseXORExpression :
BitwiseXORExpression ^ BitwiseANDExpression
BitwiseORExpression :
BitwiseORExpression | BitwiseXORExpression
EqualityExpression :
EqualityExpression == RelationalExpression
EqualityExpression != RelationalExpression
EqualityExpression === RelationalExpression
EqualityExpression !== RelationalExpression
RelationalExpression :
RelationalExpression < ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression > ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression <= ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression >= ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression instanceof ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression in ShiftExpression
PrivateIdentifier in ShiftExpression
ShiftExpression :
ShiftExpression << AdditiveExpression
ShiftExpression >> AdditiveExpression
ShiftExpression >>> AdditiveExpression
AdditiveExpression :
AdditiveExpression + MultiplicativeExpression
AdditiveExpression - MultiplicativeExpression
MultiplicativeExpression :
MultiplicativeExpression MultiplicativeOperator ExponentiationExpression
ExponentiationExpression :
UpdateExpression ** ExponentiationExpression
UpdateExpression :
LeftHandSideExpression ++
LeftHandSideExpression --
++ UnaryExpression
-- UnaryExpression
UnaryExpression :
delete UnaryExpression
void UnaryExpression
typeof UnaryExpression
+ UnaryExpression
- UnaryExpression
~ UnaryExpression
! UnaryExpression
AwaitExpression

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

CallExpression :
SuperCall
ImportCall
CallExpression [ Expression ]
CallExpression . IdentifierName
CallExpression . PrivateIdentifier
NewExpression :
new NewExpression
MemberExpression :
MemberExpression [ Expression ]
MemberExpression . IdentifierName
SuperProperty
MetaProperty
new MemberExpression Arguments
MemberExpression . PrivateIdentifier
PrimaryExpression :
this
IdentifierReference
Literal
ArrayLiteral
ObjectLiteral
FunctionExpression
ClassExpression
GeneratorExpression
AsyncFunctionExpression
AsyncGeneratorExpression
RegularExpressionLiteral
TemplateLiteral

1. Return false.

Expression :
AssignmentExpression
Expression , AssignmentExpression

1. Return HasCallInTailPosition of AssignmentExpression with argument call.

ConditionalExpression : ShortCircuitExpression ? AssignmentExpression : AssignmentExpression

1. Let has be HasCallInTailPosition of the first AssignmentExpression with argument call.

2. If has is true, return true.
3. Return HasCallInTailPosition of the second AssignmentExpression with argument call.

LogicalANDExpression : LogicalANDExpression && BitwiseORExpression

1. Return HasCallInTailPosition of BitwiseORExpression with argument call.

LogicalORExpression : LogicalORExpression || LogicalANDExpression

1. Return HasCallInTailPosition of LogicalANDExpression with argument call.

CoalesceExpression : CoalesceExpressionHead ?? BitwiseORExpression

1. Return HasCallInTailPosition of BitwiseORExpression with argument call.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

CallExpression :
CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead
CallExpression Arguments
CallExpression TemplateLiteral

1. If this CallExpression is call, return true.

2. Return false.

OptionalExpression :
MemberExpression OptionalChain
CallExpression OptionalChain
OptionalExpression OptionalChain

1. Return HasCallInTailPosition of OptionalChain with argument call.

OptionalChain :
?. [ Expression ]
?. IdentifierName
?. PrivateIdentifier
OptionalChain [ Expression ]
OptionalChain . IdentifierName
OptionalChain . PrivateIdentifier

1. Return false.

OptionalChain :
?. Arguments
OptionalChain Arguments

1. If this OptionalChain is call, return true.

2. Return false.

MemberExpression :
MemberExpression TemplateLiteral

1. If this MemberExpression is call, return true.

2. Return false.

PrimaryExpression : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let expr be the ParenthesizedExpression that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return HasCallInTailPosition of expr with argument call.

ParenthesizedExpression :
( Expression )

1. Return HasCallInTailPosition of Expression with argument call.

15.10.3 PrepareForTailCall ( )

The abstract operation PrepareForTailCall takes no arguments and returns UNUSED. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Assert: The current execution context will not subsequently be used for the evaluation of any ECMAScript code or
built-in functions. The invocation of Call subsequent to the invocation of this abstract operation will create and push
a new execution context before performing any such evaluation.
2. Discard all resources associated with the current execution context.
3. Return UNUSED.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

A tail position call must either release any transient internal resources associated with the currently executing function
execution context before invoking the target function or reuse those resources in support of the target function.

NOTE For example, a tail position call should only grow an implementation's activation record stack by the amount
that the size of the target function's activation record exceeds the size of the calling function's activation
record. If the target function's activation record is smaller, then the total size of the stack should decrease.

16 ECMAScript Language: Scripts and Modules

16.1 Scripts
Syntax

Script :
ScriptBodyopt

ScriptBody :
StatementList[~Yield, ~Await, ~Return]

16.1.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

Script : ScriptBody

It is a Syntax Error if the LexicallyDeclaredNames of ScriptBody contains any duplicate entries.

It is a Syntax Error if any element of the LexicallyDeclaredNames of ScriptBody also occurs in the
VarDeclaredNames of ScriptBody.

ScriptBody : StatementList

It is a Syntax Error if StatementList Contains super unless the source text containing super is eval code that is
being processed by a direct eval. Additional early error rules for super within direct eval are defined in [Link].
It is a Syntax Error if StatementList Contains NewTarget unless the source text containing NewTarget is eval code
that is being processed by a direct eval. Additional early error rules for NewTarget in direct eval are defined in
[Link].
It is a Syntax Error if ContainsDuplicateLabels of StatementList with argument « » is true.
It is a Syntax Error if ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of StatementList with argument « » is true.
It is a Syntax Error if ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of StatementList with arguments « » and « » is true.
It is a Syntax Error if AllPrivateIdentifiersValid of StatementList with argument « » is false unless the source text
containing ScriptBody is eval code that is being processed by a direct eval.

16.1.2 Static Semantics: ScriptIsStrict

The syntax-directed operation ScriptIsStrict takes no arguments and returns a Boolean. It is defined piecewise over the
following productions:
Script : ScriptBodyopt

1. If ScriptBody is present and the Directive Prologue of ScriptBody contains a Use Strict Directive, return true;
otherwise return false.

16.1.3 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

Script : [empty]

1. Return undefined.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

16.1.4 Script Records

A Script Record encapsulates information about a script being evaluated. Each script record contains the fields listed in
Table 39.

Table 39: Script Record Fields

Field Name Value Type Meaning
⁠[[Realm]] a Realm Record The realm within which this script was created.
⁠[[ECMAScriptCode]] a Script Parse Node The result of parsing the source text of this script.
⁠[[LoadedModules]] a List of A map from the specifier strings imported by this script to the
LoadedModuleRequest resolved Module Record. The list does not contain two different
Records Records r1 and r2 such that ModuleRequestsEqual(r1, r2) is true.
⁠[[HostDefined]] anything (default value is Field reserved for use by host environments that need to associate
EMPTY) additional information with a script.

16.1.5 ParseScript ( sourceText, realm, hostDefined )

The abstract operation ParseScript takes arguments sourceText (ECMAScript source text), realm (a Realm Record),
and hostDefined (anything) and returns a Script Record or a non-empty List of SyntaxError objects. It creates a Script
Record based upon the result of parsing sourceText as a Script. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let script be ParseText(sourceText, Script).

2. If script is a List of errors, return script.
3. Return Script Record { ⁠[[Realm]]: realm, ⁠[[ECMAScriptCode]]: script, ⁠[[LoadedModules]]: « », ⁠[[HostDefined]]:
hostDefined }.

NOTE An implementation may parse script source text and analyse it for Early Error conditions prior to evaluation
of ParseScript for that script source text. However, the reporting of any errors must be deferred until the
point where this specification actually performs ParseScript upon that source text.

16.1.6 ScriptEvaluation ( scriptRecord )

The abstract operation ScriptEvaluation takes argument scriptRecord (a Script Record) and returns either a normal
completion containing an ECMAScript language value or an abrupt completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let globalEnv be scriptRecord.⁠[[Realm]].⁠[[GlobalEnv]].

2. Let scriptContext be a new ECMAScript code execution context.
3. Set the Function of scriptContext to null.
4. Set the Realm of scriptContext to scriptRecord.⁠[[Realm]].
5. Set the ScriptOrModule of scriptContext to scriptRecord.
6. Set the VariableEnvironment of scriptContext to globalEnv.
7. Set the LexicalEnvironment of scriptContext to globalEnv.
8. Set the PrivateEnvironment of scriptContext to null.
9. Suspend the running execution context.
10. Push scriptContext onto the execution context stack; scriptContext is now the running execution context.
11. Let script be scriptRecord.⁠[[ECMAScriptCode]].
12. Let result be Completion(GlobalDeclarationInstantiation(script, globalEnv)).
13. If result is a normal completion, then
a. Set result to Completion(Evaluation of script).
b. If result is a normal completion and result.⁠[[Value]] is EMPTY, then
i. Set result to NormalCompletion(undefined).
14. Suspend scriptContext and remove it from the execution context stack.
15. Assert: The execution context stack is not empty.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

16. Resume the context that is now on the top of the execution context stack as the running execution context.
17. Return ? result.

16.1.7 GlobalDeclarationInstantiation ( script, env )

The abstract operation GlobalDeclarationInstantiation takes arguments script (a Script Parse Node) and env (a Global
Environment Record) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. script is the
Script for which the execution context is being established. env is the global environment in which bindings are to
be created.

NOTE 1 When an execution context is established for evaluating scripts, declarations are instantiated in the current
global environment. Each global binding declared in the code is instantiated.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let lexNames be the LexicallyDeclaredNames of script.

2. Let varNames be the VarDeclaredNames of script.
3. For each element name of lexNames, do
a. If HasLexicalDeclaration(env, name) is true, throw a SyntaxError exception.
b. Let hasRestrictedGlobal be ? HasRestrictedGlobalProperty(env, name).
c. NOTE: Global var and function bindings (except those that are introduced by non-strict direct eval) are non-
configurable and are therefore restricted global properties.
d. If hasRestrictedGlobal is true, throw a SyntaxError exception.
4. For each element name of varNames, do
a. If HasLexicalDeclaration(env, name) is true, throw a SyntaxError exception.
5. Let varDeclarations be the VarScopedDeclarations of script.
6. Let functionsToInitialize be a new empty List.
7. Let declaredFunctionNames be a new empty List.
8. For each element d of varDeclarations, in reverse List order, do
a. If d is not either a VariableDeclaration, a ForBinding, or a BindingIdentifier, then
i. Assert: d is either a FunctionDeclaration, a GeneratorDeclaration, an AsyncFunctionDeclaration, or an
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration.
ii. NOTE: If there are multiple function declarations for the same name, the last declaration is used.
iii. Let fn be the sole element of the BoundNames of d.
iv. If declaredFunctionNames does not contain fn, then
1. Let fnDefinable be ? CanDeclareGlobalFunction(env, fn).
2. If fnDefinable is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Append fn to declaredFunctionNames.
4. Insert d as the first element of functionsToInitialize.
9. Let declaredVarNames be a new empty List.
10. For each element d of varDeclarations, do
a. If d is either a VariableDeclaration, a ForBinding, or a BindingIdentifier, then
i. For each String vn of the BoundNames of d, do
1. If declaredFunctionNames does not contain vn, then
a. Let vnDefinable be ? CanDeclareGlobalVar(env, vn).
b. If vnDefinable is false, throw a TypeError exception.
c. If declaredVarNames does not contain vn, then
i. Append vn to declaredVarNames.
11. NOTE: No abnormal terminations occur after this algorithm step if the global object is an ordinary object. However, if
the global object is a Proxy exotic object it may exhibit behaviours that cause abnormal terminations in some of the
following steps.
12. NOTE: Annex B.3.2.2 adds additional steps at this point.
13. Let lexDeclarations be the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of script.
14. Let privateEnv be null.
15. For each element d of lexDeclarations, do
a. NOTE: Lexically declared names are only instantiated here but not initialized.
b. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

i. If IsConstantDeclaration of d is true, then

1. Perform ? [Link](dn, true).
ii. Else,
1. Perform ? [Link](dn, false).
16. For each Parse Node f of functionsToInitialize, do
a. Let fn be the sole element of the BoundNames of f.
b. Let fo be InstantiateFunctionObject of f with arguments env and privateEnv.
c. Perform ? CreateGlobalFunctionBinding(env, fn, fo, false).
17. For each String vn of declaredVarNames, do
a. Perform ? CreateGlobalVarBinding(env, vn, false).
18. Return UNUSED.

NOTE 2 Early errors specified in 16.1.1 prevent name conflicts between function/var declarations and let/const/class
declarations as well as redeclaration of let/const/class bindings for declaration contained within a single
Script. However, such conflicts and redeclarations that span more than one Script are detected as runtime
errors during GlobalDeclarationInstantiation. If any such errors are detected, no bindings are instantiated for
the script. However, if the global object is defined using Proxy exotic objects then the runtime tests for
conflicting declarations may be unreliable resulting in an abrupt completion and some global declarations not
being instantiated. If this occurs, the code for the Script is not evaluated.

Unlike explicit var or function declarations, properties that are directly created on the global object result in
global bindings that may be shadowed by let/const/class declarations.

16.2 Modules
Syntax

Module :
ModuleBodyopt

ModuleBody :
ModuleItemList

ModuleItemList :
ModuleItem
ModuleItemList ModuleItem

ModuleItem :
ImportDeclaration
ExportDeclaration
StatementListItem[~Yield, +Await, ~Return]

ModuleExportName :
IdentifierName
StringLiteral

16.2.1 Module Semantics

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

ModuleBody : ModuleItemList

It is a Syntax Error if the LexicallyDeclaredNames of ModuleItemList contains any duplicate entries.

It is a Syntax Error if any element of the LexicallyDeclaredNames of ModuleItemList also occurs in the
VarDeclaredNames of ModuleItemList.
It is a Syntax Error if the ExportedNames of ModuleItemList contains any duplicate entries.
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the ExportedBindings of ModuleItemList does not also occur in either the
VarDeclaredNames of ModuleItemList, or the LexicallyDeclaredNames of ModuleItemList.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

It is a Syntax Error if ModuleItemList Contains super.

It is a Syntax Error if ModuleItemList Contains NewTarget.
It is a Syntax Error if ContainsDuplicateLabels of ModuleItemList with argument « » is true.
It is a Syntax Error if ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of ModuleItemList with argument « » is true.
It is a Syntax Error if ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of ModuleItemList with arguments « » and « » is true.
It is a Syntax Error if AllPrivateIdentifiersValid of ModuleItemList with argument « » is false.

NOTE The duplicate ExportedNames rule implies that multiple export default ExportDeclaration items within a
ModuleBody is a Syntax Error. Additional error conditions relating to conflicting or duplicate declarations are
checked during module linking prior to evaluation of a Module. If any such errors are detected the Module is
not evaluated.

ModuleExportName : StringLiteral

It is a Syntax Error if IsStringWellFormedUnicode(SV of StringLiteral) is false.

[Link] Static Semantics: ImportedLocalNames ( importEntries )

The abstract operation ImportedLocalNames takes argument importEntries (a List of ImportEntry Records) and returns
a List of Strings. It creates a List of all of the local name bindings defined by importEntries. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let localNames be a new empty List.

2. For each ImportEntry Record i of importEntries, do
a. Append i.⁠[[LocalName]] to localNames.
3. Return localNames.

[Link] ModuleRequest Records

A ModuleRequest Record represents the request to import a module with given import attributes. It consists of the fol-
lowing fields:

Table 40: ModuleRequest Record Fields

Field Name Value Type Meaning
⁠[[Specifier]] a String The module specifier
⁠[[Attributes]] a List of ImportAttribute Records The import attributes

A LoadedModuleRequest Record represents the request to import a module together with the resulting Module Record.
It consists of the same fields defined in table Table 40, with the addition of ⁠[[Module]]:

Table 41: LoadedModuleRequest Record Fields

Field Name Value Type Meaning
⁠[[Specifier]] a String The module specifier
⁠[[Attributes]] a List of ImportAttribute Records The import attributes
⁠[[Module]] a Module Record The loaded module corresponding to this module request

An ImportAttribute Record consists of the following fields:

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Table 42: ImportAttribute Record Fields

Field Name Value Type Meaning
⁠[[Key]] a String The attribute key
⁠[[Value]] a String The attribute value

[Link].1 ModuleRequestsEqual ( left, right )

The abstract operation ModuleRequestsEqual takes arguments left (a ModuleRequest Record or a

LoadedModuleRequest Record) and right (a ModuleRequest Record or a LoadedModuleRequest Record) and returns a
Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If left.⁠[[Specifier]] is not right.⁠[[Specifier]], return false.

2. Let leftAttrs be left.⁠[[Attributes]].
3. Let rightAttrs be right.⁠[[Attributes]].
4. Let leftAttrsCount be the number of elements in leftAttrs.
5. Let rightAttrsCount be the number of elements in rightAttrs.
6. If leftAttrsCount ≠ rightAttrsCount, return false.
7. For each ImportAttribute Record l of leftAttrs, do
a. If rightAttrs does not contain an ImportAttribute Record r such that l.⁠[[Key]] is r.⁠[[Key]] and l.⁠[[Value]] is
r.⁠[[Value]], return false.
8. Return true.

[Link] Static Semantics: ModuleRequests

The syntax-directed operation ModuleRequests takes no arguments and returns a List of ModuleRequest Records. It is
defined piecewise over the following productions:
Module : [empty]

1. Return a new empty List.

ModuleItemList : ModuleItem

1. Return the ModuleRequests of ModuleItem.

ModuleItemList : ModuleItemList ModuleItem

1. Let requests be the ModuleRequests of ModuleItemList.

2. Let additionalRequests be the ModuleRequests of ModuleItem.
3. For each ModuleRequest Record mr of additionalRequests, do
a. If requests does not contain a ModuleRequest Record mr2 such that ModuleRequestsEqual(mr, mr2) is true,
then
i. Append mr to requests.
4. Return requests.

ModuleItem : StatementListItem

1. Return a new empty List.

ImportDeclaration : import ImportClause FromClause ;

1. Let specifier be the SV of FromClause.

2. Return a List whose sole element is the ModuleRequest Record { ⁠[[Specifier]]: specifier, ⁠[[Attributes]]: « » }.

ImportDeclaration : import ImportClause FromClause WithClause ;

1. Let specifier be the SV of FromClause.

2. Let attributes be WithClauseToAttributes of WithClause.
3. Return a List whose sole element is the ModuleRequest Record { ⁠[[Specifier]]: specifier, ⁠[[Attributes]]: attributes }.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ImportDeclaration : import ModuleSpecifier ;

1. Let specifier be the SV of ModuleSpecifier.

2. Return a List whose sole element is the ModuleRequest Record { ⁠[[Specifier]]: specifier, ⁠[[Attributes]]: « » }.

ImportDeclaration : import ModuleSpecifier WithClause ;

1. Let specifier be the SV of ModuleSpecifier.

2. Let attributes be WithClauseToAttributes of WithClause.
3. Return a List whose sole element is the ModuleRequest Record { ⁠[[Specifier]]: specifier, ⁠[[Attributes]]: attributes }.

ExportDeclaration : export ExportFromClause FromClause ;

1. Let specifier be the SV of FromClause.

2. Return a List whose sole element is the ModuleRequest Record { ⁠[[Specifier]]: specifier, ⁠[[Attributes]]: « » }.

ExportDeclaration : export ExportFromClause FromClause WithClause ;

1. Let specifier be the SV of FromClause.

2. Let attributes be WithClauseToAttributes of WithClause.
3. Return a List whose sole element is the ModuleRequest Record { ⁠[[Specifier]]: specifier, ⁠[[Attributes]]: attributes }.

ExportDeclaration :
export NamedExports ;
export VariableStatement
export Declaration
export default HoistableDeclaration
export default ClassDeclaration
export default AssignmentExpression ;

1. Return a new empty List.

[Link] Abstract Module Records

A Module Record encapsulates structural information about the imports and exports of a single module. This information
is used to link the imports and exports of sets of connected modules. A Module Record includes four fields that are only
used when evaluating a module.

For specification purposes Module Record values are values of the Record specification type and can be thought of as
existing in a simple object-oriented hierarchy where Module Record is an abstract class with both abstract and concrete
subclasses. This specification defines the abstract subclass named Cyclic Module Record and its concrete subclass
named Source Text Module Record. Other specifications and implementations may define additional Module Record
subclasses corresponding to alternative module definition facilities that they defined.

Module Record defines the fields listed in Table 43. All Module Definition subclasses include at least those fields.
Module Record also defines the abstract method list in Table 44. All Module definition subclasses must provide concrete
implementations of these abstract methods.

Table 43: Module Record Fields

Field Name Value Type Meaning
⁠[[Realm]] a Realm Record The Realm within which this module was created.
⁠[[Environment]] a Module Environment The Environment Record containing the top level bindings for this
Record or EMPTY module. This field is set when the module is linked.
⁠[[Namespace]] an Object or EMPTY The Module Namespace Object (28.3) if one has been created for this
module.
⁠[[HostDefined]] anything (default value is Field reserved for use by host environments that need to associate
undefined) additional information with a module.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Table 44: Abstract Methods of Module Records

Method Purpose
LoadRequestedModules([hostDefined])
Prepares the module for linking by recursively loading all its dependencies,
and returns a promise.
GetExportedNames([exportStarSet])
Return a list of all names that are either directly or indirectly exported from
this module.

LoadRequestedModules must have completed successfully prior to invoking

this method.
ResolveExport(exportName [,
resolveSet]) Return the binding of a name exported by this module. Bindings are
represented by a ResolvedBinding Record, of the form { ⁠[[Module]]: Module
Record, ⁠[[BindingName]]: String | NAMESPACE }. If the export is a Module
Namespace Object without a direct binding in any module, ⁠[[BindingName]]
will be set to NAMESPACE. Return null if the name cannot be resolved, or
AMBIGUOUS if multiple bindings were found.

Each time this operation is called with a specific exportName, resolveSet

pair as arguments it must return the same result.

LoadRequestedModules must have completed successfully prior to invoking

this method.
Link()
Prepare the module for evaluation by transitively resolving all module
dependencies and creating a Module Environment Record.

LoadRequestedModules must have completed successfully prior to invoking

this method.
Evaluate()
Returns a promise for the evaluation of this module and its dependencies,
resolving on successful evaluation or if it has already been evaluated
successfully, and rejecting for an evaluation error or if it has already been
evaluated unsuccessfully. If the promise is rejected, hosts are expected to
handle the promise rejection and rethrow the evaluation error.

Link must have completed successfully prior to invoking this method.

[Link].1 EvaluateModuleSync ( module )

The abstract operation EvaluateModuleSync takes argument module (a Module Record) and returns either a normal
completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It synchronously evaluates module, provided that the caller guar-
antees that module's evaluation will return an already settled promise. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: module is not a Cyclic Module Record.

2. Let promise be [Link]().
3. Assert: promise.⁠[[PromiseState]] is either FULFILLED or REJECTED.
4. If promise.⁠[[PromiseState]] is REJECTED, then
a. If promise.⁠[[PromiseIsHandled]] is false, perform HostPromiseRejectionTracker(promise, "handle").
b. Set promise.⁠[[PromiseIsHandled]] to true.
c. Return ThrowCompletion(promise.⁠[[PromiseResult]]).
5. Return UNUSED.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Cyclic Module Records

A Cyclic Module Record is used to represent information about a module that can participate in dependency cycles with
other modules that are subclasses of the Cyclic Module Record type. Module Records that are not subclasses of the
Cyclic Module Record type must not participate in dependency cycles with Source Text Module Records.

In addition to the fields defined in Table 43 Cyclic Module Records have the additional fields listed in Table 45

Table 45: Additional Fields of Cyclic Module Records

Field Name Value Type Meaning
⁠[[Status]] NEW, UNLINKED, LINKING, Initially NEW. Transitions to UNLINKED, LINKING,
LINKED, EVALUATING, LINKED, EVALUATING, possibly EVALUATING-ASYNC,
EVALUATING-ASYNC, or EVALUATED (in that order) as the module progresses
EVALUATED throughout its lifecycle. EVALUATING-ASYNC indicates
this module is queued to execute on completion of its
asynchronous dependencies or it is a module whose
[[HasTLA]] field is true that has been executed and is
pending top-level completion.
⁠[[EvaluationError]] a throw completion or A throw completion representing the exception that
EMPTY occurred during evaluation. undefined if no exception
occurred or if ⁠[[Status]] is not EVALUATED.
⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] an integer or EMPTY Auxiliary field used during Link and Evaluate only. If
[[Status]] is either LINKING or EVALUATING, this is
either the module's depth-first traversal index or that of
an "earlier" module in the same strongly connected
component.
⁠[[RequestedModules]] a List of ModuleRequest A List of the ModuleRequest Records associated with
Records the imports in this module. The List is in source text
occurrence order of the imports.
⁠[[LoadedModules]] a List of A map from the specifier strings used by the module
LoadedModuleRequest represented by this record to request the importation of
Records a module with the relative import attributes to the
resolved Module Record. The list does not contain two
different Records r1 and r2 such that
ModuleRequestsEqual(r1, r2) is true.
⁠[[CycleRoot]] a Cyclic Module Record or The first visited module of the cycle, the root DFS
EMPTY ancestor of the strongly connected component. For a
module not in a cycle, this would be the module itself.
Once Evaluate has completed, a module's
[[DFSAncestorIndex]] is the depth-first traversal index
of its ⁠[[CycleRoot]].
⁠[[HasTLA]] a Boolean Whether this module is individually asynchronous (for
example, if it's a Source Text Module Record
containing a top-level await). Having an asynchronous
dependency does not mean this field is true. This field
must not change after the module is parsed.
⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] UNSET, an integer, or DONE This field is initially set to UNSET, and remains UNSET
for fully synchronous modules. For modules that are
either themselves asynchronous or have an
asynchronous dependency, it is set to an integer that
determines the order in which execution of pending
modules is queued by [Link].1.3.4. Once the
pending module is executed, the field is set to DONE.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Field Name Value Type Meaning

⁠[[TopLevelCapability]] a PromiseCapability Record If this module is the ⁠[[CycleRoot]] of some cycle, and
or EMPTY Evaluate() was called on some module in that cycle,
this field contains the PromiseCapability Record for
that entire evaluation. It is used to settle the Promise
object that is returned from the Evaluate() abstract
method. This field will be EMPTY for any dependencies
of that module, unless a top-level Evaluate() has been
initiated for some of those dependencies.
⁠[[AsyncParentModules]] a List of Cyclic Module If this module or a dependency has ⁠[[HasTLA]] true,
Records and execution is in progress, this tracks the parent
importers of this module for the top-level execution job.
These parent modules will not start executing before
this module has successfully completed execution.
⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] an integer or EMPTY If this module has any asynchronous dependencies,
this tracks the number of asynchronous dependency
modules remaining to execute for this module. A
module with asynchronous dependencies will be
executed when this field reaches 0 and there are no
execution errors.

In addition to the methods defined in Table 44 Cyclic Module Records have the additional methods listed in Table 46

Table 46: Additional Abstract Methods of Cyclic Module Records

Method Purpose
InitializeEnvironment() Initialize the Environment Record of the module, including resolving all imported
bindings, and create the module's execution context.
ExecuteModule([promiseCapability]) Evaluate the module's code within its execution context. If this module has true
in ⁠[[HasTLA]], then a PromiseCapability Record is passed as an argument, and
the method is expected to resolve or reject the given capability. In this case, the
method must not throw an exception, but instead reject the PromiseCapability
Record if necessary.

A GraphLoadingState Record is a Record that contains information about the loading process of a module graph. It's
used to continue loading after a call to HostLoadImportedModule. Each GraphLoadingState Record has the fields
defined in Table 47:

Table 47: GraphLoadingState Record Fields

Field Name Value Type Meaning
⁠[[PromiseCapability]] a PromiseCapability The promise to resolve when the loading process finishes.
Record
⁠[[IsLoading]] a Boolean It is true if the loading process has not finished yet, neither
successfully nor with an error.
⁠[[PendingModulesCount]] a non-negative integer It tracks the number of pending HostLoadImportedModule calls.
⁠[[Visited]] a List of Cyclic Module It is a list of the Cyclic Module Records that have been already
Records loaded by the current loading process, to avoid infinite loops with
circular dependencies.
⁠[[HostDefined]] anything (default value It contains host-defined data to pass from the
is EMPTY) LoadRequestedModules caller to HostLoadImportedModule.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].1 Implementation of Module Record Abstract Methods

The following are the concrete methods for Cyclic Module Record that implement the corresponding Module Record ab-
stract methods defined in Table 44.

[Link].1.1 LoadRequestedModules ( [ hostDefined ] )

The LoadRequestedModules concrete method of a Cyclic Module Record module takes optional argument hostDefined
(anything) and returns a Promise. It populates the ⁠[[LoadedModules]] of all the Module Records in the dependency
graph of module (most of the work is done by the auxiliary function InnerModuleLoading). It takes an optional
hostDefined parameter that is passed to the HostLoadImportedModule hook. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. If hostDefined is not present, let hostDefined be EMPTY.

2. Let pc be ! NewPromiseCapability(%Promise%).
3. Let state be the GraphLoadingState Record { ⁠[[IsLoading]]: true, ⁠[[PendingModulesCount]]: 1, ⁠[[Visited]]: « »,
⁠[[PromiseCapability]]: pc, ⁠[[HostDefined]]: hostDefined }.
4. Perform InnerModuleLoading(state, module).
5. Return pc.⁠[[Promise]].

NOTE The hostDefined parameter can be used to pass additional information necessary to fetch the imported
modules. It is used, for example, by HTML to set the correct fetch destination for
<link rel="preload" as="..."> tags. import() expressions never set the hostDefined
parameter.

[Link].1.1.1 InnerModuleLoading ( state, module )

The abstract operation InnerModuleLoading takes arguments state (a GraphLoadingState Record) and module (a
Module Record) and returns UNUSED. It is used by LoadRequestedModules to recursively perform the actual loading
process for module's dependency graph. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: state.⁠[[IsLoading]] is true.

2. If module is a Cyclic Module Record, module.⁠[[Status]] is NEW, and state.⁠[[Visited]] does not contain module, then
a. Append module to state.⁠[[Visited]].
b. Let requestedModulesCount be the number of elements in module.⁠[[RequestedModules]].
c. Set state.⁠[[PendingModulesCount]] to state.⁠[[PendingModulesCount]] + requestedModulesCount.
d. For each ModuleRequest Record request of module.⁠[[RequestedModules]], do
i. If AllImportAttributesSupported(request.⁠[[Attributes]]) is false, then
1. Let error be ThrowCompletion(a newly created SyntaxError object).
2. Perform ContinueModuleLoading(state, error).
ii. Else if module.⁠[[LoadedModules]] contains a LoadedModuleRequest Record record such that
ModuleRequestsEqual(record, request) is true, then
1. Perform InnerModuleLoading(state, record.⁠[[Module]]).
iii. Else,
1. Perform HostLoadImportedModule(module, request, state.⁠[[HostDefined]], state).
2. NOTE: HostLoadImportedModule will call FinishLoadingImportedModule, which re-enters the graph
loading process through ContinueModuleLoading.
iv. If state.⁠[[IsLoading]] is false, return UNUSED.
3. Assert: state.⁠[[PendingModulesCount]] ≥ 1.
4. Set state.⁠[[PendingModulesCount]] to state.⁠[[PendingModulesCount]] - 1.
5. If state.⁠[[PendingModulesCount]] = 0, then
a. Set state.⁠[[IsLoading]] to false.
b. For each Cyclic Module Record loaded of state.⁠[[Visited]], do
i. If loaded.⁠[[Status]] is NEW, set loaded.⁠[[Status]] to UNLINKED.
c. Perform ! Call(state.⁠[[PromiseCapability]].⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « undefined »).
6. Return UNUSED.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].1.1.2 ContinueModuleLoading ( state, moduleCompletion )

The abstract operation ContinueModuleLoading takes arguments state (a GraphLoadingState Record) and moduleCom-
pletion (either a normal completion containing a Module Record or a throw completion) and returns UNUSED. It is used
to re-enter the loading process after a call to HostLoadImportedModule. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If state.⁠[[IsLoading]] is false, return UNUSED.

2. If moduleCompletion is a normal completion, then
a. Perform InnerModuleLoading(state, moduleCompletion.⁠[[Value]]).
3. Else,
a. Set state.⁠[[IsLoading]] to false.
b. Perform ! Call(state.⁠[[PromiseCapability]].⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « moduleCompletion.⁠[[Value]] »).
4. Return UNUSED.

[Link].1.2 Link ( )

The Link concrete method of a Cyclic Module Record module takes no arguments and returns either a normal comple-
tion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. On success, Link transitions this module's ⁠[[Status]] from UNLINKED to
LINKED. On failure, an exception is thrown and this module's ⁠[[Status]] remains UNLINKED. (Most of the work is done
by the auxiliary function InnerModuleLinking.) It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: module.⁠[[Status]] is one of UNLINKED, LINKED, EVALUATING-ASYNC, or EVALUATED.

2. Let stack be a new empty List.
3. Let result be Completion(InnerModuleLinking(module, stack, 0)).
4. If result is an abrupt completion, then
a. For each Cyclic Module Record m of stack, do
i. Assert: m.⁠[[Status]] is LINKING.
ii. Set m.⁠[[Status]] to UNLINKED.
b. Assert: module.⁠[[Status]] is UNLINKED.
c. Return ? result.
5. Assert: module.⁠[[Status]] is one of LINKED, EVALUATING-ASYNC, or EVALUATED.
6. Assert: stack is empty.
7. Return UNUSED.

[Link].1.2.1 InnerModuleLinking ( module, stack, index )

The abstract operation InnerModuleLinking takes arguments module (a Module Record), stack (a List of Cyclic Module
Records), and index (a non-negative integer) and returns either a normal completion containing a non-negative integer
or a throw completion. It is used by Link to perform the actual linking process for module, as well as recursively on all
other modules in the dependency graph. The stack and index parameters, as well as a module's ⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]]
field, keep track of the depth-first search (DFS) traversal. In particular, ⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] is used to discover strongly
connected components (SCCs), such that all modules in an SCC transition to LINKED together. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. If module is not a Cyclic Module Record, then

a. Perform ? [Link]().
b. Return index.
2. If module.⁠[[Status]] is one of LINKING, LINKED, EVALUATING-ASYNC, or EVALUATED, then
a. Return index.
3. Assert: module.⁠[[Status]] is UNLINKED.
4. Set module.⁠[[Status]] to LINKING.
5. Let moduleIndex be index.
6. Set module.⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] to index.
7. Set index to index + 1.
8. Append module to stack.
9. For each ModuleRequest Record request of module.⁠[[RequestedModules]], do
a. Let requiredModule be GetImportedModule(module, request).
b. Set index to ? InnerModuleLinking(requiredModule, stack, index).
c. If requiredModule is a Cyclic Module Record, then
i. Assert: requiredModule.⁠[[Status]] is one of LINKING, LINKED, EVALUATING-ASYNC, or EVALUATED.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ii. Assert: requiredModule.⁠[[Status]] is LINKING if and only if stack contains requiredModule.

iii. If requiredModule.⁠[[Status]] is LINKING, then
1. Set module.⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] to min(module.⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]],
requiredModule.⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]]).
10. Perform ? [Link]().
11. Assert: module occurs exactly once in stack.
12. Assert: module.⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] ≤ moduleIndex.
13. If module.⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] = moduleIndex, then
a. Let done be false.
b. Repeat, while done is false,
i. Let requiredModule be the last element of stack.
ii. Remove the last element of stack.
iii. Assert: requiredModule is a Cyclic Module Record.
iv. Set requiredModule.⁠[[Status]] to LINKED.
v. If requiredModule and module are the same Module Record, set done to true.
14. Return index.

[Link].1.3 Evaluate ( )

The Evaluate concrete method of a Cyclic Module Record module takes no arguments and returns a Promise. Evaluate
transitions this module's ⁠[[Status]] from LINKED to either EVALUATING-ASYNC or EVALUATED. The first time it is called
on a module in a given strongly connected component, Evaluate creates and returns a Promise which resolves when
the module has finished evaluating. This Promise is stored in the ⁠[[TopLevelCapability]] field of the ⁠[[CycleRoot]] for the
component. Future invocations of Evaluate on any module in the component return the same Promise. (Most of the
work is done by the auxiliary function InnerModuleEvaluation.) It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: This call to Evaluate is not happening at the same time as another call to Evaluate within the surrounding
agent.
2. Assert: module.⁠[[Status]] is one of LINKED, EVALUATING-ASYNC, or EVALUATED.
3. If module.⁠[[Status]] is either EVALUATING-ASYNC or EVALUATED, set module to module.⁠[[CycleRoot]].
4. If module.⁠[[TopLevelCapability]] is not EMPTY, then
a. Return module.⁠[[TopLevelCapability]].⁠[[Promise]].
5. Let stack be a new empty List.
6. Let capability be ! NewPromiseCapability(%Promise%).
7. Set module.⁠[[TopLevelCapability]] to capability.
8. Let result be Completion(InnerModuleEvaluation(module, stack, 0)).
9. If result is an abrupt completion, then
a. For each Cyclic Module Record m of stack, do
i. Assert: m.⁠[[Status]] is EVALUATING.
ii. Assert: m.⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] is UNSET.
iii. Set m.⁠[[Status]] to EVALUATED.
iv. Set m.⁠[[EvaluationError]] to result.
b. Assert: module.⁠[[Status]] is EVALUATED.
c. Assert: module.⁠[[EvaluationError]] and result are the same Completion Record.
d. Perform ! Call(capability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « result.⁠[[Value]] »).
10. Else,
a. Assert: module.⁠[[Status]] is either EVALUATING-ASYNC or EVALUATED.
b. Assert: module.⁠[[EvaluationError]] is EMPTY.
c. If module.⁠[[Status]] is EVALUATED, then
i. NOTE: This implies that evaluation of module completed synchronously.
ii. Assert: module.⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] is UNSET.
iii. Perform ! Call(capability.⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « undefined »).
d. Assert: stack is empty.
11. Return capability.⁠[[Promise]].

[Link].1.3.1 InnerModuleEvaluation ( module, stack, index )

The abstract operation InnerModuleEvaluation takes arguments module (a Module Record), stack (a List of Cyclic
Module Records), and index (a non-negative integer) and returns either a normal completion containing a non-negative
integer or a throw completion. It is used by Evaluate to perform the actual evaluation process for module, as well

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

as recursively on all other modules in the dependency graph. The stack and index parameters, as well as module's
[[DFSAncestorIndex]] field, are used the same way as in InnerModuleLinking. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. If module is not a Cyclic Module Record, then

a. Perform ? EvaluateModuleSync(module).
b. Return index.
2. If module.⁠[[Status]] is either EVALUATING-ASYNC or EVALUATED, then
a. If module.⁠[[EvaluationError]] is EMPTY, return index.
b. Otherwise, return ? module.⁠[[EvaluationError]].
3. If module.⁠[[Status]] is EVALUATING, return index.
4. Assert: module.⁠[[Status]] is LINKED.
5. Set module.⁠[[Status]] to EVALUATING.
6. Let moduleIndex be index.
7. Set module.⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] to index.
8. Set module.⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] to 0.
9. Set index to index + 1.
10. Append module to stack.
11. For each ModuleRequest Record request of module.⁠[[RequestedModules]], do
a. Let requiredModule be GetImportedModule(module, request).
b. Set index to ? InnerModuleEvaluation(requiredModule, stack, index).
c. If requiredModule is a Cyclic Module Record, then
i. Assert: requiredModule.⁠[[Status]] is one of EVALUATING, EVALUATING-ASYNC, or EVALUATED.
ii. Assert: requiredModule.⁠[[Status]] is EVALUATING if and only if stack contains requiredModule.
iii. If requiredModule.⁠[[Status]] is EVALUATING, then
1. Set module.⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] to min(module.⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]],
requiredModule.⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]]).
iv. Else,
1. Set requiredModule to requiredModule.⁠[[CycleRoot]].
2. Assert: requiredModule.⁠[[Status]] is either EVALUATING-ASYNC or EVALUATED.
3. If requiredModule.⁠[[EvaluationError]] is not EMPTY, return ? requiredModule.⁠[[EvaluationError]].
v. If requiredModule.⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] is an integer, then
1. Set module.⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] to module.⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] + 1.
2. Append module to requiredModule.⁠[[AsyncParentModules]].
12. If module.⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] > 0 or module.⁠[[HasTLA]] is true, then
a. Assert: module.⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] is UNSET.
b. Set module.⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] to IncrementModuleAsyncEvaluationCount().
c. If module.⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] = 0, perform ExecuteAsyncModule(module).
13. Else,
a. Perform ? [Link]().
14. Assert: module occurs exactly once in stack.
15. Assert: module.⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] ≤ moduleIndex.
16. If module.⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] = moduleIndex, then
a. Let done be false.
b. Repeat, while done is false,
i. Let requiredModule be the last element of stack.
ii. Remove the last element of stack.
iii. Assert: requiredModule is a Cyclic Module Record.
iv. Assert: requiredModule.⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] is either an integer or UNSET.
v. If requiredModule.⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] is UNSET, set requiredModule.⁠[[Status]] to EVALUATED.
vi. Otherwise, set requiredModule.⁠[[Status]] to EVALUATING-ASYNC.
vii. If requiredModule and module are the same Module Record, set done to true.
viii. Set requiredModule.⁠[[CycleRoot]] to module.
17. Return index.

NOTE 1 A module is EVALUATING while it is being traversed by InnerModuleEvaluation. A module is EVALUATED on

execution completion or EVALUATING-ASYNC during execution if its ⁠[[HasTLA]] field is true or if it has
asynchronous dependencies.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 2 Any modules depending on a module of an asynchronous cycle when that cycle is not EVALUATING will
instead depend on the execution of the root of the cycle via ⁠[[CycleRoot]]. This ensures that the cycle state
can be treated as a single strongly connected component through its root module state.

[Link].1.3.2 ExecuteAsyncModule ( module )

The abstract operation ExecuteAsyncModule takes argument module (a Cyclic Module Record) and returns UNUSED. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: module.⁠[[Status]] is either EVALUATING or EVALUATING-ASYNC.

2. Assert: module.⁠[[HasTLA]] is true.
3. Let capability be ! NewPromiseCapability(%Promise%).
4. Let fulfilledClosure be a new Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures module and performs the following
steps when called:
a. Perform AsyncModuleExecutionFulfilled(module).
b. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).
5. Let onFulfilled be CreateBuiltinFunction(fulfilledClosure, 0, "", « »).
6. Let rejectedClosure be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (error) that captures module and performs the
following steps when called:
a. Perform AsyncModuleExecutionRejected(module, error).
b. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).
7. Let onRejected be CreateBuiltinFunction(rejectedClosure, 0, "", « »).
8. Perform PerformPromiseThen(capability.⁠[[Promise]], onFulfilled, onRejected).
9. Perform ! [Link](capability).
10. Return UNUSED.

[Link].1.3.3 GatherAvailableAncestors ( module, execList )

The abstract operation GatherAvailableAncestors takes arguments module (a Cyclic Module Record) and execList (a
List of Cyclic Module Records) and returns UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. For each Cyclic Module Record m of module.⁠[[AsyncParentModules]], do

a. If execList does not contain m and m.⁠[[CycleRoot]].⁠[[EvaluationError]] is EMPTY, then
i. Assert: m.⁠[[Status]] is EVALUATING-ASYNC.
ii. Assert: m.⁠[[EvaluationError]] is EMPTY.
iii. Assert: m.⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] is an integer.
iv. Assert: m.⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] > 0.
v. Set m.⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] to m.⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] - 1.
vi. If m.⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] = 0, then
1. Append m to execList.
2. If m.⁠[[HasTLA]] is false, perform GatherAvailableAncestors(m, execList).
2. Return UNUSED.

NOTE When an asynchronous execution for a root module is fulfilled, this function determines the list of modules
which are able to synchronously execute together on this completion, populating them in execList.

[Link].1.3.4 AsyncModuleExecutionFulfilled ( module )

The abstract operation AsyncModuleExecutionFulfilled takes argument module (a Cyclic Module Record) and returns
UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If module.⁠[[Status]] is EVALUATED, then

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

5. Set module.⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] to DONE.

6. Set module.⁠[[Status]] to EVALUATED.
7. If module.⁠[[TopLevelCapability]] is not EMPTY, then
a. Assert: module.⁠[[CycleRoot]] and module are the same Module Record.
b. Perform ! Call(module.⁠[[TopLevelCapability]].⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « undefined »).
8. Let execList be a new empty List.
9. Perform GatherAvailableAncestors(module, execList).
10. Assert: All elements of execList have their ⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] field set to an integer,
⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] field set to 0, and ⁠[[EvaluationError]] field set to EMPTY.
11. Let sortedExecList be a List whose elements are the elements of execList, sorted by their ⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]]
field in ascending order.
12. For each Cyclic Module Record m of sortedExecList, do
a. If m.⁠[[Status]] is EVALUATED, then
i. Assert: m.⁠[[EvaluationError]] is not EMPTY.
b. Else if m.⁠[[HasTLA]] is true, then
i. Perform ExecuteAsyncModule(m).
c. Else,
i. Let result be [Link]().
ii. If result is an abrupt completion, then
1. Perform AsyncModuleExecutionRejected(m, result.⁠[[Value]]).
iii. Else,
1. Set m.⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] to DONE.
2. Set m.⁠[[Status]] to EVALUATED.
3. If m.⁠[[TopLevelCapability]] is not EMPTY, then
a. Assert: m.⁠[[CycleRoot]] and m are the same Module Record.
b. Perform ! Call(m.⁠[[TopLevelCapability]].⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « undefined »).
13. Return UNUSED.

[Link].1.3.5 AsyncModuleExecutionRejected ( module, error )

The abstract operation AsyncModuleExecutionRejected takes arguments module (a Cyclic Module Record) and error
(an ECMAScript language value) and returns UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If module.⁠[[Status]] is EVALUATED, then

a. Assert: module.⁠[[EvaluationError]] is not EMPTY.
b. Return UNUSED.
2. Assert: module.⁠[[Status]] is EVALUATING-ASYNC.
3. Assert: module.⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] is an integer.
4. Assert: module.⁠[[EvaluationError]] is EMPTY.
5. Set module.⁠[[EvaluationError]] to ThrowCompletion(error).
6. Set module.⁠[[Status]] to EVALUATED.
7. Set module.⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] to DONE.
8. NOTE: module.⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] is set to DONE for symmetry with AsyncModuleExecutionFulfilled. In
InnerModuleEvaluation, the value of a module's ⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] internal slot is unused when its
⁠[[EvaluationError]] internal slot is not EMPTY.
9. For each Cyclic Module Record m of module.⁠[[AsyncParentModules]], do
a. Perform AsyncModuleExecutionRejected(m, error).
10. If module.⁠[[TopLevelCapability]] is not EMPTY, then
a. Assert: module.⁠[[CycleRoot]] and module are the same Module Record.
b. Perform ! Call(module.⁠[[TopLevelCapability]].⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « error »).
11. Return UNUSED.

[Link].2 Example Cyclic Module Record Graphs

This non-normative section gives a series of examples of the linking and evaluation of a few common module graphs,
with a specific focus on how errors can occur.

First consider the following simple module graph:

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Figure 2: A simple module graph

Let's first assume that there are no error conditions. When a host first calls [Link](), this will com-
plete successfully by assumption, and recursively load the dependencies of B and C as well (respectively, C and none),
and then set A.⁠[[Status]] = B.⁠[[Status]] = C.⁠[[Status]] = UNLINKED. Then, when the host calls [Link](), it will complete
successfully (again by assumption) such that A.⁠[[Status]] = B.⁠[[Status]] = C.⁠[[Status]] = linked. These preparatory steps
can be performed at any time. Later, when the host is ready to incur any possible side effects of the modules, it can call
[Link](), which will complete successfully, returning a Promise resolving to undefined (again by assumption), re-
cursively having evaluated first C and then B. Each module's ⁠[[Status]] at this point will be EVALUATED.

Consider then cases involving linking errors, after a successful call to [Link](). If
InnerModuleLinking of C succeeds but, thereafter, fails for B, for example because it imports something that C does not
provide, then the original [Link]() will fail, and both A and B's ⁠[[Status]] remain UNLINKED. C's ⁠[[Status]] has become
LINKED, though.

Finally, consider a case involving evaluation errors after a successful call to Link(). If InnerModuleEvaluation of C suc-
ceeds but, thereafter, fails for B, for example because B contains code that throws an exception, then the original
[Link]() will fail, returning a rejected Promise. The resulting exception will be recorded in both A and B's
[[EvaluationError]] fields, and their ⁠[[Status]] will become EVALUATED. C will also become EVALUATED but, in contrast to
A and B, will remain without an ⁠[[EvaluationError]], as it successfully completed evaluation. Storing the exception en-
sures that any time a host tries to reuse A or B by calling their Evaluate() method, it will encounter the same exception.
(Hosts are not required to reuse Cyclic Module Records; similarly, hosts are not required to expose the exception ob-
jects thrown by these methods. However, the specification enables such uses.)

Now consider a different type of error condition:

Figure 3: A module graph with an unresolvable module

???

In this scenario, module A declares a dependency on some other module, but no Module Record exists for that module,
i.e. HostLoadImportedModule calls FinishLoadingImportedModule with an exception when asked for it. This could occur
for a variety of reasons, such as the corresponding resource not existing, or the resource existing but ParseModule re-
turning some errors when trying to parse the resulting source text. Hosts can choose to expose the cause of failure via
the completion they pass to FinishLoadingImportedModule. In any case, this exception causes a loading failure, which
results in A's ⁠[[Status]] remaining NEW.

The difference here between loading, linking and evaluation errors is due to the following characteristic:

Evaluation must be only performed once, as it can cause side effects; it is thus important to remember whether
evaluation has already been performed, even if unsuccessfully. (In the error case, it makes sense to also remember
the exception because otherwise subsequent Evaluate() calls would have to synthesize a new one.)
Linking, on the other hand, is side-effect-free, and thus even if it fails, it can be retried at a later time with no issues.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Loading closely interacts with the host, and it may be desirable for some of them to allow users to retry failed loads
(for example, if the failure is caused by temporarily bad network conditions).

Now, consider a module graph with a cycle:

Figure 4: A cyclic module graph

B C
Here we assume that the entry point is module A, so that the host proceeds by calling [Link](),
which performs InnerModuleLoading on A. This in turn calls InnerModuleLoading on B and C. Because of the cycle, this
again triggers InnerModuleLoading on A, but at this point it is a no-op since A's dependencies loading has already been
triggered during this LoadRequestedModules process. When all the modules in the graph have been successfully
loaded, their ⁠[[Status]] transitions from NEW to UNLINKED at the same time.

Then the host proceeds by calling [Link](), which performs InnerModuleLinking on A. This in turn calls
InnerModuleLinking on B. Because of the cycle, this again triggers InnerModuleLinking on A, but at this point it is a no-
op since A.⁠[[Status]] is already LINKING. B.⁠[[Status]] itself remains LINKING when control gets back to A and
InnerModuleLinking is triggered on C. After this returns with C.⁠[[Status]] being LINKED, both A and B transition from
LINKING to LINKED together; this is by design, since they form a strongly connected component. It's possible to trans-
ition the status of modules in the same SCC at the same time because during this phase the module graph is traversed
with a depth-first search.

An analogous story occurs for the evaluation phase of a cyclic module graph, in the success case.

Now consider a case where A has a linking error; for example, it tries to import a binding from C that does not exist. In
that case, the above steps still occur, including the early return from the second call to InnerModuleLinking on A.
However, once we unwind back to the original InnerModuleLinking on A, it fails during InitializeEnvironment, namely
right after [Link](). The thrown SyntaxError exception propagates up to [Link], which resets all modules that
are currently on its stack (these are always exactly the modules that are still LINKING). Hence both A and B become
UNLINKED. Note that C is left as LINKED.

Alternatively, consider a case where A has an evaluation error; for example, its source code throws an exception. In that
case, the evaluation-time analogue of the above steps still occurs, including the early return from the second call to
InnerModuleEvaluation on A. However, once we unwind back to the original InnerModuleEvaluation on A, it fails by as-
sumption. The exception thrown propagates up to [Link](), which records the error in all modules that are currently
on its stack (i.e., the modules that are still EVALUATING) as well as via [[AsyncParentModules]], which form a chain for
modules which contain or depend on top-level await through the whole dependency graph through the
AsyncModuleExecutionRejected algorithm. Hence both A and B become EVALUATED and the exception is recorded in
both A and B's ⁠[[EvaluationError]] fields, while C is left as EVALUATED with no ⁠[[EvaluationError]].

Lastly, consider a module graph with a cycle, where all modules complete asynchronously:

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Figure 5: An asynchronous cyclic module graph

B C

D E
Loading and linking happen as before, and all modules end up with ⁠[[Status]] set to LINKED.

Calling [Link]() calls InnerModuleEvaluation on A, B, and D, which all transition to EVALUATING. Then
InnerModuleEvaluation is called on A again, which is a no-op because it is already EVALUATING. At this point,
D.⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] is 0, so ExecuteAsyncModule(D) is called and we call [Link] with a new
PromiseCapability tracking the asynchronous execution of D. We unwind back to the InnerModuleEvaluation on B, set-
ting B.⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] to 1 and B.⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] to 1. We unwind back to the original
InnerModuleEvaluation on A, setting A.⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] to 1. In the next iteration of the loop over A's de-
pendencies, we call InnerModuleEvaluation on C and thus on D (again a no-op) and E. As E has no dependencies and
is not part of a cycle, we call ExecuteAsyncModule(E) in the same manner as D and E is immediately removed from the
stack. We unwind once more to the InnerModuleEvaluation on C, setting C.⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] to 3. Now we
finish the loop over A's dependencies, set A.⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] to 4, and remove the entire strongly connected
component from the stack, transitioning all of the modules to EVALUATING-ASYNC at once. At this point, the fields of the
modules are as given in Table 48.

Table 48: Module fields after the initial Evaluate() call

Module A B C D E
Field
⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] 0 0 0 0 4
⁠[[Status]] EVALUATING- EVALUATING- EVALUATING- EVALUATING- EVALUATING-
ASYNC ASYNC ASYNC ASYNC ASYNC
⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] 4 1 3 0 2
⁠[[AsyncParentModules]] «» «A» «A» « B, C » «C»
⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] 2 (B and C) 1 (D ) 2 (D and E) 0 0

Let us assume that E finishes executing first. When that happens, AsyncModuleExecutionFulfilled is called, E.⁠[[Status]]
is set to EVALUATED and C.⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] is decremented to become 1. The fields of the updated mod-
ules are as given in Table 49.

Table 49: Module fields after module E finishes executing

Module C E
Field
⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] 0 4
⁠[[Status]] EVALUATING-ASYNC EVALUATED
⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] 3 DONE
⁠[[AsyncParentModules]] «A» «C»

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Module C E
Field
⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] 1 (D) 0

D is next to finish (as it was the only module that was still executing). When that happens,
AsyncModuleExecutionFulfilled is called again and D.⁠[[Status]] is set to EVALUATED. Its ancestors available for execu-
tion are B (whose ⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] is 1) and C (whose ⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] is 3), thus B will be handled
first: B.⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] is decremented to become 0, ExecuteAsyncModule is called on B, and it starts
executing. C.⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] is also decremented to become 0, and C starts executing (potentially in
parallel to B if B contains an await). The fields of the updated modules are as given in Table 50.

Table 50: Module fields after module D finishes executing

Module B C D
Field
⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] 0 0 0
⁠[[Status]] EVALUATING-ASYNC EVALUATING-ASYNC EVALUATED
⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] 1 3 DONE
⁠[[AsyncParentModules]] «A» «A» « B, C »
⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] 0 0 0

Let us assume that C finishes executing next. When that happens, AsyncModuleExecutionFulfilled is called again,
C.⁠[[Status]] is set to EVALUATED and A.⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] is decremented to become 1. The fields of the
updated modules are as given in Table 51.

Table 51: Module fields after module C finishes executing

Module A C
Field
⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] 0 0
⁠[[Status]] EVALUATING-ASYNC EVALUATED
⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] 4 DONE
⁠[[AsyncParentModules]] «» «A»
⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] 1 (B) 0

Then, B finishes executing. When that happens, AsyncModuleExecutionFulfilled is called again and B.⁠[[Status]] is set to
EVALUATED. A.⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] is decremented to become 0, so ExecuteAsyncModule is called and it
starts executing. The fields of the updated modules are as given in Table 52.

Table 52: Module fields after module B finishes executing

Module A B
Field
⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] 0 0
⁠[[Status]] EVALUATING-ASYNC EVALUATED
⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] 4 DONE
⁠[[AsyncParentModules]] «» «A»
⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] 0 0

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Finally, A finishes executing. When that happens, AsyncModuleExecutionFulfilled is called again and A.⁠[[Status]] is set
to EVALUATED. At this point, the Promise in A.⁠[[TopLevelCapability]] (which was returned from [Link]()) is resolved,
and this concludes the handling of this module graph. The fields of the updated module are as given in Table 53.

Table 53: Module fields after module A finishes executing

Module A
Field
⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] 0
⁠[[Status]] EVALUATED
⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] DONE
⁠[[AsyncParentModules]] «»
⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] 0

Alternatively, consider a failure case where C fails execution and returns an error before B has finished executing. When
that happens, AsyncModuleExecutionRejected is called, which sets C.⁠[[Status]] to EVALUATED and C.⁠[[EvaluationError]]
to the error. It then propagates this error to all of the AsyncParentModules by performing
AsyncModuleExecutionRejected on each of them. The fields of the updated modules are as given in Table 54.

Table 54: Module fields after module C finishes with an error

Module A C
Field
⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] 0 0
⁠[[Status]] EVALUATED EVALUATED
⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] DONE DONE
⁠[[AsyncParentModules]] «» «A»
⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] 1 (B) 0
⁠[[EvaluationError]] EMPTY C's evaluation error

A will be rejected with the same error as C since C will call AsyncModuleExecutionRejected on A with C's error.
A.⁠[[Status]] is set to EVALUATED. At this point the Promise in A.⁠[[TopLevelCapability]] (which was returned from
[Link]()) is rejected. The fields of the updated module are as given in Table 55.

Table 55: Module fields after module A is rejected

Module A
Field
⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] 0
⁠[[Status]] EVALUATED
⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] DONE
⁠[[AsyncParentModules]] «»
⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] 0
⁠[[EvaluationError]] C's Evaluation Error

Then, B finishes executing without an error. When that happens, AsyncModuleExecutionFulfilled is called again and
B.⁠[[Status]] is set to EVALUATED. GatherAvailableAncestors is called on B. However, A.⁠[[CycleRoot]] is A which has an
evaluation error, so it will not be added to the returned sortedExecList and AsyncModuleExecutionFulfilled will return

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

without further processing. Any future importer of B will resolve the rejection of B.⁠[[CycleRoot]].⁠[[EvaluationError]] from
the evaluation error from C that was set on the cycle root A. The fields of the updated modules are as given in Table 56.

Table 56: Module fields after module B finishes executing in an erroring graph
Module A B
Field
⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]] 0 0
⁠[[Status]] EVALUATED EVALUATED
⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]] 4 1
⁠[[AsyncParentModules]] «» «A»
⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]] 0 0
⁠[[EvaluationError]] C's Evaluation Error EMPTY

[Link] Source Text Module Records

A Source Text Module Record is used to represent information about a module that was defined from ECMAScript
source text (11) that was parsed using the goal symbol Module. Its fields contain digested information about the
names that are imported and exported by the module, and its concrete methods use these digests to link and evaluate
the module.

A Source Text Module Record can exist in a module graph with other subclasses of the abstract Module Record type,
and can participate in cycles with other subclasses of the Cyclic Module Record type.

In addition to the fields defined in Table 45, Source Text Module Records have the additional fields listed in Table 57.
Each of these fields is initially set in ParseModule.

Table 57: Additional Fields of Source Text Module Records

Field Name Value Type Meaning
⁠[[ECMAScriptCode]] a Parse Node The result of parsing the source text of this module using Module as
the goal symbol.
⁠[[Context]] an ECMAScript code The execution context associated with this module. It is EMPTY until
execution context or the module's environment has been initialized.
EMPTY
⁠[[ImportMeta]] an Object or EMPTY An object exposed through the [Link] meta property. It is
EMPTY until it is accessed by ECMAScript code.
⁠[[ImportEntries]] a List of ImportEntry A List of ImportEntry records derived from the code of this module.
Records
⁠[[LocalExportEntries]] a List of ExportEntry A List of ExportEntry records derived from the code of this module
Records that correspond to declarations that occur within the module.
⁠[[IndirectExportEntries]] a List of ExportEntry A List of ExportEntry records derived from the code of this module
Records that correspond to reexported imports that occur within the module
or exports from export * as namespace declarations.
⁠[[StarExportEntries]] a List of ExportEntry A List of ExportEntry records derived from the code of this module
Records that correspond to export * declarations that occur within the
module, not including export * as namespace declarations.

An ImportEntry Record is a Record that digests information about a single declarative import. Each ImportEntry Record
has the fields defined in Table 58:

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Table 58: ImportEntry Record Fields

Field Name Value Type Meaning
⁠[[ModuleRequest]] a ModuleRequest ModuleRequest Record representing the ModuleSpecifier and import
Record attributes of the ImportDeclaration.
⁠[[ImportName]] a String or The name under which the desired binding is exported by the module
NAMESPACE- identified by ⁠[[ModuleRequest]]. The value NAMESPACE-OBJECT indicates
OBJECT that the import request is for the target module's namespace object.
⁠[[LocalName]] a String The name that is used to locally access the imported value from within the
importing module.

NOTE 1 Table 59 gives examples of ImportEntry records fields used to represent the syntactic import forms:

Table 59 (Informative): Import Forms Mappings to ImportEntry Records

Import Statement Form ⁠[[ModuleRequest]] ⁠[[ImportName]] ⁠[[LocalName]]
import v from "mod"; "mod" "default" "v"
import * as ns from "mod"; "mod" NAMESPACE-OBJECT "ns"
import {x} from "mod"; "mod" "x" "x"
import {x as v} from "mod"; "mod" "x" "v"
import "mod"; An ImportEntry Record is not created.

An ExportEntry Record is a Record that digests information about a single declarative export. Each ExportEntry Record
has the fields defined in Table 60:

Table 60: ExportEntry Record Fields

Field Name Value Type Meaning
⁠[[ExportName]] a String or null The name used to export this binding by this module.
⁠[[ModuleRequest]] a ModuleRequest The ModuleRequest Record representing the ModuleSpecifier and import
Record or null attributes of the ExportDeclaration. null if the ExportDeclaration does not
have a ModuleSpecifier.
⁠[[ImportName]] a String, null, ALL, The name under which the desired binding is exported by the module
or ALL-BUT- identified by ⁠[[ModuleRequest]]. null if the ExportDeclaration does not have
DEFAULT a ModuleSpecifier. ALL is used for export * as ns from "mod"
declarations. ALL-BUT-DEFAULT is used for export * from "mod"
declarations.
⁠[[LocalName]] a String or null The name that is used to locally access the exported value from within the
importing module. null if the exported value is not locally accessible from
within the module.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 2 Table 61 gives examples of the ExportEntry record fields used to represent the syntactic export forms:

Table 61 (Informative): Export Forms Mappings to ExportEntry Records

Export Statement Form ⁠[[ExportName]] ⁠[[ModuleRequest]] ⁠[[ImportName]] ⁠[[LocalName]]
export var v; "v" null null "v"
export default "default" null null "f"
function f() {}
export default "default" null null "*default*"
function () {}
export default 42; "default" null null "*default*"
export {x}; "x" null null "x"
export {v as x}; "x" null null "v"
export {x} from "mod"; "x" "mod" "x" null
export {v as x} from "x" "mod" "v" null
"mod";
export * from "mod"; null "mod" ALL-BUT- null
DEFAULT
export * as ns from "ns" "mod" ALL null
"mod";

The following definitions specify the required concrete methods and other abstract operations for Source Text
Module Records

[Link].1 ParseModule ( sourceText, realm, hostDefined )

The abstract operation ParseModule takes arguments sourceText (ECMAScript source text), realm (a Realm Record),
and hostDefined (anything) and returns a Source Text Module Record or a non-empty List of SyntaxError objects. It
creates a Source Text Module Record based upon the result of parsing sourceText as a Module. It performs the follow-
ing steps when called:

1. Let body be ParseText(sourceText, Module).

2. If body is a List of errors, return body.
3. Let requestedModules be the ModuleRequests of body.
4. Let importEntries be the ImportEntries of body.
5. Let importedBoundNames be ImportedLocalNames(importEntries).
6. Let indirectExportEntries be a new empty List.
7. Let localExportEntries be a new empty List.
8. Let starExportEntries be a new empty List.
9. Let exportEntries be the ExportEntries of body.
10. For each ExportEntry Record ee of exportEntries, do
a. If ee.⁠[[ModuleRequest]] is null, then
i. If importedBoundNames does not contain ee.⁠[[LocalName]], then
1. Append ee to localExportEntries.
ii. Else,
1. Let ie be the element of importEntries whose ⁠[[LocalName]] is ee.⁠[[LocalName]].
2. If ie.⁠[[ImportName]] is NAMESPACE-OBJECT, then
a. NOTE: This is a re-export of an imported module namespace object.
b. Append ee to localExportEntries.
3. Else,

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

a. NOTE: This is a re-export of a single name.

b. Append the ExportEntry Record { ⁠[[ModuleRequest]]: ie.⁠[[ModuleRequest]], ⁠[[ImportName]]:
ie.⁠[[ImportName]], ⁠[[LocalName]]: null, ⁠[[ExportName]]: ee.⁠[[ExportName]] } to
indirectExportEntries.
b. Else if ee.⁠[[ImportName]] is ALL-BUT-DEFAULT, then
i. Assert: ee.⁠[[ExportName]] is null.
ii. Append ee to starExportEntries.
c. Else,
i. Append ee to indirectExportEntries.
11. Let async be body Contains await.
12. Return Source Text Module Record { ⁠[[Realm]]: realm, ⁠[[Environment]]: EMPTY, ⁠[[Namespace]]: EMPTY,
⁠[[CycleRoot]]: EMPTY, ⁠[[HasTLA]]: async, ⁠[[AsyncEvaluationOrder]]: UNSET, ⁠[[TopLevelCapability]]: EMPTY,
⁠[[AsyncParentModules]]: « », ⁠[[PendingAsyncDependencies]]: EMPTY, ⁠[[Status]]: NEW, ⁠[[EvaluationError]]: EMPTY,
⁠[[HostDefined]]: hostDefined, ⁠[[ECMAScriptCode]]: body, ⁠[[Context]]: EMPTY, ⁠[[ImportMeta]]: EMPTY,
⁠[[RequestedModules]]: requestedModules, ⁠[[LoadedModules]]: « », ⁠[[ImportEntries]]: importEntries,
⁠[[LocalExportEntries]]: localExportEntries, ⁠[[IndirectExportEntries]]: indirectExportEntries, ⁠[[StarExportEntries]]:
starExportEntries, ⁠[[DFSAncestorIndex]]: EMPTY }.

NOTE An implementation may parse module source text and analyse it for Early Error conditions prior to the
evaluation of ParseModule for that module source text. However, the reporting of any errors must be
deferred until the point where this specification actually performs ParseModule upon that source text.

[Link].2 Implementation of Module Record Abstract Methods

The following are the concrete methods for Source Text Module Record that implement the corresponding Module
Record abstract methods defined in Table 44.

[Link].2.1 GetExportedNames ( [ exportStarSet ] )

The GetExportedNames concrete method of a Source Text Module Record module takes optional argument exportStar-
Set (a List of Source Text Module Records) and returns a List of Strings. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: module.⁠[[Status]] is not NEW.

2. If exportStarSet is not present, set exportStarSet to a new empty List.
3. If exportStarSet contains module, then
a. Assert: We've reached the starting point of an export * circularity.
b. Return a new empty List.
4. Append module to exportStarSet.
5. Let exportedNames be a new empty List.
6. For each ExportEntry Record e of module.⁠[[LocalExportEntries]], do
a. Assert: module provides the direct binding for this export.
b. Assert: e.⁠[[ExportName]] is not null.
c. Append e.⁠[[ExportName]] to exportedNames.
7. For each ExportEntry Record e of module.⁠[[IndirectExportEntries]], do
a. Assert: module imports a specific binding for this export.
b. Assert: e.⁠[[ExportName]] is not null.
c. Append e.⁠[[ExportName]] to exportedNames.
8. For each ExportEntry Record e of module.⁠[[StarExportEntries]], do
a. Assert: e.⁠[[ModuleRequest]] is not null.
b. Let requestedModule be GetImportedModule(module, e.⁠[[ModuleRequest]]).
c. Let starNames be [Link](exportStarSet).
d. For each element n of starNames, do
i. If n is not "default", then
1. If exportedNames does not contain n, then
a. Append n to exportedNames.
9. Return exportedNames.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE GetExportedNames does not filter out or throw an exception for names that have ambiguous star
export bindings.

[Link].2.2 ResolveExport ( exportName [ , resolveSet ] )

The ResolveExport concrete method of a Source Text Module Record module takes argument exportName (a String)
and optional argument resolveSet (a List of Records with fields ⁠[[Module]] (a Module Record) and ⁠[[ExportName]] (a
String)) and returns a ResolvedBinding Record, null, or AMBIGUOUS.

ResolveExport attempts to resolve an imported binding to the actual defining module and local binding name. The defin-
ing module may be the module represented by the Module Record this method was invoked on or some other module
that is imported by that module. The parameter resolveSet is used to detect unresolved circular import/export paths. If a
pair consisting of specific Module Record and exportName is reached that is already in resolveSet, an import circularity
has been encountered. Before recursively calling ResolveExport, a pair consisting of module and exportName is added
to resolveSet.

If a defining module is found, a ResolvedBinding Record { ⁠[[Module]], ⁠[[BindingName]] } is returned. This record
identifies the resolved binding of the originally requested export, unless this is the export of a namespace with no local
binding. In this case, ⁠[[BindingName]] will be set to NAMESPACE. If no definition was found or the request is found to be
circular, null is returned. If the request is found to be ambiguous, AMBIGUOUS is returned.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: module.⁠[[Status]] is not NEW.

2. If resolveSet is not present, set resolveSet to a new empty List.
3. For each Record { ⁠[[Module]], ⁠[[ExportName]] } r of resolveSet, do
a. If module and r.⁠[[Module]] are the same Module Record and exportName is r.⁠[[ExportName]], then
i. Assert: This is a circular import request.
ii. Return null.
4. Append the Record { ⁠[[Module]]: module, ⁠[[ExportName]]: exportName } to resolveSet.
5. For each ExportEntry Record e of module.⁠[[LocalExportEntries]], do
a. If e.⁠[[ExportName]] is exportName, then
i. Assert: module provides the direct binding for this export.
ii. Return ResolvedBinding Record { ⁠[[Module]]: module, ⁠[[BindingName]]: e.⁠[[LocalName]] }.
6. For each ExportEntry Record e of module.⁠[[IndirectExportEntries]], do
a. If e.⁠[[ExportName]] is exportName, then
i. Assert: e.⁠[[ModuleRequest]] is not null.
ii. Let importedModule be GetImportedModule(module, e.⁠[[ModuleRequest]]).
iii. If e.⁠[[ImportName]] is ALL, then
1. Assert: module does not provide the direct binding for this export.
2. Return ResolvedBinding Record { ⁠[[Module]]: importedModule, ⁠[[BindingName]]: NAMESPACE }.
iv. Else,
1. Assert: module imports a specific binding for this export.
2. Assert: e.⁠[[ImportName]] is a String.
3. Return [Link](e.⁠[[ImportName]], resolveSet).
7. If exportName is "default", then
a. Assert: A default export was not explicitly defined by this module.
b. Return null.
c. NOTE: A default export cannot be provided by an export * from "mod" declaration.
8. Let starResolution be null.
9. For each ExportEntry Record e of module.⁠[[StarExportEntries]], do
a. Assert: e.⁠[[ModuleRequest]] is not null.
b. Let importedModule be GetImportedModule(module, e.⁠[[ModuleRequest]]).
c. Let resolution be [Link](exportName, resolveSet).
d. If resolution is AMBIGUOUS, return AMBIGUOUS.
e. If resolution is not null, then
i. Assert: resolution is a ResolvedBinding Record.
ii. If starResolution is null, then
1. Set starResolution to resolution.
iii. Else,

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

1. Assert: There is more than one * import that includes the requested name.
2. If resolution.⁠[[Module]] and starResolution.⁠[[Module]] are not the same Module Record, return
AMBIGUOUS.
3. If resolution.⁠[[BindingName]] is not starResolution.⁠[[BindingName]] and either
resolution.⁠[[BindingName]] or starResolution.⁠[[BindingName]] is NAMESPACE, return AMBIGUOUS.
4. If resolution.⁠[[BindingName]] is a String, starResolution.⁠[[BindingName]] is a String, and
resolution.⁠[[BindingName]] is not starResolution.⁠[[BindingName]], return AMBIGUOUS.
10. Return starResolution.

[Link].3 Implementation of Cyclic Module Record Abstract Methods

The following are the concrete methods for Source Text Module Record that implement the corresponding Cyclic Module
Record abstract methods defined in Table 46.

[Link].3.1 InitializeEnvironment ( )

The InitializeEnvironment concrete method of a Source Text Module Record module takes no arguments and returns
either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. For each ExportEntry Record e of module.⁠[[IndirectExportEntries]], do

a. Assert: e.⁠[[ExportName]] is not null.
b. Let resolution be [Link](e.⁠[[ExportName]]).
c. If resolution is either null or AMBIGUOUS, throw a SyntaxError exception.
d. Assert: resolution is a ResolvedBinding Record.
2. Assert: All named exports from module are resolvable.
3. Let realm be module.⁠[[Realm]].
4. Assert: realm is not undefined.
5. Let env be NewModuleEnvironment(realm.⁠[[GlobalEnv]]).
6. Set module.⁠[[Environment]] to env.
7. For each ImportEntry Record in of module.⁠[[ImportEntries]], do
a. Let importedModule be GetImportedModule(module, in.⁠[[ModuleRequest]]).
b. If in.⁠[[ImportName]] is NAMESPACE-OBJECT, then
i. Let namespace be GetModuleNamespace(importedModule).
ii. Perform ! [Link](in.⁠[[LocalName]], true).
iii. Perform ! [Link](in.⁠[[LocalName]], namespace).
c. Else,
i. Let resolution be [Link](in.⁠[[ImportName]]).
ii. If resolution is either null or AMBIGUOUS, throw a SyntaxError exception.
iii. If resolution.⁠[[BindingName]] is NAMESPACE, then
1. Let namespace be GetModuleNamespace(resolution.⁠[[Module]]).
2. Perform ! [Link](in.⁠[[LocalName]], true).
3. Perform ! [Link](in.⁠[[LocalName]], namespace).
iv. Else,
1. Perform CreateImportBinding(env, in.⁠[[LocalName]], resolution.⁠[[Module]], resolution.⁠[[BindingName]]).
8. Let moduleContext be a new ECMAScript code execution context.
9. Set the Function of moduleContext to null.
10. Assert: module.⁠[[Realm]] is not undefined.
11. Set the Realm of moduleContext to module.[[Realm]].
12. Set the ScriptOrModule of moduleContext to module.
13. Set the VariableEnvironment of moduleContext to module.⁠[[Environment]].
14. Set the LexicalEnvironment of moduleContext to module.⁠[[Environment]].
15. Set the PrivateEnvironment of moduleContext to null.
16. Set module.⁠[[Context]] to moduleContext.
17. Push moduleContext onto the execution context stack; moduleContext is now the running execution context.
18. Let code be module.⁠[[ECMAScriptCode]].
19. Let varDeclarations be the VarScopedDeclarations of code.
20. Let declaredVarNames be a new empty List.
21. For each element d of varDeclarations, do
a. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do
i. If declaredVarNames does not contain dn, then

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

1. Perform ! [Link](dn, false).

2. Perform ! [Link](dn, undefined).
3. Append dn to declaredVarNames.
22. Let lexDeclarations be the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of code.
23. Let privateEnv be null.
24. For each element d of lexDeclarations, do
a. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do
i. If IsConstantDeclaration of d is true, then
1. Perform ! [Link](dn, true).
ii. Else,
1. Perform ! [Link](dn, false).
iii. If d is either a FunctionDeclaration, a GeneratorDeclaration, an AsyncFunctionDeclaration, or an
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, then
1. Let fo be InstantiateFunctionObject of d with arguments env and privateEnv.
2. Perform ! [Link](dn, fo).
25. Remove moduleContext from the execution context stack.
26. Return UNUSED.

[Link].3.2 ExecuteModule ( [ capability ] )

The ExecuteModule concrete method of a Source Text Module Record module takes optional argument capability (a
PromiseCapability Record) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Let moduleContext be a new ECMAScript code execution context.

2. Set the Function of moduleContext to null.
3. Set the Realm of moduleContext to module.[[Realm]].
4. Set the ScriptOrModule of moduleContext to module.
5. Assert: module has been linked and declarations in its module environment have been instantiated.
6. Set the VariableEnvironment of moduleContext to module.⁠[[Environment]].
7. Set the LexicalEnvironment of moduleContext to module.⁠[[Environment]].
8. Suspend the running execution context.
9. If module.⁠[[HasTLA]] is false, then
a. Assert: capability is not present.
b. Push moduleContext onto the execution context stack; moduleContext is now the running execution context.
c. Let result be Completion(Evaluation of module.⁠[[ECMAScriptCode]]).
d. Suspend moduleContext and remove it from the execution context stack.
e. Resume the context that is now on the top of the execution context stack as the running execution context.
f. If result is an abrupt completion, then
i. Return ? result.
10. Else,
a. Assert: capability is a PromiseCapability Record.
b. Perform AsyncBlockStart(capability, module.⁠[[ECMAScriptCode]], moduleContext).
11. Return UNUSED.

[Link] Synthetic Module Records

A Synthetic Module Record is used to represent information about a module that is defined by specifications. Its expor-
ted names are statically defined at creation, while their corresponding values can change over time using
SetSyntheticModuleExport. It has no imports or dependencies.

NOTE A Synthetic Module Record could be used for defining a variety of module types: for example, JSON
modules or CSS modules.

In addition to the fields defined in Table 43 Synthetic Module Records have the additional fields listed in Table 62.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Table 62: Additional Fields of Synthetic Module Records

Field Name Value Type Meaning
⁠[[ExportNames]] a List of The names of the exports of the module. This list does not contain duplicates.
Strings
⁠[[EvaluationSteps]] an Abstract The initialization logic to perform upon evaluation of the module, taking the
Closure Synthetic Module Record as its sole argument. It must not modify ⁠[[ExportNames]].
It may return an abrupt completion.

[Link].1 CreateDefaultExportSyntheticModule ( defaultExport )

The abstract operation CreateDefaultExportSyntheticModule takes argument defaultExport (an ECMAScript language
value) and returns a Synthetic Module Record. It creates a Synthetic Module Record whose default export is defaultEx-
port. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let realm be the current Realm Record.

2. Let setDefaultExport be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (module) that captures defaultExport and performs
the following steps when called:
a. Perform SetSyntheticModuleExport(module, "default", defaultExport).
b. Return NormalCompletion(UNUSED).
3. Return the Synthetic Module Record { ⁠[[Realm]]: realm, ⁠[[Environment]]: EMPTY, ⁠[[Namespace]]: EMPTY,
⁠[[HostDefined]]: undefined, ⁠[[ExportNames]]: « "default" », [[EvaluationSteps]]: setDefaultExport }.

[Link].2 ParseJSONModule ( source )

The abstract operation ParseJSONModule takes argument source (a String) and returns either a normal completion
containing a Synthetic Module Record, or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let json be ? ParseJSON(source).

2. Return CreateDefaultExportSyntheticModule(json).

[Link].3 SetSyntheticModuleExport ( module, exportName, exportValue )

The abstract operation SetSyntheticModuleExport takes arguments module (a Synthetic Module Record), exportName
(a String), and exportValue (an ECMAScript language value) and returns UNUSED. It can be used to set or change the
exported value for an existing export of a Synthetic Module Record. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: module.⁠[[ExportNames]] contains exportName.

2. Let envRec be module.⁠[[Environment]].
3. Assert: envRec is not EMPTY.
4. Perform [Link](exportName, exportValue, true).
5. Return UNUSED.

[Link].4 Implementation of Module Record Abstract Methods

The following are the concrete methods for Synthetic Module Record that implement the corresponding Module Record
abstract methods defined in Table 44.

[Link].4.1 LoadRequestedModules ( )

The LoadRequestedModules concrete method of a Synthetic Module Record module takes no arguments and returns a
Promise. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ! PromiseResolve(%Promise%, undefined).

NOTE Synthetic Module Records have no dependencies.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].4.2 GetExportedNames ( )

The GetExportedNames concrete method of a Synthetic Module Record module takes no arguments and returns a List
of Strings. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return module.⁠[[ExportNames]].

[Link].4.3 ResolveExport ( exportName )

The ResolveExport concrete method of a Synthetic Module Record module takes argument exportName (a String) and
returns a ResolvedBinding Record or null. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If module.⁠[[ExportNames]] does not contain exportName, return null.

2. Return ResolvedBinding Record { ⁠[[Module]]: module, ⁠[[BindingName]]: exportName }.

[Link].4.4 Link ( )

The Link concrete method of a Synthetic Module Record module takes no arguments and returns a normal completion
containing UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let realm be module.⁠[[Realm]].

2. Let env be NewModuleEnvironment(realm.⁠[[GlobalEnv]]).
3. Set module.⁠[[Environment]] to env.
4. For each String exportName of module.⁠[[ExportNames]], do
a. Perform ! [Link](exportName, false).
b. Perform ! [Link](exportName, undefined).
5. Return NormalCompletion(UNUSED).

[Link].4.5 Evaluate ( )

The Evaluate concrete method of a Synthetic Module Record module takes no arguments and returns a Promise. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Let moduleContext be a new ECMAScript code execution context.

2. Set the Function of moduleContext to null.
3. Set the Realm of moduleContext to module.[[Realm]].
4. Set the ScriptOrModule of moduleContext to module.
5. Set the VariableEnvironment of moduleContext to module.⁠[[Environment]].
6. Set the LexicalEnvironment of moduleContext to module.⁠[[Environment]].
7. Suspend the running execution context.
8. Push moduleContext onto the execution context stack; moduleContext is now the running execution context.
9. Let steps be module.⁠[[EvaluationSteps]].
10. Let result be Completion(steps(module)).
11. Suspend moduleContext and remove it from the execution context stack.
12. Resume the context that is now on the top of the execution context stack as the running execution context.
13. Let pc be ! NewPromiseCapability(%Promise%).
14. IfAbruptRejectPromise(result, pc).
15. Perform ! Call(pc.⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « undefined »).
16. Return pc.⁠[[Promise]].

[Link] GetImportedModule ( referrer, request )

The abstract operation GetImportedModule takes arguments referrer (a Cyclic Module Record) and request (a
ModuleRequest Record) and returns a Module Record. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let records be a List consisting of each LoadedModuleRequest Record r of referrer.⁠[[LoadedModules]] such that
ModuleRequestsEqual(r, request) is true.
2. Assert: records has exactly one element, since LoadRequestedModules has completed successfully on referrer
prior to invoking this abstract operation.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Let record be the sole element of records.

4. Return record.⁠[[Module]].

[Link] HostLoadImportedModule ( referrer, moduleRequest, hostDefined, payload )

The host-defined abstract operation HostLoadImportedModule takes arguments referrer (a Script Record, a Cyclic
Module Record, or a Realm Record), moduleRequest (a ModuleRequest Record), hostDefined (anything), and payload
(a GraphLoadingState Record or a PromiseCapability Record) and returns UNUSED.

NOTE 1 An example of when referrer can be a Realm Record is in a web browser host. There, if a user clicks on a
control given by

<button type="button" onclick="import('./[Link]')">Click me</button>

there will be no active script or module at the time the import() expression runs. More generally, this can
happen in any situation where the host pushes execution contexts with null ScriptOrModule components
onto the execution context stack.

An implementation of HostLoadImportedModule must conform to the following requirements:

The host environment must perform FinishLoadingImportedModule(referrer, moduleRequest, payload, result), where
result is either a normal completion containing the loaded Module Record or a throw completion, either
synchronously or asynchronously.

If this operation is called multiple times with two (referrer, moduleRequest) pairs such that:
the first referrer is the same as the second referrer;
ModuleRequestsEqual(the first moduleRequest, the second moduleRequest) is true;

and it performs FinishLoadingImportedModule(referrer, moduleRequest, payload, result) where result is a normal

completion, then it must perform FinishLoadingImportedModule(referrer, moduleRequest, payload, result) with the
same result each time.

If moduleRequest.[[Attributes]] has an entry entry such that entry.⁠[[Key]] is "type" and entry.⁠[[Value]] is "json",
when the host environment performs FinishLoadingImportedModule(referrer, moduleRequest, payload, result), res-
ult must either be the Completion Record returned by an invocation of ParseJSONModule or a throw completion.
The operation must treat payload as an opaque value to be passed through to FinishLoadingImportedModule.

The actual process performed is host-defined, but typically consists of performing whatever I/O operations are neces-
sary to load the appropriate Module Record. Multiple different (referrer, moduleRequest.⁠[[Specifier]],
moduleRequest.⁠[[Attributes]]) triples may map to the same Module Record instance. The actual mapping semantics is
host-defined but typically a normalization process is applied to specifier as part of the mapping process. A typical nor-
malization process would include actions such as expansion of relative and abbreviated path specifiers.

NOTE 2 The above text requires that hosts support JSON modules when imported with type: "json" (and
HostLoadImportedModule completes normally), but it does not prohibit hosts from supporting JSON
modules when imported without type: "json".

[Link] FinishLoadingImportedModule ( referrer, moduleRequest, payload, result )

The abstract operation FinishLoadingImportedModule takes arguments referrer (a Script Record, a Cyclic Module
Record, or a Realm Record), moduleRequest (a ModuleRequest Record), payload (a GraphLoadingState Record or a
PromiseCapability Record), and result (either a normal completion containing a Module Record or a throw completion)
and returns UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If result is a normal completion, then

a. If referrer.⁠[[LoadedModules]] contains a LoadedModuleRequest Record record such that

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ModuleRequestsEqual(record, moduleRequest) is true, then

i. Assert: record.⁠[[Module]] and result.⁠[[Value]] are the same Module Record.
b. Else,
i. Append the LoadedModuleRequest Record { ⁠[[Specifier]]: moduleRequest.⁠[[Specifier]], ⁠[[Attributes]]:
moduleRequest.⁠[[Attributes]], ⁠[[Module]]: result.⁠[[Value]] } to referrer.⁠[[LoadedModules]].
2. If payload is a GraphLoadingState Record, then
a. Perform ContinueModuleLoading(payload, result).
3. Else,
a. Perform ContinueDynamicImport(payload, result).
4. Return UNUSED.

[Link] AllImportAttributesSupported ( attributes )

The abstract operation AllImportAttributesSupported takes argument attributes (a List of ImportAttribute Records) and
returns a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let supported be HostGetSupportedImportAttributes().

2. For each ImportAttribute Record attribute of attributes, do
a. If supported does not contain attribute.⁠[[Key]], return false.
3. Return true.

[Link].1 HostGetSupportedImportAttributes ( )

The host-defined abstract operation HostGetSupportedImportAttributes takes no arguments and returns a List of
Strings. It allows host environments to specify which import attributes they support. Only attributes with supported keys
will be provided to the host.

An implementation of HostGetSupportedImportAttributes must conform to the following requirements:

It must return a List of Strings, each indicating a supported attribute.

Each time this operation is called, it must return the same List with the same contents in the same order.

The default implementation of HostGetSupportedImportAttributes is to return a new empty List.

NOTE The purpose of requiring the host to specify its supported import attributes, rather than passing all attributes
to the host and letting it then choose which ones it wants to handle, is to ensure that unsupported attributes
are handled in a consistent way across different hosts.

[Link] GetModuleNamespace ( module )

The abstract operation GetModuleNamespace takes argument module (an instance of a concrete subclass of Module
Record) and returns a Module Namespace Object. It retrieves the Module Namespace Object representing module's
exports, lazily creating it the first time it was requested, and storing it in module.[[Namespace]] for future retrieval. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: If module is a Cyclic Module Record, then module.⁠[[Status]] is not NEW or UNLINKED.
2. Let namespace be module.⁠[[Namespace]].
3. If namespace is EMPTY, then
a. Let exportedNames be [Link]().
b. Let unambiguousNames be a new empty List.
c. For each element name of exportedNames, do
i. Let resolution be [Link](name).
ii. If resolution is a ResolvedBinding Record, append name to unambiguousNames.
d. Set namespace to ModuleNamespaceCreate(module, unambiguousNames).
4. Return namespace.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE GetModuleNamespace never throws. Instead, unresolvable names are simply excluded from the
namespace at this point. They will lead to a real linking error later unless they are all ambiguous star exports
that are not explicitly requested anywhere.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

Module : [empty]

1. Return undefined.

ModuleBody : ModuleItemList

1. Let result be Completion(Evaluation of ModuleItemList).

2. If result is a normal completion and result.⁠[[Value]] is EMPTY, then
a. Return undefined.
3. Return ? result.

ModuleItemList : ModuleItemList ModuleItem

1. Let sl be ? Evaluation of ModuleItemList.

2. Let s be Completion(Evaluation of ModuleItem).
3. Return ? UpdateEmpty(s, sl).

NOTE The value of a ModuleItemList is the value of the last value-producing item in the ModuleItemList.

ModuleItem : ImportDeclaration

1. Return EMPTY.

16.2.2 Imports

Syntax

ImportDeclaration :
import ImportClause FromClause WithClauseopt ;
import ModuleSpecifier WithClauseopt ;

ImportClause :
ImportedDefaultBinding
NameSpaceImport
NamedImports
ImportedDefaultBinding , NameSpaceImport
ImportedDefaultBinding , NamedImports

ImportedDefaultBinding :
ImportedBinding

NameSpaceImport :
* as ImportedBinding

NamedImports :
{ }
{ ImportsList }
{ ImportsList , }

FromClause :
from ModuleSpecifier

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ImportsList :
ImportSpecifier
ImportsList , ImportSpecifier

ImportSpecifier :
ImportedBinding
ModuleExportName as ImportedBinding

ModuleSpecifier :
StringLiteral

ImportedBinding :
BindingIdentifier[~Yield, +Await]

WithClause :
with { }
with { WithEntries ,opt }

WithEntries :
AttributeKey : StringLiteral
AttributeKey : StringLiteral , WithEntries

AttributeKey :
IdentifierName
StringLiteral

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

ModuleItem : ImportDeclaration

It is a Syntax Error if the BoundNames of ImportDeclaration contains any duplicate entries.

WithClause : with { WithEntries ,opt }

It is a Syntax Error if WithClauseToAttributes of WithClause has two different entries a and b such that a.⁠[[Key]] is
b.⁠[[Key]].

[Link] Static Semantics: ImportEntries

The syntax-directed operation ImportEntries takes no arguments and returns a List of ImportEntry Records. It is defined
piecewise over the following productions:
Module : [empty]

1. Return a new empty List.

ModuleItemList : ModuleItemList ModuleItem

1. Let entries1 be the ImportEntries of ModuleItemList.

2. Let entries2 be the ImportEntries of ModuleItem.
3. Return the list-concatenation of entries1 and entries2.

ModuleItem :
ExportDeclaration
StatementListItem

1. Return a new empty List.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ImportDeclaration : import ImportClause FromClause WithClauseopt ;

1. Let module be the sole element of the ModuleRequests of ImportDeclaration.

2. Return the ImportEntriesForModule of ImportClause with argument module.

ImportDeclaration : import ModuleSpecifier WithClauseopt ;

1. Return a new empty List.

[Link] Static Semantics: ImportEntriesForModule

The syntax-directed operation ImportEntriesForModule takes argument module (a ModuleRequest Record) and returns
a List of ImportEntry Records. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
ImportClause : ImportedDefaultBinding , NameSpaceImport

1. Let entries1 be the ImportEntriesForModule of ImportedDefaultBinding with argument module.

2. Let entries2 be the ImportEntriesForModule of NameSpaceImport with argument module.
3. Return the list-concatenation of entries1 and entries2.

ImportClause : ImportedDefaultBinding , NamedImports

1. Let entries1 be the ImportEntriesForModule of ImportedDefaultBinding with argument module.

2. Let entries2 be the ImportEntriesForModule of NamedImports with argument module.
3. Return the list-concatenation of entries1 and entries2.

ImportedDefaultBinding : ImportedBinding

1. Let localName be the sole element of the BoundNames of ImportedBinding.

2. Let defaultEntry be the ImportEntry Record { ⁠[[ModuleRequest]]: module, ⁠[[ImportName]]: "default", ⁠[[LocalName]]:
localName }.
3. Return « defaultEntry ».

NameSpaceImport : * as ImportedBinding

1. Let localName be the StringValue of ImportedBinding.

2. Let entry be the ImportEntry Record { ⁠[[ModuleRequest]]: module, ⁠[[ImportName]]: NAMESPACE-OBJECT,
⁠[[LocalName]]: localName }.
3. Return « entry ».

NamedImports : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

ImportsList : ImportsList , ImportSpecifier

1. Let specs1 be the ImportEntriesForModule of ImportsList with argument module.

2. Let specs2 be the ImportEntriesForModule of ImportSpecifier with argument module.
3. Return the list-concatenation of specs1 and specs2.

ImportSpecifier : ImportedBinding

1. Let localName be the sole element of the BoundNames of ImportedBinding.

2. Let entry be the ImportEntry Record { ⁠[[ModuleRequest]]: module, ⁠[[ImportName]]: localName, ⁠[[LocalName]]:
localName }.
3. Return « entry ».

ImportSpecifier : ModuleExportName as ImportedBinding

1. Let importName be the StringValue of ModuleExportName.

2. Let localName be the StringValue of ImportedBinding.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Let entry be the ImportEntry Record { ⁠[[ModuleRequest]]: module, ⁠[[ImportName]]: importName, ⁠[[LocalName]]:
localName }.
4. Return « entry ».

[Link] Static Semantics: WithClauseToAttributes

The syntax-directed operation WithClauseToAttributes takes no arguments and returns a List of ImportAttribute
Records. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
WithClause : with { }

1. Return a new empty List.

WithClause : with { WithEntries ,opt }

1. Let attributes be WithClauseToAttributes of WithEntries.

2. Sort attributes according to the lexicographic order of their ⁠[[Key]] field, treating the value of each such field as a
sequence of UTF-16 code unit values. NOTE: This sorting is observable only in that hosts are prohibited from
changing behaviour based on the order in which attributes are enumerated.
3. Return attributes.

WithEntries : AttributeKey : StringLiteral

1. Let key be the PropName of AttributeKey.

2. Let entry be the ImportAttribute Record { ⁠[[Key]]: key, ⁠[[Value]]: the SV of StringLiteral }.
3. Return « entry ».

WithEntries : AttributeKey : StringLiteral , WithEntries

1. Let key be the PropName of AttributeKey.

2. Let entry be the ImportAttribute Record { ⁠[[Key]]: key, ⁠[[Value]]: the SV of StringLiteral }.
3. Let rest be WithClauseToAttributes of WithEntries.
4. Return the list-concatenation of « entry » and rest.

16.2.3 Exports

Syntax

ExportDeclaration :
export ExportFromClause FromClause WithClauseopt ;
export NamedExports ;
export VariableStatement[~Yield, +Await]
export Declaration[~Yield, +Await]
export default HoistableDeclaration[~Yield, +Await, +Default]
export default ClassDeclaration[~Yield, +Await, +Default]
export default [lookahead ∉ { function , async [no LineTerminator here] function , class }]
AssignmentExpression[+In, ~Yield, +Await] ;

ExportFromClause :
*
* as ModuleExportName
NamedExports

NamedExports :
{ }
{ ExportsList }
{ ExportsList , }

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ExportsList :
ExportSpecifier
ExportsList , ExportSpecifier

ExportSpecifier :
ModuleExportName
ModuleExportName as ModuleExportName

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

ExportDeclaration : export NamedExports ;

It is a Syntax Error if the ReferencedBindings of NamedExports contains any StringLiterals.

For each IdentifierName n in the ReferencedBindings of NamedExports: It is a Syntax Error if the StringValue of n is
a ReservedWord or the StringValue of n is one of "implements", "interface", "let", "package", "private",
"protected", "public", or "static".

NOTE The above rule means that each ReferencedBindings of NamedExports is treated as an IdentifierReference.

[Link] Static Semantics: ExportedBindings

The syntax-directed operation ExportedBindings takes no arguments and returns a List of Strings.

NOTE ExportedBindings are the locally bound names that are explicitly associated with a
Module's ExportedNames.

It is defined piecewise over the following productions:

ModuleItemList : ModuleItemList ModuleItem

1. Let names1 be the ExportedBindings of ModuleItemList.

2. Let names2 be the ExportedBindings of ModuleItem.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

ModuleItem :
ImportDeclaration
StatementListItem

1. Return a new empty List.

ExportDeclaration : export ExportFromClause FromClause WithClauseopt ;

1. Return a new empty List.

ExportDeclaration : export NamedExports ;

1. Return the ExportedBindings of NamedExports.

ExportDeclaration : export VariableStatement

1. Return the BoundNames of VariableStatement.

ExportDeclaration : export Declaration

1. Return the BoundNames of Declaration.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ExportDeclaration :
export default HoistableDeclaration
export default ClassDeclaration
export default AssignmentExpression ;

1. Return the BoundNames of this ExportDeclaration.

NamedExports : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

ExportsList : ExportsList , ExportSpecifier

1. Let names1 be the ExportedBindings of ExportsList.

2. Let names2 be the ExportedBindings of ExportSpecifier.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

ExportSpecifier : ModuleExportName

1. Return a List whose sole element is the StringValue of ModuleExportName.

ExportSpecifier : ModuleExportName as ModuleExportName

1. Return a List whose sole element is the StringValue of the first ModuleExportName.

[Link] Static Semantics: ExportedNames

The syntax-directed operation ExportedNames takes no arguments and returns a List of Strings.

NOTE ExportedNames are the externally visible names that a Module explicitly maps to one of its local
name bindings.

It is defined piecewise over the following productions:

ModuleItemList : ModuleItemList ModuleItem

1. Let names1 be the ExportedNames of ModuleItemList.

2. Let names2 be the ExportedNames of ModuleItem.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

ModuleItem : ExportDeclaration

1. Return the ExportedNames of ExportDeclaration.

ModuleItem :
ImportDeclaration
StatementListItem

1. Return a new empty List.

ExportDeclaration : export ExportFromClause FromClause WithClauseopt ;

1. Return the ExportedNames of ExportFromClause.

ExportFromClause : *

1. Return a new empty List.

ExportFromClause : * as ModuleExportName

1. Return a List whose sole element is the StringValue of ModuleExportName.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ExportFromClause : NamedExports

1. Return the ExportedNames of NamedExports.

ExportDeclaration : export VariableStatement

1. Return the BoundNames of VariableStatement.

ExportDeclaration : export Declaration

1. Return the BoundNames of Declaration.

ExportDeclaration :
export default HoistableDeclaration
export default ClassDeclaration
export default AssignmentExpression ;

1. Return « "default" ».

NamedExports : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

ExportsList : ExportsList , ExportSpecifier

1. Let names1 be the ExportedNames of ExportsList.

2. Let names2 be the ExportedNames of ExportSpecifier.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

ExportSpecifier : ModuleExportName

1. Return a List whose sole element is the StringValue of ModuleExportName.

ExportSpecifier : ModuleExportName as ModuleExportName

1. Return a List whose sole element is the StringValue of the second ModuleExportName.

[Link] Static Semantics: ExportEntries

The syntax-directed operation ExportEntries takes no arguments and returns a List of ExportEntry Records. It is defined
piecewise over the following productions:
Module : [empty]

1. Return a new empty List.

ModuleItemList : ModuleItemList ModuleItem

1. Let entries1 be the ExportEntries of ModuleItemList.

2. Let entries2 be the ExportEntries of ModuleItem.
3. Return the list-concatenation of entries1 and entries2.

ModuleItem :
ImportDeclaration
StatementListItem

1. Return a new empty List.

ExportDeclaration : export ExportFromClause FromClause WithClauseopt ;

1. Let module be the sole element of the ModuleRequests of ExportDeclaration.

2. Return the ExportEntriesForModule of ExportFromClause with argument module.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ExportDeclaration : export NamedExports ;

1. Return the ExportEntriesForModule of NamedExports with argument null.

ExportDeclaration : export VariableStatement

1. Let entries be a new empty List.

2. Let names be the BoundNames of VariableStatement.
3. For each element name of names, do
a. Append the ExportEntry Record { ⁠[[ModuleRequest]]: null, ⁠[[ImportName]]: null, ⁠[[LocalName]]: name,
⁠[[ExportName]]: name } to entries.
4. Return entries.

ExportDeclaration : export Declaration

1. Let entries be a new empty List.

2. Let names be the BoundNames of Declaration.
3. For each element name of names, do
a. Append the ExportEntry Record { ⁠[[ModuleRequest]]: null, ⁠[[ImportName]]: null, ⁠[[LocalName]]: name,
⁠[[ExportName]]: name } to entries.
4. Return entries.

ExportDeclaration : export default HoistableDeclaration

1. Let names be the BoundNames of HoistableDeclaration.

2. Let localName be the sole element of names.
3. Return a List whose sole element is a new ExportEntry Record { ⁠[[ModuleRequest]]: null, ⁠[[ImportName]]: null,
⁠[[LocalName]]: localName, ⁠[[ExportName]]: "default" }.

ExportDeclaration : export default ClassDeclaration

1. Let names be the BoundNames of ClassDeclaration.

ExportDeclaration : export default AssignmentExpression ;

1. Let entry be the ExportEntry Record { ⁠[[ModuleRequest]]: null, ⁠[[ImportName]]: null, ⁠[[LocalName]]: "*default*",
⁠[[ExportName]]: "default" }.
2. Return « entry ».

NOTE "*default*" is used within this specification as a synthetic name for anonymous default export values. See
this note for more details.

[Link] Static Semantics: ExportEntriesForModule

The syntax-directed operation ExportEntriesForModule takes argument module (a ModuleRequest Record or null) and
returns a List of ExportEntry Records. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
ExportFromClause : *

1. Let entry be the ExportEntry Record { ⁠[[ModuleRequest]]: module, ⁠[[ImportName]]: ALL-BUT-DEFAULT,

⁠[[LocalName]]: null, ⁠[[ExportName]]: null }.
2. Return « entry ».

ExportFromClause : * as ModuleExportName

1. Let exportName be the StringValue of ModuleExportName.

2. Let entry be the ExportEntry Record { ⁠[[ModuleRequest]]: module, ⁠[[ImportName]]: ALL, ⁠[[LocalName]]: null,
⁠[[ExportName]]: exportName }.
3. Return « entry ».

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NamedExports : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

ExportsList : ExportsList , ExportSpecifier

1. Let specs1 be the ExportEntriesForModule of ExportsList with argument module.

2. Let specs2 be the ExportEntriesForModule of ExportSpecifier with argument module.
3. Return the list-concatenation of specs1 and specs2.

ExportSpecifier : ModuleExportName

1. Let sourceName be the StringValue of ModuleExportName.

2. If module is null, then
a. Let localName be sourceName.
b. Let importName be null.
3. Else,
a. Let localName be null.
b. Let importName be sourceName.
4. Return a List whose sole element is a new ExportEntry Record { ⁠[[ModuleRequest]]: module, ⁠[[ImportName]]:
importName, ⁠[[LocalName]]: localName, ⁠[[ExportName]]: sourceName }.

ExportSpecifier : ModuleExportName as ModuleExportName

1. Let sourceName be the StringValue of the first ModuleExportName.

2. Let exportName be the StringValue of the second ModuleExportName.
3. If module is null, then
a. Let localName be sourceName.
b. Let importName be null.
4. Else,
a. Let localName be null.
b. Let importName be sourceName.
5. Return a List whose sole element is a new ExportEntry Record { ⁠[[ModuleRequest]]: module, ⁠[[ImportName]]:
importName, ⁠[[LocalName]]: localName, ⁠[[ExportName]]: exportName }.

[Link] Static Semantics: ReferencedBindings

The syntax-directed operation ReferencedBindings takes no arguments and returns a List of Parse Nodes. It is defined
piecewise over the following productions:
NamedExports : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

ExportsList : ExportsList , ExportSpecifier

1. Let names1 be the ReferencedBindings of ExportsList.

2. Let names2 be the ReferencedBindings of ExportSpecifier.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

ExportSpecifier : ModuleExportName as ModuleExportName

1. Return the ReferencedBindings of the first ModuleExportName.

ModuleExportName : IdentifierName

1. Return a List whose sole element is the IdentifierName.

ModuleExportName : StringLiteral

1. Return a List whose sole element is the StringLiteral.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ExportDeclaration :
export ExportFromClause FromClause WithClauseopt ;
export NamedExports ;

1. Return EMPTY.

ExportDeclaration : export VariableStatement

1. Return ? Evaluation of VariableStatement.

ExportDeclaration : export Declaration

1. Return ? Evaluation of Declaration.

ExportDeclaration : export default HoistableDeclaration

1. Return ? Evaluation of HoistableDeclaration.

ExportDeclaration : export default ClassDeclaration

1. Let value be ? BindingClassDeclarationEvaluation of ClassDeclaration.

2. Let className be the sole element of the BoundNames of ClassDeclaration.
3. If className is "*default*", then
a. Let env be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
b. Perform ? InitializeBoundName("*default*", value, env).
4. Return EMPTY.

ExportDeclaration : export default AssignmentExpression ;

1. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(AssignmentExpression) is true, then

a. Let value be ? NamedEvaluation of AssignmentExpression with argument "default".
2. Else,
a. Let rhs be ? Evaluation of AssignmentExpression.
b. Let value be ? GetValue(rhs).
3. Let env be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
4. Perform ? InitializeBoundName("*default*", value, env).
5. Return EMPTY.

17 Error Handling and Language Extensions

An implementation must report most errors at the time the relevant ECMAScript language construct is evaluated. An
early error is an error that can be detected and reported prior to the evaluation of any construct in the Script containing
the error. The presence of an early error prevents the evaluation of the construct. An implementation must report early
errors in a Script as part of parsing that Script in ParseScript. Early errors in a Module are reported at the point when the
Module would be evaluated and the Module is never initialized. Early errors in eval code are reported at the time eval
is called and prevent evaluation of the eval code. All errors that are not early errors are runtime errors.

An implementation must report as an early error any occurrence of a condition that is listed in a “Static Semantics: Early
Errors” subclause of this specification.

An implementation shall not treat other kinds of errors as early errors even if the compiler can prove that a construct
cannot execute without error under any circumstances. An implementation may issue an early warning in such a case,
but it should not report the error until the relevant construct is actually executed.

An implementation shall report all errors as specified, except for the following:

Except as restricted in 17.1, a host or implementation may extend Script syntax, Module syntax, and regular
expression pattern or flag syntax. To permit this, all operations (such as calling eval, using a regular expression
literal, or using the Function or RegExp constructor) that are allowed to throw SyntaxError are permitted to exhibit

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

host-defined behaviour instead of throwing SyntaxError when they encounter a host-defined extension to the script
syntax or regular expression pattern or flag syntax.
Except as restricted in 17.1, a host or implementation may provide additional types, values, objects, properties, and
functions beyond those described in this specification. This may cause constructs (such as looking up a variable in
the global scope) to have host-defined behaviour instead of throwing an error (such as ReferenceError).

17.1 Forbidden Extensions

An implementation must not extend this specification in the following ways:

ECMAScript function objects defined using syntactic constructors in strict mode code must not be created with own
properties named "caller" or "arguments". Such own properties also must not be created for function objects
defined using an ArrowFunction, MethodDefinition, GeneratorDeclaration, GeneratorExpression,
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, AsyncGeneratorExpression, ClassDeclaration, ClassExpression,
AsyncFunctionDeclaration, AsyncFunctionExpression, or AsyncArrowFunction regardless of whether the definition is
contained in strict mode code. Built-in functions, strict functions created using the Function constructor, generator
functions created using the Generator constructor, async functions created using the AsyncFunction constructor,
and functions created using the bind method also must not be created with such own properties.
If an implementation extends any function object with an own property named "caller" the value of that property, as
observed using ⁠[[Get]] or ⁠[[GetOwnProperty]], must not be a strict function object. If it is an accessor property, the
function that is the value of the property's ⁠[[Get]] attribute must never return a strict function when called.
Neither mapped nor unmapped arguments objects may be created with an own property named "caller".
The behaviour of built-in methods which are specified in ECMA-402, such as those named toLocaleString, must
not be extended except as specified in ECMA-402.
The RegExp pattern grammars in 22.2.1 and B.1.2 must not be extended to recognize any of the source characters
A-Z or a-z as IdentityEscape[+UnicodeMode] when the [UnicodeMode] grammar parameter is present.
The Syntactic Grammar must not be extended in any manner that allows the token : to immediately follow source
text that is matched by the BindingIdentifier nonterminal symbol.
When processing strict mode code, an implementation must not relax the early error rules of [Link].
TemplateEscapeSequence must not be extended to include LegacyOctalEscapeSequence or
NonOctalDecimalEscapeSequence as defined in 12.9.4.
When processing strict mode code, the extensions defined in B.3.1, B.3.2, B.3.3, and B.3.5 must not be supported.
When parsing for the Module goal symbol, the lexical grammar extensions defined in B.1.1 must not be supported.
ImportCall must not be extended.

18 ECMAScript Standard Built-in Objects

There are certain built-in objects available whenever an ECMAScript Script or Module begins execution. One, the global
object, is part of the global environment of the executing program. Others are accessible as initial properties of the
global object or indirectly as properties of accessible built-in objects.

Unless specified otherwise, a built-in object that is callable as a function is a built-in function object with the characterist-
ics described in 10.3. Unless specified otherwise, the ⁠[[Extensible]] internal slot of a built-in object initially has the value
true. Every built-in function object has a ⁠[[Realm]] internal slot whose value is the Realm Record of the realm for which
the object was initially created.

Many built-in objects are functions: they can be invoked with arguments. Some of them furthermore are constructors:
they are functions intended for use with the new operator. For each built-in function, this specification describes
the arguments required by that function and the properties of that function object. For each built-in constructor, this
specification furthermore describes properties of the prototype object of that constructor and properties of specific object
instances returned by a new expression that invokes that constructor.

Unless otherwise specified in the description of a particular function, if a built-in function or constructor is given fewer ar-
guments than the function is specified to require, the function or constructor shall behave exactly as if it had been
given sufficient additional arguments, each such argument being the undefined value. Such missing arguments are
considered to be “not present” and may be identified in that manner by specification algorithms. In the description of a
particular function, the terms “this value” and “NewTarget” have the meanings given in 10.3.

Unless otherwise specified in the description of a particular function, if a built-in function or constructor described is
given more arguments than the function is specified to allow, the extra arguments are evaluated by the call and then ig-

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

nored by the function. However, an implementation may define implementation specific behaviour relating to such argu-
ments as long as the behaviour is not the throwing of a TypeError exception that is predicated simply on the presence
of an extra argument.

NOTE 1 Implementations that add additional capabilities to the set of built-in functions are encouraged to do so by
adding new functions rather than adding new parameters to existing functions.

Unless otherwise specified every built-in function and every built-in constructor has the Function prototype object, which
is the initial value of the expression [Link] (20.2.3), as the value of its ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot.

Unless otherwise specified every built-in prototype object has the Object prototype object, which is the initial value of the
expression [Link] (20.1.3), as the value of its ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot, except the Object prototype ob-
ject itself.

If this specification defines a built-in constructor's behaviour via algorithm steps, then that is its behaviour for the pur-
poses of both ⁠[[Call]] and ⁠[[Construct]]. If such an algorithm needs to distinguish the two cases, it checks whether
NewTarget is undefined, which indicates a ⁠[[Call]] invocation.

Built-in function objects that are not identified as constructors do not implement the ⁠[[Construct]] internal method unless
otherwise specified in the description of a particular function.

Built-in function objects that are not constructors do not have a "prototype" property unless otherwise specified in the
description of a particular function.

Each built-in function defined in this specification is created by calling the CreateBuiltinFunction abstract operation
(10.3.4). The values of the length and name parameters are the initial values of the "length" and "name" properties as
discussed below. The values of the prefix parameter are similarly discussed below.

Every built-in function object, including constructors, has a "length" property whose value is a non-negative integral
Number. Unless otherwise specified, this value is the number of required parameters shown in the subclause heading
for the function description. Optional parameters and rest parameters are not included in the parameter count.

NOTE 2 For example, the function object that is the initial value of the "map" property of the Array prototype object is
described under the subclause heading «[Link] (callback [ , thisArg])» which shows the two
named arguments callback and thisArg, the latter being optional; therefore the value of the "length"
property of that function object is 1𝔽.

Unless otherwise specified, the "length" property of a built-in function object has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false,
[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

Every built-in function object, including constructors, has a "name" property whose value is a String. Unless otherwise
specified, this value is the name that is given to the function in this specification. Functions that are identified as an-
onymous functions use the empty String as the value of the "name" property. For functions that are specified as proper-
ties of objects, the name value is the property name string used to access the function. Functions that are specified as
get or set accessor functions of built-in properties have "get" or "set" (respectively) passed to the prefix parameter
when calling CreateBuiltinFunction.

The value of the "name" property is explicitly specified for each built-in functions whose property key is a Symbol value.
If such an explicitly specified value starts with the prefix "get " or "set " and the function for which it is specified is a get
or set accessor function of a built-in property, the value without the prefix is passed to the name parameter, and the
value "get" or "set" (respectively) is passed to the prefix parameter when calling CreateBuiltinFunction.

Unless otherwise specified, the "name" property of a built-in function object has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false,
[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

Every other data property described in clauses 19 through 28 and in Annex B.2 has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: true,
[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true } unless otherwise specified.

Every accessor property described in clauses 19 through 28 and in Annex B.2 has the attributes { ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false,
[[Configurable]]: true } unless otherwise specified. If only a get accessor function is described, the set accessor function

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

is the default value, undefined. If only a set accessor is described the get accessor is the default value, undefined.

19 The Global Object

The global object:

is created before control enters any execution context.

does not have a ⁠[[Construct]] internal method; it cannot be used as a constructor with the new operator.
does not have a ⁠[[Call]] internal method; it cannot be invoked as a function.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is host-defined.
may have host-defined properties in addition to the properties defined in this specification. This may include a
property whose value is the global object itself.

19.1 Value Properties of the Global Object

19.1.1 globalThis

The initial value of the "globalThis" property of the global object in a Realm Record realm
is realm.⁠[[GlobalEnv]].⁠[[GlobalThisValue]].

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

19.1.2 Infinity

The value of Infinity is +∞𝔽 (see [Link]). This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false,
[[Configurable]]: false }.

19.1.3 NaN

The value of NaN is NaN (see [Link]). This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false,
[[Configurable]]: false }.

19.1.4 undefined

The value of undefined is undefined (see 6.1.1). This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]:
false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

19.2 Function Properties of the Global Object

19.2.1 eval ( x )

This function is the %eval% intrinsic object.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? PerformEval(x, false, false).

[Link] PerformEval ( x, strictCaller, direct )

The abstract operation PerformEval takes arguments x (an ECMAScript language value), strictCaller (a Boolean), and
direct (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw comple-
tion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: If direct is false, then strictCaller is also false.

2. If x is not a String, return x.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Let evalRealm be the current Realm Record.

4. NOTE: In the case of a direct eval, evalRealm is the realm of both the caller of eval and of the eval function itself.
5. Perform ? HostEnsureCanCompileStrings(evalRealm, « », x, direct).
6. Let inFunction be false.
7. Let inMethod be false.
8. Let inDerivedConstructor be false.
9. Let inClassFieldInitializer be false.
10. If direct is true, then
a. Let thisEnvRec be GetThisEnvironment().
b. If thisEnvRec is a Function Environment Record, then
i. Let F be thisEnvRec.⁠[[FunctionObject]].
ii. Set inFunction to true.
iii. Set inMethod to [Link]().
iv. If F.⁠[[ConstructorKind]] is DERIVED, set inDerivedConstructor to true.
v. Let classFieldInitializerName be F.⁠[[ClassFieldInitializerName]].
vi. If classFieldInitializerName is not EMPTY, set inClassFieldInitializer to true.
11. Perform the following substeps in an implementation-defined order, possibly interleaving parsing and error detection:
a. Let script be ParseText(x, Script).
b. If script is a List of errors, throw a SyntaxError exception.
c. If script Contains ScriptBody is false, return undefined.
d. Let body be the ScriptBody of script.
e. If inFunction is false and body Contains NewTarget, throw a SyntaxError exception.
f. If inMethod is false and body Contains SuperProperty, throw a SyntaxError exception.
g. If inDerivedConstructor is false and body Contains SuperCall, throw a SyntaxError exception.
h. If inClassFieldInitializer is true and ContainsArguments of body is true, throw a SyntaxError exception.
12. If strictCaller is true, let strictEval be true.
13. Else, let strictEval be ScriptIsStrict of script.
14. Let runningContext be the running execution context.
15. NOTE: If direct is true, runningContext will be the execution context that performed the direct eval. If direct is false,
runningContext will be the execution context for the invocation of the eval function.
16. If direct is true, then
a. Let lexEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(runningContext's LexicalEnvironment).
b. Let varEnv be runningContext's VariableEnvironment.
c. Let privateEnv be runningContext's PrivateEnvironment.
17. Else,
a. Let lexEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(evalRealm.⁠[[GlobalEnv]]).
b. Let varEnv be evalRealm.⁠[[GlobalEnv]].
c. Let privateEnv be null.
18. If strictEval is true, set varEnv to lexEnv.
19. If runningContext is not already suspended, suspend runningContext.
20. Let evalContext be a new ECMAScript code execution context.
21. Set evalContext's Function to null.
22. Set evalContext's Realm to evalRealm.
23. Set evalContext's ScriptOrModule to runningContext's ScriptOrModule.
24. Set evalContext's VariableEnvironment to varEnv.
25. Set evalContext's LexicalEnvironment to lexEnv.
26. Set evalContext's PrivateEnvironment to privateEnv.
27. Push evalContext onto the execution context stack; evalContext is now the running execution context.
28. Let result be Completion(EvalDeclarationInstantiation(body, varEnv, lexEnv, privateEnv, strictEval)).
29. If result is a normal completion, then
a. Set result to Completion(Evaluation of body).
30. If result is a normal completion and result.⁠[[Value]] is EMPTY, then
a. Set result to NormalCompletion(undefined).
31. Suspend evalContext and remove it from the execution context stack.
32. Resume the context that is now on the top of the execution context stack as the running execution context.
33. Return ? result.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE The eval code cannot instantiate variable or function bindings in the variable environment of the calling
context that invoked the eval if either the code of the calling context or the eval code is strict mode
code. Instead such bindings are instantiated in a new VariableEnvironment that is only accessible to
the eval code. Bindings introduced by let, const, or class declarations are always instantiated in a
new LexicalEnvironment.

[Link] HostEnsureCanCompileStrings ( calleeRealm, parameterStrings, bodyString, direct )

The host-defined abstract operation HostEnsureCanCompileStrings takes arguments calleeRealm (a Realm Record),
parameterStrings (a List of Strings), bodyString (a String), and direct (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion
containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It allows host environments to block certain ECMAScript functions which al-
low developers to interpret and evaluate strings as ECMAScript code.

parameterStrings represents the strings that, when using one of the function constructors, will be concatenated together
to build the parameters list. bodyString represents the function body or the string passed to an eval call. direct signifies
whether the evaluation is a direct eval.

The default implementation of HostEnsureCanCompileStrings is to return NormalCompletion(UNUSED).

[Link] EvalDeclarationInstantiation ( body, varEnv, lexEnv, privateEnv, strict )

The abstract operation EvalDeclarationInstantiation takes arguments body (a ScriptBody Parse Node), varEnv (an
Environment Record), lexEnv (a Declarative Environment Record), privateEnv (a PrivateEnvironment Record or null),
and strict (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let varNames be the VarDeclaredNames of body.

2. Let varDeclarations be the VarScopedDeclarations of body.
3. If strict is false, then
a. If varEnv is a Global Environment Record, then
i. For each element name of varNames, do
1. If HasLexicalDeclaration(varEnv, name) is true, throw a SyntaxError exception.
2. NOTE: eval will not create a global var declaration that would be shadowed by a global lexical
declaration.
b. Let thisEnv be lexEnv.
c. Assert: The following loop will terminate.
d. Repeat, while thisEnv and varEnv are not the same Environment Record,
i. If thisEnv is not an Object Environment Record, then
1. NOTE: The environment of with statements cannot contain any lexical declaration so it doesn't need to
be checked for var/let hoisting conflicts.
2. For each element name of varNames, do
a. If ! [Link](name) is true, then
i. Throw a SyntaxError exception.
ii. NOTE: Annex B.3.4 defines alternate semantics for the above step.
b. NOTE: A direct eval will not hoist var declaration over a like-named lexical declaration.
ii. Set thisEnv to thisEnv.⁠[[OuterEnv]].
4. Let privateIdentifiers be a new empty List.
5. Let pointer be privateEnv.
6. Repeat, while pointer is not null,
a. For each Private Name binding of pointer.⁠[[Names]], do
i. If privateIdentifiers does not contain binding.⁠[[Description]], append binding.⁠[[Description]] to
privateIdentifiers.
b. Set pointer to pointer.⁠[[OuterPrivateEnvironment]].
7. If AllPrivateIdentifiersValid of body with argument privateIdentifiers is false, throw a SyntaxError exception.
8. Let functionsToInitialize be a new empty List.
9. Let declaredFunctionNames be a new empty List.
10. For each element d of varDeclarations, in reverse List order, do
a. If d is not either a VariableDeclaration, a ForBinding, or a BindingIdentifier, then

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

i. Assert: d is either a FunctionDeclaration, a GeneratorDeclaration, an AsyncFunctionDeclaration, or an

AsyncGeneratorDeclaration.
ii. NOTE: If there are multiple function declarations for the same name, the last declaration is used.
iii. Let fn be the sole element of the BoundNames of d.
iv. If declaredFunctionNames does not contain fn, then
1. If varEnv is a Global Environment Record, then
a. Let fnDefinable be ? CanDeclareGlobalFunction(varEnv, fn).
b. If fnDefinable is false, throw a TypeError exception.
2. Append fn to declaredFunctionNames.
3. Insert d as the first element of functionsToInitialize.
11. Let declaredVarNames be a new empty List.
12. For each element d of varDeclarations, do
a. If d is either a VariableDeclaration, a ForBinding, or a BindingIdentifier, then
i. For each String vn of the BoundNames of d, do
1. If declaredFunctionNames does not contain vn, then
a. If varEnv is a Global Environment Record, then
i. Let vnDefinable be ? CanDeclareGlobalVar(varEnv, vn).
ii. If vnDefinable is false, throw a TypeError exception.
b. If declaredVarNames does not contain vn, then
i. Append vn to declaredVarNames.
13. NOTE: Annex B.3.2.3 adds additional steps at this point.
14. NOTE: No abnormal terminations occur after this algorithm step unless varEnv is a Global Environment Record and
the global object is a Proxy exotic object.
15. Let lexDeclarations be the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of body.
16. For each element d of lexDeclarations, do
a. NOTE: Lexically declared names are only instantiated here but not initialized.
b. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do
i. If IsConstantDeclaration of d is true, then
1. Perform ? [Link](dn, true).
ii. Else,
1. Perform ? [Link](dn, false).
17. For each Parse Node f of functionsToInitialize, do
a. Let fn be the sole element of the BoundNames of f.
b. Let fo be InstantiateFunctionObject of f with arguments lexEnv and privateEnv.
c. If varEnv is a Global Environment Record, then
i. Perform ? CreateGlobalFunctionBinding(varEnv, fn, fo, true).
d. Else,
i. Let bindingExists be ! [Link](fn).
ii. If bindingExists is false, then
1. NOTE: The following invocation cannot return an abrupt completion because of the validation
preceding step 14.
2. Perform ! [Link](fn, true).
3. Perform ! [Link](fn, fo).
iii. Else,
1. Perform ! [Link](fn, fo, false).
18. For each String vn of declaredVarNames, do
a. If varEnv is a Global Environment Record, then
i. Perform ? CreateGlobalVarBinding(varEnv, vn, true).
b. Else,
i. Let bindingExists be ! [Link](vn).
ii. If bindingExists is false, then
1. NOTE: The following invocation cannot return an abrupt completion because of the validation
preceding step 14.
2. Perform ! [Link](vn, true).
3. Perform ! [Link](vn, undefined).
19. Return UNUSED.

NOTE An alternative version of this algorithm is described in B.3.4.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

19.2.2 isFinite ( number )

This function is the %isFinite% intrinsic object.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let num be ? ToNumber(number).

2. If num is not finite, return false.
3. Otherwise, return true.

19.2.3 isNaN ( number )

This function is the %isNaN% intrinsic object.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let num be ? ToNumber(number).

2. If num is NaN, return true.
3. Otherwise, return false.

NOTE A reliable way for ECMAScript code to test if a value X is NaN is an expression of the form X !== X. The
result will be true if and only if X is NaN.

19.2.4 parseFloat ( string )

This function produces a Number value dictated by interpretation of the contents of the string argument as a
decimal literal.

It is the %parseFloat% intrinsic object.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let inputString be ? ToString(string).

2. Let trimmedString be ! TrimString(inputString, START).
3. Let trimmed be StringToCodePoints(trimmedString).
4. Let trimmedPrefix be the longest prefix of trimmed that satisfies the syntax of a StrDecimalLiteral, which might be
trimmed itself. If there is no such prefix, return NaN.
5. Let parsedNumber be ParseText(trimmedPrefix, StrDecimalLiteral).
6. Assert: parsedNumber is a Parse Node.
7. Return the StringNumericValue of parsedNumber.

NOTE This function may interpret only a leading portion of string as a Number value; it ignores any code units that
cannot be interpreted as part of the notation of a decimal literal, and no indication is given that any such
code units were ignored.

19.2.5 parseInt ( string, radix )

This function produces an integral Number dictated by interpretation of the contents of string according to the specified
radix. Leading white space in string is ignored. If radix coerces to 0 (such as when it is undefined), it is assumed to be
10 except when the number representation begins with "0x" or "0X", in which case it is assumed to be 16. If radix is 16,
the number representation may optionally begin with "0x" or "0X".

It is the %parseInt% intrinsic object.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let inputString be ? ToString(string).

2. Let S be ! TrimString(inputString, START).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Let sign be 1.
4. If S is not empty and the first code unit of S is the code unit 0x002D (HYPHEN-MINUS), set sign to -1.
5. If S is not empty and the first code unit of S is either the code unit 0x002B (PLUS SIGN) or the code unit 0x002D
(HYPHEN-MINUS), set S to the substring of S from index 1.
6. Let R be ℝ(? ToInt32(radix)).
7. Let stripPrefix be true.
8. If R ≠ 0, then
a. If R < 2 or R > 36, return NaN.
b. If R ≠ 16, set stripPrefix to false.
9. Else,
a. Set R to 10.
10. If stripPrefix is true, then
a. If the length of S is at least 2 and the first two code units of S are either "0x" or "0X", then
i. Set S to the substring of S from index 2.
ii. Set R to 16.
11. If S contains a code unit that is not a radix-R digit, let end be the index within S of the first such code unit; otherwise
let end be the length of S.
12. Let Z be the substring of S from 0 to end.
13. If Z is empty, return NaN.
14. Let mathInt be the integer value that is represented by Z in radix-R notation, using the letters A through Z and a
through z for digits with values 10 through 35. (However, if R = 10 and Z contains more than 20 significant digits,
every significant digit after the 20th may be replaced by a 0 digit, at the option of the implementation; and if R is not
one of 2, 4, 8, 10, 16, or 32, then mathInt may be an implementation-approximated integer representing the integer
value denoted by Z in radix-R notation.)
15. If mathInt = 0, then
a. If sign = -1, return -0𝔽.
b. Return +0𝔽.
16. Return 𝔽(sign × mathInt).

NOTE This function may interpret only a leading portion of string as an integer value; it ignores any code units that
cannot be interpreted as part of the notation of an integer, and no indication is given that any such code
units were ignored.

19.2.6 URI Handling Functions

Uniform Resource Identifiers, or URIs, are Strings that identify resources (e.g. web pages or files) and transport proto-
cols by which to access them (e.g. HTTP or FTP) on the Internet. The ECMAScript language itself does not provide any
support for using URIs except for functions that encode and decode URIs as described in this section. encodeURI and
decodeURI are intended to work with complete URIs; they assume that any reserved characters are intended to have
special meaning (e.g., as delimiters) and so are not encoded. encodeURIComponent and decodeURIComponent are
intended to work with the individual components of a URI; they assume that any reserved characters represent text and
must be encoded to avoid special meaning when the component is part of a complete URI.

NOTE 1 The set of reserved characters is based upon RFC 2396 and does not reflect changes introduced by the
more recent RFC 3986.

NOTE 2 Many implementations of ECMAScript provide additional functions and methods that manipulate web pages;
these functions are beyond the scope of this standard.

[Link] decodeURI ( encodedURI )

This function computes a new version of a URI in which each escape sequence and UTF-8 encoding of the sort that
might be introduced by the encodeURI function is replaced with the UTF-16 encoding of the code point that it repres-
ents. Escape sequences that could not have been introduced by encodeURI are not replaced.

It is the %decodeURI% intrinsic object.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let uriString be ? ToString(encodedURI).

2. Let preserveEscapeSet be ";/?:@&=+$,#".
3. Return ? Decode(uriString, preserveEscapeSet).

[Link] decodeURIComponent ( encodedURIComponent )

This function computes a new version of a URI in which each escape sequence and UTF-8 encoding of the sort that
might be introduced by the encodeURIComponent function is replaced with the UTF-16 encoding of the code point that
it represents.

It is the %decodeURIComponent% intrinsic object.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let componentString be ? ToString(encodedURIComponent).

2. Let preserveEscapeSet be the empty String.
3. Return ? Decode(componentString, preserveEscapeSet).

[Link] encodeURI ( uri )

This function computes a new version of a UTF-16 encoded (6.1.4) URI in which each instance of certain code points is
replaced by one, two, three, or four escape sequences representing the UTF-8 encoding of the code point.

It is the %encodeURI% intrinsic object.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let uriString be ? ToString(uri).

2. Let extraUnescaped be ";/?:@&=+$,#".
3. Return ? Encode(uriString, extraUnescaped).

[Link] encodeURIComponent ( uriComponent )

It is the %encodeURIComponent% intrinsic object.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let componentString be ? ToString(uriComponent).

2. Let extraUnescaped be the empty String.
3. Return ? Encode(componentString, extraUnescaped).

[Link] Encode ( string, extraUnescaped )

The abstract operation Encode takes arguments string (a String) and extraUnescaped (a String) and returns either a
normal completion containing a String or a throw completion. It performs URI encoding and escaping, interpreting string
as a sequence of UTF-16 encoded code points as described in 6.1.4. If a character is identified as unreserved in RFC
2396 or appears in extraUnescaped, it is not escaped. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let len be the length of string.

2. Let R be the empty String.
3. Let alwaysUnescaped be the string-concatenation of the ASCII word characters and "-.!~*'()".
4. Let unescapedSet be the string-concatenation of alwaysUnescaped and extraUnescaped.
5. Let k be 0.
6. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let C be the code unit at index k within string.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

b. If unescapedSet contains C, then

i. Set k to k + 1.
ii. Set R to the string-concatenation of R and C.
c. Else,
i. Let cp be CodePointAt(string, k).
ii. If cp.⁠[[IsUnpairedSurrogate]] is true, throw a URIError exception.
iii. Set k to k + cp.⁠[[CodeUnitCount]].
iv. Let Octets be the List of octets resulting by applying the UTF-8 transformation to cp.⁠[[CodePoint]].
v. For each element octet of Octets, do
1. Let hex be the String representation of octet, formatted as an uppercase hexadecimal number.
2. Set R to the string-concatenation of R, "%", and StringPad(hex, 2, "0", START).
7. Return R.

NOTE Because percent-encoding is used to represent individual octets, a single code point may be expressed as
multiple consecutive escape sequences (one for each of its 8-bit UTF-8 code units).

[Link] Decode ( string, preserveEscapeSet )

The abstract operation Decode takes arguments string (a String) and preserveEscapeSet (a String) and returns either a
normal completion containing a String or a throw completion. It performs URI unescaping and decoding, preserving any
escape sequences that correspond to Basic Latin characters in preserveEscapeSet. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let len be the length of string.

2. Let R be the empty String.
3. Let k be 0.
4. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let C be the code unit at index k within string.
b. Let S be C.
c. If C is the code unit 0x0025 (PERCENT SIGN), then
i. If k + 3 > len, throw a URIError exception.
ii. Let escape be the substring of string from k to k + 3.
iii. Let B be ParseHexOctet(string, k + 1).
iv. If B is not an integer, throw a URIError exception.
v. Set k to k + 2.
vi. Let n be the number of leading 1 bits in B.
vii. If n = 0, then
1. Let asciiChar be the code unit whose numeric value is B.
2. If preserveEscapeSet contains asciiChar, set S to escape; otherwise set S to asciiChar.
viii. Else,
1. If n = 1 or n > 4, throw a URIError exception.
2. Let Octets be « B ».
3. Let j be 1.
4. Repeat, while j < n,
a. Set k to k + 1.
b. If k + 3 > len, throw a URIError exception.
c. If the code unit at index k within string is not the code unit 0x0025 (PERCENT SIGN), throw a
URIError exception.
d. Let continuationByte be ParseHexOctet(string, k + 1).
e. If continuationByte is not an integer, throw a URIError exception.
f. Append continuationByte to Octets.
g. Set k to k + 2.
h. Set j to j + 1.
5. Assert: The length of Octets is n.
6. If Octets does not contain a valid UTF-8 encoding of a Unicode code point, throw a URIError
exception.
7. Let V be the code point obtained by applying the UTF-8 transformation to Octets, that is, from a List of
octets into a 21-bit value.
8. Set S to UTF16EncodeCodePoint(V).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

d. Set R to the string-concatenation of R and S.

e. Set k to k + 1.
5. Return R.

NOTE RFC 3629 prohibits the decoding of invalid UTF-8 octet sequences. For example, the invalid sequence 0xC0
0x80 must not decode into the code unit 0x0000. Implementations of the Decode algorithm are required to
throw a URIError when encountering such invalid sequences.

[Link] ParseHexOctet ( string, position )

The abstract operation ParseHexOctet takes arguments string (a String) and position (a non-negative integer)
and returns either a non-negative integer or a non-empty List of SyntaxError objects. It parses a sequence of two
hexadecimal characters at the specified position in string into an unsigned 8-bit integer. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let len be the length of string.

2. Assert: position + 2 ≤ len.
3. Let hexDigits be the substring of string from position to position + 2.
4. Let parseResult be ParseText(hexDigits, HexDigits[~Sep] ).
5. If parseResult is not a Parse Node, return parseResult.
6. Let n be the MV of parseResult.
7. Assert: n is in the inclusive interval from 0 to 255.
8. Return n.

19.3 Constructor Properties of the Global Object

19.3.1 AggregateError ( . . . )

See [Link].

19.3.2 Array ( . . . )

See 23.1.1.

19.3.3 ArrayBuffer ( . . . )

See 25.1.4.

19.3.4 BigInt ( . . . )

See 21.2.1.

19.3.5 BigInt64Array ( . . . )

See 23.2.5.

19.3.6 BigUint64Array ( . . . )

See 23.2.5.

19.3.7 Boolean ( . . . )

See 20.3.1.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

19.3.8 DataView ( . . . )

See 25.3.2.

19.3.9 Date ( . . . )

See 21.4.2.

19.3.10 Error ( . . . )

See 20.5.1.

19.3.11 EvalError ( . . . )

See [Link].

19.3.12 FinalizationRegistry ( . . . )

See 26.2.1.

19.3.13 Float16Array ( . . . )

See 23.2.5.

19.3.14 Float32Array ( . . . )

See 23.2.5.

19.3.15 Float64Array ( . . . )

See 23.2.5.

19.3.16 Function ( . . . )

See 20.2.1.

19.3.17 Int8Array ( . . . )

See 23.2.5.

19.3.18 Int16Array ( . . . )

See 23.2.5.

19.3.19 Int32Array ( . . . )

See 23.2.5.

19.3.20 Iterator ( . . . )

See [Link].

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

19.3.21 Map ( . . . )

See 24.1.1.

19.3.22 Number ( . . . )

See 21.1.1.

19.3.23 Object ( . . . )

See 20.1.1.

19.3.24 Promise ( . . . )

See 27.2.3.

19.3.25 Proxy ( . . . )

See 28.2.1.

19.3.26 RangeError ( . . . )

See [Link].

19.3.27 ReferenceError ( . . . )

See [Link].

19.3.28 RegExp ( . . . )

See 22.2.4.

19.3.29 Set ( . . . )

See 24.2.2.

19.3.30 SharedArrayBuffer ( . . . )

See 25.2.3.

19.3.31 String ( . . . )

See 22.1.1.

19.3.32 Symbol ( . . . )

See 20.4.1.

19.3.33 SyntaxError ( . . . )

See [Link].

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

19.3.34 TypeError ( . . . )

See [Link].

19.3.35 Uint8Array ( . . . )

See 23.2.5.

19.3.36 Uint8ClampedArray ( . . . )

See 23.2.5.

19.3.37 Uint16Array ( . . . )

See 23.2.5.

19.3.38 Uint32Array ( . . . )

See 23.2.5.

19.3.39 URIError ( . . . )

See [Link].

19.3.40 WeakMap ( . . . )

See 24.3.1.

19.3.41 WeakRef ( . . . )

See 26.1.1.

19.3.42 WeakSet ( . . . )

See 24.4.

19.4 Other Properties of the Global Object

19.4.1 Atomics

See 25.4.

19.4.2 JSON

See 25.5.

19.4.3 Math

See 21.3.

19.4.4 Reflect

See 28.1.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

20 Fundamental Objects

20.1 Object Objects

20.1.1 The Object Constructor

The Object constructor:

is %Object%.
is the initial value of the "Object" property of the global object.
creates a new ordinary object when called as a constructor.
performs a type conversion when called as a function rather than as a constructor.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition.

[Link] Object ( [ value ] )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is neither undefined nor the active function object, then

a. Return ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(NewTarget, "%[Link]%").
2. If value is either undefined or null, return OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%).
3. Return ! ToObject(value).

20.1.2 Properties of the Object Constructor

The Object constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has a "length" property whose value is 1𝔽.
has the following additional properties:

[Link] [Link] ( target, ...sources )

This function copies the values of all of the enumerable own properties from one or more source objects to a
target object.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let to be ? ToObject(target).
2. If only one argument was passed, return to.
3. For each element nextSource of sources, do
a. If nextSource is neither undefined nor null, then
i. Let from be ! ToObject(nextSource).
ii. Let keys be ? from.⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
iii. For each element nextKey of keys, do
1. Let desc be ? from.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](nextKey).
2. If desc is not undefined and desc.⁠[[Enumerable]] is true, then
a. Let propValue be ? Get(from, nextKey).
b. Perform ? Set(to, nextKey, propValue, true).
4. Return to.

The "length" property of this function is 2𝔽.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( O, Properties )

This function creates a new object with a specified prototype.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. If O is not an Object and O is not null, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let obj be OrdinaryObjectCreate(O).
3. If Properties is not undefined, then
a. Return ? ObjectDefineProperties(obj, Properties).
4. Return obj.

[Link] [Link] ( O, Properties )

This function adds own properties and/or updates the attributes of existing own properties of an object.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. If O is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Return ? ObjectDefineProperties(O, Properties).

[Link].1 ObjectDefineProperties ( O, Properties )

The abstract operation ObjectDefineProperties takes arguments O (an Object) and Properties (an ECMAScript
language value) and returns either a normal completion containing an Object or a throw completion. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let props be ? ToObject(Properties).

2. Let keys be ? props.⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
3. Let descriptors be a new empty List.
4. For each element nextKey of keys, do
a. Let propDesc be ? props.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](nextKey).
b. If propDesc is not undefined and propDesc.⁠[[Enumerable]] is true, then
i. Let descObj be ? Get(props, nextKey).
ii. Let desc be ? ToPropertyDescriptor(descObj).
iii. Append the Record { ⁠[[Key]]: nextKey, ⁠[[Descriptor]]: desc } to descriptors.
5. For each element property of descriptors, do
a. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(O, property.⁠[[Key]], property.⁠[[Descriptor]]).
6. Return O.

[Link] [Link] ( O, P, Attributes )

This function adds an own property and/or updates the attributes of an existing own property of an object.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. If O is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let key be ? ToPropertyKey(P).
3. Let desc be ? ToPropertyDescriptor(Attributes).
4. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(O, key, desc).
5. Return O.

[Link] [Link] ( O )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let obj be ? ToObject(O).

2. Let entryList be ? EnumerableOwnProperties(obj, KEY+VALUE).
3. Return CreateArrayFromList(entryList).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( O )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If O is not an Object, return O.

2. Let status be ? SetIntegrityLevel(O, FROZEN).
3. If status is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Return O.

[Link] [Link] ( iterable )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Perform ? RequireObjectCoercible(iterable).
2. Let obj be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%).
3. Assert: obj is an extensible ordinary object with no own properties.
4. Let closure be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (key, value) that captures obj and performs the following
steps when called:
a. Let propertyKey be ? ToPropertyKey(key).
b. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, propertyKey, value).
c. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).
5. Let adder be CreateBuiltinFunction(closure, 2, "", « »).
6. Return ? AddEntriesFromIterable(obj, iterable, adder).

NOTE The function created for adder is never directly accessible to ECMAScript code.

[Link] [Link] ( O, P )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let obj be ? ToObject(O).

1. Let obj be ? ToObject(O).

2. Let keys be ? obj.⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
3. Let nameList be a new empty List.
4. For each element nextKey of keys, do
a. If nextKey is a Symbol and type is SYMBOL, or if nextKey is a String and type is STRING, then
i. Append nextKey to nameList.
5. Return nameList.

[Link] [Link] ( O )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let obj be ? ToObject(O).

2. Return ? obj.⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]]().

[Link] [Link] ( items, callback )

NOTE callback should be a function that accepts two arguments. groupBy calls callback once for each element in
items, in ascending order, and constructs a new object. Each value returned by callback is coerced to a
property key. For each such property key, the result object has a property whose key is that property key and
whose value is an array containing all the elements for which the callback return value coerced to that key.

callback is called with two arguments: the value of the element and the index of the element.

The return value of groupBy is an object that does not inherit from %[Link]%.

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let groups be ? GroupBy(items, callback, PROPERTY).

2. Let obj be OrdinaryObjectCreate(null).
3. For each Record { ⁠[[Key]], ⁠[[Elements]] } g of groups, do
a. Let elements be CreateArrayFromList(g.⁠[[Elements]]).
b. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, g.⁠[[Key]], elements).
4. Return obj.

[Link] [Link] ( O, P )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let obj be ? ToObject(O).

2. Let key be ? ToPropertyKey(P).
3. Return ? HasOwnProperty(obj, key).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( value1, value2 )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Return SameValue(value1, value2).

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If O is not an Object, return O.

2. Let status be ? SetIntegrityLevel(O, SEALED).
3. If status is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Return O.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( O, proto )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Set O to ? RequireObjectCoercible(O).
2. If proto is not an Object and proto is not null, throw a TypeError exception.
3. If O is not an Object, return O.
4. Let status be ? O.⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]](proto).
5. If status is false, throw a TypeError exception.
6. Return O.

[Link] [Link] ( O )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let obj be ? ToObject(O).

2. Let valueList be ? EnumerableOwnProperties(obj, VALUE).
3. Return CreateArrayFromList(valueList).

20.1.3 Properties of the Object Prototype Object

The Object prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
has an ⁠[[Extensible]] internal slot whose value is true.
has the internal methods defined for ordinary objects, except for the ⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]] method, which is as defined
in [Link]. (Thus, it is an immutable prototype exotic object.)
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is null.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %Object%.

[Link] [Link] ( V )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let P be ? ToPropertyKey(V).
2. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).
3. Return ? HasOwnProperty(O, P).

NOTE The ordering of steps 1 and 2 is chosen to ensure that any exception that would have been thrown by step 1
in previous editions of this specification will continue to be thrown even if the this value is undefined or null.

[Link] [Link] ( V )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. If V is not an Object, return false.

2. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).
3. Repeat,
a. Set V to ? V.⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
b. If V is null, return false.
c. If SameValue(O, V) is true, return true.

NOTE The ordering of steps 1 and 2 preserves the behaviour specified by previous editions of this specification for
the case where V is not an object and the this value is undefined or null.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( V )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let P be ? ToPropertyKey(V).
2. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).
3. Let desc be ? O.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](P).
4. If desc is undefined, return false.
5. Return desc.⁠[[Enumerable]].

NOTE 1 This method does not consider objects in the prototype chain.

NOTE 2 The ordering of steps 1 and 2 is chosen to ensure that any exception that would have been thrown by step 1
in previous editions of this specification will continue to be thrown even if the this value is undefined or null.

[Link] [Link] ( [ reserved1 [ , reserved2 ] ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Return ? Invoke(O, "toString").

The optional parameters to this method are not used but are intended to correspond to the parameter pattern used by
ECMA-402 toLocaleString methods. Implementations that do not include ECMA-402 support must not use those
parameter positions for other purposes.

NOTE 1 This method provides a generic toLocaleString implementation for objects that have no locale-sensitive
toString behaviour. Array, Number, Date, and %TypedArray% provide their own locale-sensitive
toLocaleString methods.

NOTE 2 ECMA-402 intentionally does not provide an alternative to this default implementation.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. If the this value is undefined, return "[object Undefined]".

2. If the this value is null, return "[object Null]".
3. Let O be ! ToObject(this value).
4. Let isArray be ? IsArray(O).
5. If isArray is true, let builtinTag be "Array".
6. Else if O has a ⁠[[ParameterMap]] internal slot, let builtinTag be "Arguments".
7. Else if O has a ⁠[[Call]] internal method, let builtinTag be "Function".
8. Else if O has an ⁠[[ErrorData]] internal slot, let builtinTag be "Error".
9. Else if O has a ⁠[[BooleanData]] internal slot, let builtinTag be "Boolean".
10. Else if O has a ⁠[[NumberData]] internal slot, let builtinTag be "Number".
11. Else if O has a ⁠[[StringData]] internal slot, let builtinTag be "String".
12. Else if O has a ⁠[[DateValue]] internal slot, let builtinTag be "Date".
13. Else if O has a ⁠[[RegExpMatcher]] internal slot, let builtinTag be "RegExp".
14. Else, let builtinTag be "Object".
15. Let tag be ? Get(O, %[Link]%).
16. If tag is not a String, set tag to builtinTag.
17. Return the string-concatenation of "[object ", tag, and "]".

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE Historically, this method was occasionally used to access the String value of the ⁠[[Class]] internal slot that
was used in previous editions of this specification as a nominal type tag for various built-in objects. The
above definition of toString preserves compatibility for legacy code that uses toString as a test for
those specific kinds of built-in objects. It does not provide a reliable type testing mechanism for other kinds
of built-in or program defined objects. In addition, programs can use %[Link]% in ways that will
invalidate the reliability of such legacy type tests.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? ToObject(this value).

NORMATIVE OPTIONAL, LEGACY

[Link] [Link].__proto__

[Link].proto is an accessor property with attributes { ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]:

true }. The ⁠[[Get]] and ⁠[[Set]] attributes are defined as follows:

[Link].1 get [Link].proto

The value of the ⁠[[Get]] attribute is a built-in function that requires no arguments. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Return ? O.⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]]().

[Link].2 set [Link].proto

The value of the ⁠[[Set]] attribute is a built-in function that takes an argument proto. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. If proto is not an Object and proto is not null, return undefined.
3. If O is not an Object, return undefined.
4. Let status be ? O.⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]](proto).
5. If status is false, throw a TypeError exception.
6. Return undefined.

NORMATIVE OPTIONAL, LEGACY

[Link] Legacy [Link] Accessor Methods

[Link].1 [Link].defineGetter ( P, getter )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. If IsCallable(getter) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let desc be PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Get]]: getter, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: true, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.
4. Let key be ? ToPropertyKey(P).
5. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(O, key, desc).
6. Return undefined.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].2 [Link].defineSetter ( P, setter )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. If IsCallable(setter) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let desc be PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Set]]: setter, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: true, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.
4. Let key be ? ToPropertyKey(P).
5. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(O, key, desc).
6. Return undefined.

[Link].3 [Link].__lookupGetter__ ( P )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let key be ? ToPropertyKey(P).
3. Repeat,
a. Let desc be ? O.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](key).
b. If desc is not undefined, then
i. If IsAccessorDescriptor(desc) is true, return desc.⁠[[Get]].
ii. Return undefined.
c. Set O to ? O.⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
d. If O is null, return undefined.

[Link].4 [Link].__lookupSetter__ ( P )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let key be ? ToPropertyKey(P).
3. Repeat,
a. Let desc be ? O.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](key).
b. If desc is not undefined, then
i. If IsAccessorDescriptor(desc) is true, return desc.⁠[[Set]].
ii. Return undefined.
c. Set O to ? O.⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
d. If O is null, return undefined.

20.1.4 Properties of Object Instances

Object instances have no special properties beyond those inherited from the Object prototype object.

20.2 Function Objects

20.2.1 The Function Constructor

The Function constructor:

is %Function%.
is the initial value of the "Function" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new function object when called as a function rather than as a constructor. Thus the function
call Function(…) is equivalent to the object creation expression new Function(…) with the same arguments.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified Function behaviour must include a super call to the Function constructor to create and initialize a
subclass instance with the internal slots necessary for built-in function behaviour. All ECMAScript syntactic forms for

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

defining function objects create instances of Function. There is no syntactic means to create instances of Function
subclasses except for the built-in GeneratorFunction, AsyncFunction, and AsyncGeneratorFunction subclasses.

[Link] Function ( ...parameterArgs, bodyArg )

The last argument (if any) specifies the body (executable code) of a function; any preceding arguments specify
formal parameters.

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let C be the active function object.

2. If bodyArg is not present, set bodyArg to the empty String.
3. Return ? CreateDynamicFunction(C, NewTarget, NORMAL, parameterArgs, bodyArg).

NOTE It is permissible but not necessary to have one argument for each formal parameter to be specified. For
example, all three of the following expressions produce the same result:

new Function("a", "b", "c", "return a+b+c")

new Function("a, b, c", "return a+b+c")
new Function("a,b", "c", "return a+b+c")

[Link].1 CreateDynamicFunction ( constructor, newTarget, kind, parameterArgs, bodyArg )

The abstract operation CreateDynamicFunction takes arguments constructor (a constructor), newTarget (a constructor
or undefined), kind (NORMAL, GENERATOR, ASYNC, or ASYNC-GENERATOR), parameterArgs (a List of ECMAScript
language values), and bodyArg (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing an
ECMAScript function object or a throw completion. constructor is the constructor function that is performing this action.
newTarget is the constructor that new was initially applied to. parameterArgs and bodyArg reflect the argument values
that were passed to constructor. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If newTarget is undefined, set newTarget to constructor.

2. If kind is NORMAL, then
a. Let prefix be "function".
b. Let exprSym be the grammar symbol FunctionExpression.
c. Let bodySym be the grammar symbol FunctionBody[~Yield, ~Await] .
d. Let parameterSym be the grammar symbol FormalParameters[~Yield, ~Await] .
e. Let fallbackProto be "%[Link]%".
3. Else if kind is GENERATOR, then
a. Let prefix be "function*".
b. Let exprSym be the grammar symbol GeneratorExpression.
c. Let bodySym be the grammar symbol GeneratorBody.
d. Let parameterSym be the grammar symbol FormalParameters[+Yield, ~Await] .
e. Let fallbackProto be "%[Link]%".
4. Else if kind is ASYNC, then
a. Let prefix be "async function".
b. Let exprSym be the grammar symbol AsyncFunctionExpression.
c. Let bodySym be the grammar symbol AsyncFunctionBody.
d. Let parameterSym be the grammar symbol FormalParameters[~Yield, +Await] .
e. Let fallbackProto be "%[Link]%".
5. Else,
a. Assert: kind is ASYNC-GENERATOR.
b. Let prefix be "async function*".
c. Let exprSym be the grammar symbol AsyncGeneratorExpression.
d. Let bodySym be the grammar symbol AsyncGeneratorBody.
e. Let parameterSym be the grammar symbol FormalParameters[+Yield, +Await] .
f. Let fallbackProto be "%[Link]%".

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

6. Let argCount be the number of elements in parameterArgs.

7. Let parameterStrings be a new empty List.
8. For each element arg of parameterArgs, do
a. Append ? ToString(arg) to parameterStrings.
9. Let bodyString be ? ToString(bodyArg).
10. Let currentRealm be the current Realm Record.
11. Perform ? HostEnsureCanCompileStrings(currentRealm, parameterStrings, bodyString, false).
12. Let P be the empty String.
13. If argCount > 0, then
a. Set P to parameterStrings[0].
b. Let k be 1.
c. Repeat, while k < argCount,
i. Let nextArgString be parameterStrings[k].
ii. Set P to the string-concatenation of P, "," (a comma), and nextArgString.
iii. Set k to k + 1.
14. Let bodyParseString be the string-concatenation of 0x000A (LINE FEED), bodyString, and 0x000A (LINE FEED).
15. Let sourceString be the string-concatenation of prefix, " anonymous(", P, 0x000A (LINE FEED), ") {",
bodyParseString, and "}".
16. Let sourceText be StringToCodePoints(sourceString).
17. Let parameters be ParseText(P, parameterSym).
18. If parameters is a List of errors, throw a SyntaxError exception.
19. Let body be ParseText(bodyParseString, bodySym).
20. If body is a List of errors, throw a SyntaxError exception.
21. NOTE: The parameters and body are parsed separately to ensure that each is valid alone. For example,
new Function("/*", "*/ ) {") does not evaluate to a function.
22. NOTE: If this step is reached, sourceText must have the syntax of exprSym (although the reverse implication does
not hold). The purpose of the next two steps is to enforce any Early Error rules which apply to exprSym directly.
23. Let expr be ParseText(sourceText, exprSym).
24. If expr is a List of errors, throw a SyntaxError exception.
25. Let proto be ? GetPrototypeFromConstructor(newTarget, fallbackProto).
26. Let env be currentRealm.⁠[[GlobalEnv]].
27. Let privateEnv be null.
28. Let F be OrdinaryFunctionCreate(proto, sourceText, parameters, body, NON-LEXICAL-THIS, env, privateEnv).
29. Perform SetFunctionName(F, "anonymous").
30. If kind is GENERATOR, then
a. Let prototype be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%GeneratorPrototype%).
b. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(F, "prototype", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: prototype, ⁠[[Writable]]: true,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
31. Else if kind is ASYNC-GENERATOR, then
a. Let prototype be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%AsyncGeneratorPrototype%).
b. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(F, "prototype", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Value]]: prototype, ⁠[[Writable]]: true,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
32. Else if kind is NORMAL, then
a. Perform MakeConstructor(F).
33. NOTE: Functions whose kind is ASYNC are not constructable and do not have a ⁠[[Construct]] internal method or a
"prototype" property.
34. Return F.

NOTE CreateDynamicFunction defines a "prototype" property on any function it creates whose kind is not ASYNC
to provide for the possibility that the function will be used as a constructor.

20.2.2 Properties of the Function Constructor

The Function constructor:

is itself a built-in function object.

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
has a "length" property whose value is 1𝔽.
has the following properties:

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link]

The value of [Link] is the Function prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

20.2.3 Properties of the Function Prototype Object

The Function prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
is itself a built-in function object.
accepts any arguments and returns undefined when invoked.
does not have a ⁠[[Construct]] internal method; it cannot be used as a constructor with the new operator.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
does not have a "prototype" property.
has a "length" property whose value is +0𝔽.
has a "name" property whose value is the empty String.

NOTE The Function prototype object is specified to be a function object to ensure compatibility with ECMAScript
code that was created prior to the ECMAScript 2015 specification.

[Link] [Link] ( thisArg, argArray )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let func be the this value.

2. If IsCallable(func) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. If argArray is either undefined or null, then
a. Perform PrepareForTailCall().
b. Return ? Call(func, thisArg).
4. Let argList be ? CreateListFromArrayLike(argArray).
5. Perform PrepareForTailCall().
6. Return ? Call(func, thisArg, argList).

NOTE 1 The thisArg value is passed without modification as the this value. This is a change from Edition 3, where an
undefined or null thisArg is replaced with the global object and ToObject is applied to all other values and
that result is passed as the this value. Even though the thisArg is passed without modification, non-strict
functions still perform these transformations upon entry to the function.

NOTE 2 If func is either an arrow function or a bound function exotic object, then the thisArg will be ignored by the
function ⁠[[Call]] in step 6.

[Link] [Link] ( thisArg, ...args )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let Target be the this value.

2. If IsCallable(Target) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let F be ? BoundFunctionCreate(Target, thisArg, args).
4. Let L be 0.
5. Let targetHasLength be ? HasOwnProperty(Target, "length").
6. If targetHasLength is true, then
a. Let targetLen be ? Get(Target, "length").
b. If targetLen is a Number, then

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

i. If targetLen is +∞𝔽, then

1. Set L to +∞.
ii. Else if targetLen is -∞𝔽, then
1. Set L to 0.
iii. Else,
1. Let targetLenAsInt be ! ToIntegerOrInfinity(targetLen).
2. Assert: targetLenAsInt is finite.
3. Let argCount be the number of elements in args.
4. Set L to max(targetLenAsInt - argCount, 0).
7. Perform SetFunctionLength(F, L).
8. Let targetName be ? Get(Target, "name").
9. If targetName is not a String, set targetName to the empty String.
10. Perform SetFunctionName(F, targetName, "bound").
11. Return F.

NOTE 1 Function objects created using [Link] are exotic objects. They also do not have a
"prototype" property.

NOTE 2 If Target is either an arrow function or a bound function exotic object, then the thisArg passed to this method
will not be used by subsequent calls to F.

[Link] [Link] ( thisArg, ...args )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let func be the this value.

2. If IsCallable(func) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Perform PrepareForTailCall().
4. Return ? Call(func, thisArg, args).

NOTE 2 If func is either an arrow function or a bound function exotic object, then the thisArg will be ignored by the
function ⁠[[Call]] in step 4.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %Function%.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let func be the this value.

2. If func is an Object, func has a ⁠[[SourceText]] internal slot, func.⁠[[SourceText]] is a sequence of Unicode code points,
and HostHasSourceTextAvailable(func) is true, then
a. Return CodePointsToString(func.⁠[[SourceText]]).
3. If func is a built-in function object, return an implementation-defined String source code representation of func. The
representation must have the syntax of a NativeFunction. Additionally, if func has an ⁠[[InitialName]] internal slot and
func.⁠[[InitialName]] is a String, the portion of the returned String that would be matched by
NativeFunctionAccessoropt PropertyName must be func.⁠[[InitialName]].

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4. If func is an Object and IsCallable(func) is true, return an implementation-defined String source code representation
of func. The representation must have the syntax of a NativeFunction.
5. Throw a TypeError exception.

NativeFunction :
function NativeFunctionAccessoropt PropertyName[~Yield, ~Await] opt (
FormalParameters[~Yield, ~Await] ) { [ native code ] }

NativeFunctionAccessor :
get
set

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ] ( V )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let F be the this value.

2. Return ? OrdinaryHasInstance(F, V).

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

NOTE This is the default implementation of %[Link]% that most functions inherit.
%[Link]% is called by the instanceof operator to determine whether a value is an
instance of a specific constructor. An expression such as

v instanceof F

evaluates as

F[%[Link]%](v)

A constructor function can control which objects are recognized as its instances by instanceof by
exposing a different %[Link]% method on the function.

This property is non-writable and non-configurable to prevent tampering that could be used to globally expose the target
function of a bound function.

The value of the "name" property of this method is "[[Link]]".

20.2.4 Function Instances

Every Function instance is an ECMAScript function object and has the internal slots listed in Table 30. Function objects
created using the [Link] method ([Link]) have the internal slots listed in Table 31.

Function instances have the following properties:

[Link] length

The value of the "length" property is an integral Number that indicates the typical number of arguments expected by
the function. However, the language permits the function to be invoked with some other number of arguments. The be-
haviour of a function when invoked on a number of arguments other than the number specified by its "length" property
depends on the function. This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]:
true }.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] name

The value of the "name" property is a String that is descriptive of the function. The name has no semantic significance
but is typically a variable or property name that is used to refer to the function at its point of definition in ECMAScript
source text. This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

Anonymous functions objects that do not have a contextual name associated with them by this specification use the
empty String as the value of the "name" property.

[Link] prototype

Function instances that can be used as a constructor have a "prototype" property. Whenever such a Function instance
is created another ordinary object is also created and is the initial value of the function's "prototype" property. Unless
otherwise specified, the value of the "prototype" property is used to initialize the ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot of the object
created when that function is invoked as a constructor.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

NOTE Function objects created using [Link], or by evaluating a MethodDefinition (that

is not a GeneratorMethod or AsyncGeneratorMethod) or an ArrowFunction do not have a
"prototype" property.

20.2.5 HostHasSourceTextAvailable ( func )

The host-defined abstract operation HostHasSourceTextAvailable takes argument func (a function object) and returns a
Boolean. It allows host environments to prevent the source text from being provided for func.

An implementation of HostHasSourceTextAvailable must conform to the following requirements:

It must be deterministic with respect to its parameters. Each time it is called with a specific func as its argument, it
must return the same result.

The default implementation of HostHasSourceTextAvailable is to return true.

20.3 Boolean Objects

20.3.1 The Boolean Constructor

The Boolean constructor:

is %Boolean%.
is the initial value of the "Boolean" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new Boolean object when called as a constructor.
performs a type conversion when called as a function rather than as a constructor.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified Boolean behaviour must include a super call to the Boolean constructor to create and initialize the
subclass instance with a ⁠[[BooleanData]] internal slot.

[Link] Boolean ( value )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let b be ToBoolean(value).
2. If NewTarget is undefined, return b.
3. Let O be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(NewTarget, "%[Link]%", « ⁠[[BooleanData]] »).
4. Set O.⁠[[BooleanData]] to b.
5. Return O.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

20.3.2 Properties of the Boolean Constructor

The Boolean constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the Boolean prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

20.3.3 Properties of the Boolean Prototype Object

The Boolean prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
is itself a Boolean object; it has a ⁠[[BooleanData]] internal slot with the value false.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %Boolean%.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let b be ? ThisBooleanValue(this value).

2. If b is true, return "true"; else return "false".

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? ThisBooleanValue(this value).

[Link].1 ThisBooleanValue ( value )

The abstract operation ThisBooleanValue takes argument value (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a
normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If value is a Boolean, return value.

2. If value is an Object and value has a [[BooleanData]] internal slot, then
a. Let b be value.⁠[[BooleanData]].
b. Assert: b is a Boolean.
c. Return b.
3. Throw a TypeError exception.

20.3.4 Properties of Boolean Instances

Boolean instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the Boolean prototype object. Boolean instances
have a ⁠[[BooleanData]] internal slot. The ⁠[[BooleanData]] internal slot is the Boolean value represented by this
Boolean object.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

20.4 Symbol Objects

20.4.1 The Symbol Constructor

The Symbol constructor:

is %Symbol%.
is the initial value of the "Symbol" property of the global object.
returns a new Symbol value when called as a function.
is not intended to be used with the new operator.
is not intended to be subclassed.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition but a super call to it will cause an exception.

[Link] Symbol ( [ description ] )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.

2. If description is undefined, let descString be undefined.
3. Else, let descString be ? ToString(description).
4. Return a new Symbol whose ⁠[[Description]] is descString.

20.4.2 Properties of the Symbol Constructor

The Symbol constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the well-known symbol %[Link]% (Table 1).

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] [Link] ( key )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let stringKey be ? ToString(key).

2. For each element e of the GlobalSymbolRegistry List, do
a. If e.⁠[[Key]] is stringKey, return e.⁠[[Symbol]].
3. Assert: The GlobalSymbolRegistry List does not currently contain an entry for stringKey.
4. Let newSymbol be a new Symbol whose ⁠[[Description]] is stringKey.
5. Append the GlobalSymbolRegistry Record { ⁠[[Key]]: stringKey, ⁠[[Symbol]]: newSymbol } to the
GlobalSymbolRegistry List.
6. Return newSymbol.

The GlobalSymbolRegistry List is an append-only List that is globally available. It is shared by all realms. Prior to the
evaluation of any ECMAScript code, it is initialized as a new empty List. Elements of the GlobalSymbolRegistry List are
Records with the structure defined in Table 63.

Table 63: GlobalSymbolRegistry Record Fields

Field Name Value Usage
⁠[[Key]] a String A string key used to globally identify a Symbol.
⁠[[Symbol]] a Symbol A symbol that can be retrieved from any realm.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the well-known symbol %[Link]% (Table 1).

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the well-known symbol %[Link]%

(Table 1).

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the well-known symbol %[Link]% (Table 1).

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] [Link] ( sym )

The initial value of [Link] is the well-known symbol %[Link]% (Table 1).

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the well-known symbol %[Link]% (Table 1).

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the well-known symbol %[Link]% (Table 1).

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

20.4.3 Properties of the Symbol Prototype Object

The Symbol prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
is not a Symbol instance and does not have a ⁠[[SymbolData]] internal slot.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %Symbol%.

[Link] get [Link]

[Link] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get ac-
cessor function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let s be the this value.

2. Let sym be ? ThisSymbolValue(s).
3. Return sym.⁠[[Description]].

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let sym be ? ThisSymbolValue(this value).

2. Return SymbolDescriptiveString(sym).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].1 SymbolDescriptiveString ( sym )

The abstract operation SymbolDescriptiveString takes argument sym (a Symbol) and returns a String. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let desc be sym's ⁠[[Description]] value.

2. If desc is undefined, set desc to the empty String.
3. Assert: desc is a String.
4. Return the string-concatenation of "Symbol(", desc, and ")".

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? ThisSymbolValue(this value).

[Link].1 ThisSymbolValue ( value )

The abstract operation ThisSymbolValue takes argument value (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a
normal completion containing a Symbol or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If value is a Symbol, return value.

2. If value is an Object and value has a [[SymbolData]] internal slot, then
a. Let s be value.⁠[[SymbolData]].
b. Assert: s is a Symbol.
c. Return s.
3. Throw a TypeError exception.

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ] ( hint )

This method is called by ECMAScript language operators to convert a Symbol object to a primitive value.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? ThisSymbolValue(this value).

NOTE The argument is ignored.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

The value of the "name" property of this method is "[[Link]]".

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "Symbol".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

20.4.4 Properties of Symbol Instances

Symbol instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the Symbol prototype object. Symbol instances have
a ⁠[[SymbolData]] internal slot. The ⁠[[SymbolData]] internal slot is the Symbol value represented by this Symbol object.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

20.4.5 Abstract Operations for Symbols

[Link] KeyForSymbol ( sym )

The abstract operation KeyForSymbol takes argument sym (a Symbol) and returns a String or undefined. If sym
is in the GlobalSymbolRegistry List, the String used to register sym will be returned. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. For each element e of the GlobalSymbolRegistry List, do

a. If SameValue(e.⁠[[Symbol]], sym) is true, return e.⁠[[Key]].
2. Assert: The GlobalSymbolRegistry List does not currently contain an entry for sym.
3. Return undefined.

20.5 Error Objects

Instances of Error objects are thrown as exceptions when runtime errors occur. The Error objects may also serve as
base objects for user-defined exception classes.

When an ECMAScript implementation detects a runtime error, it throws a new instance of one of the NativeError objects
defined in 20.5.5 or a new instance of the AggregateError object defined in 20.5.7.

20.5.1 The Error Constructor

The Error constructor:

is %Error%.
is the initial value of the "Error" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new Error object when called as a function rather than as a constructor. Thus the function
call Error(…) is equivalent to the object creation expression new Error(…) with the same arguments.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified Error behaviour must include a super call to the Error constructor to create and initialize subclass
instances with an ⁠[[ErrorData]] internal slot.

[Link] Error ( message [ , options ] )

This function performs the following steps when called:

20.5.2 Properties of the Error Constructor

The Error constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( arg )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If arg is not an Object, return false.

2. If arg does not have an ⁠[[ErrorData]] internal slot, return false.
3. Return true.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the Error prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

20.5.3 Properties of the Error Prototype Object

The Error prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
is not an Error instance and does not have an ⁠[[ErrorData]] internal slot.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %Error%.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the empty String.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is "Error".

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. If O is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let name be ? Get(O, "name").
4. If name is undefined, set name to "Error"; otherwise set name to ? ToString(name).
5. Let msg be ? Get(O, "message").
6. If msg is undefined, set msg to the empty String; otherwise set msg to ? ToString(msg).
7. If name is the empty String, return msg.
8. If msg is the empty String, return name.
9. Return the string-concatenation of name, the code unit 0x003A (COLON), the code unit 0x0020 (SPACE), and msg.

20.5.4 Properties of Error Instances

Error instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the Error prototype object and have an ⁠[[ErrorData]] in-
ternal slot whose value is undefined. The only specified use of [[ErrorData]] is to identify Error, AggregateError, and
NativeError instances as Error objects within [Link] and [Link].

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

20.5.5 Native Error Types Used in This Standard

A new instance of one of the NativeError objects below or of the AggregateError object is thrown when a runtime error is
detected. All NativeError objects share the same structure, as described in 20.5.6.

[Link] EvalError

The EvalError constructor is %EvalError%.

This exception is not currently used within this specification. This object remains for compatibility with previous editions
of this specification.

[Link] RangeError

The RangeError constructor is %RangeError%.

Indicates a value that is not in the set or range of allowable values.

[Link] ReferenceError

The ReferenceError constructor is %ReferenceError%.

Indicate that an invalid reference has been detected.

[Link] SyntaxError

The SyntaxError constructor is %SyntaxError%.

Indicates that a parsing error has occurred.

[Link] TypeError

The TypeError constructor is %TypeError%.

TypeError is used to indicate an unsuccessful operation when none of the other NativeError objects are an appropriate
indication of the failure cause.

[Link] URIError

The URIError constructor is %URIError%.

Indicates that one of the global URI handling functions was used in a way that is incompatible with its definition.

20.5.6 NativeError Object Structure

Each of these objects has the structure described below, differing only in the name used as the constructor name and in
the "name" property of the prototype object.

For each error object, references to NativeError in the definition should be replaced with the appropriate error object
name from 20.5.5.

[Link] The NativeError Constructors

Each NativeError constructor:

creates and initializes a new NativeError object when called as a function rather than as a constructor. A call of the
object as a function is equivalent to calling it as a constructor with the same arguments. Thus the function call

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NativeError(…) is equivalent to the object creation expression new NativeError(…) with the same
arguments.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified NativeError behaviour must include a super call to the NativeError constructor to create and initialize
subclass instances with an ⁠[[ErrorData]] internal slot.

[Link].1 NativeError ( message [ , options ] )

Each NativeError function performs the following steps when called:

The actual value of the string passed in step 2 is either "%[Link]%", "%[Link]%",
"%[Link]%", "%[Link]%", "%[Link]%", or
"%[Link]%" corresponding to which NativeError constructor is being defined.

[Link] Properties of the NativeError Constructors

Each NativeError constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %Error%.

has a "name" property whose value is the String value "NativeError".
has the following properties:

[Link].1 [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is a NativeError prototype object ([Link]). Each NativeError con-
structor has a distinct prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] Properties of the NativeError Prototype Objects

Each NativeError prototype object:

is an ordinary object.
is not an Error instance and does not have an ⁠[[ErrorData]] internal slot.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

[Link].1 [Link]

The initial value of the "constructor" property of the prototype for a given NativeError constructor is the
constructor itself.

[Link].2 [Link]

The initial value of the "message" property of the prototype for a given NativeError constructor is the empty String.

[Link].3 [Link]

The initial value of the "name" property of the prototype for a given NativeError constructor is the String value consist-
ing of the name of the constructor (the name used instead of NativeError).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Properties of NativeError Instances

NativeError instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from their NativeError prototype object and have an
[[ErrorData]] internal slot whose value is undefined. The only specified use of ⁠[[ErrorData]] is by
[Link] ([Link]) and [Link] ([Link]) to identify Error, AggregateError, or
NativeError instances.

20.5.7 AggregateError Objects

[Link] The AggregateError Constructor

The AggregateError constructor:

is %AggregateError%.
is the initial value of the "AggregateError" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new AggregateError object when called as a function rather than as a constructor. Thus the
function call AggregateError(…) is equivalent to the object creation expression new AggregateError(…) with
the same arguments.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified AggregateError behaviour must include a super call to the AggregateError constructor to create and
initialize subclass instances with an ⁠[[ErrorData]] internal slot.

[Link].1 AggregateError ( errors, message [ , options ] )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is undefined, let newTarget be the active function object; else let newTarget be NewTarget.
2. Let O be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(newTarget, "%[Link]%", « ⁠[[ErrorData]] »).
3. If message is not undefined, then
a. Let msg be ? ToString(message).
b. Perform CreateNonEnumerableDataPropertyOrThrow(O, "message", msg).
4. Perform ? InstallErrorCause(O, options).
5. Let errorsList be ? IteratorToList(? GetIterator(errors, SYNC)).
6. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(O, "errors", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Configurable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false,
⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Value]]: CreateArrayFromList(errorsList) }).
7. Return O.

[Link] Properties of the AggregateError Constructor

The AggregateError constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %Error%.

has the following properties:

[Link].1 [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %[Link]%.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] Properties of the AggregateError Prototype Object

The AggregateError prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
is not an Error instance or an AggregateError instance and does not have an ⁠[[ErrorData]] internal slot.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].1 [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %AggregateError%.

[Link].2 [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the empty String.

[Link].3 [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is "AggregateError".

[Link] Properties of AggregateError Instances

AggregateError instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from their AggregateError prototype object and
have an ⁠[[ErrorData]] internal slot whose value is undefined. The only specified use of ⁠[[ErrorData]] is by
[Link] ([Link]) and [Link] ([Link]) to identify Error, AggregateError, or
NativeError instances.

20.5.8 Abstract Operations for Error Objects

[Link] InstallErrorCause ( O, options )

The abstract operation InstallErrorCause takes arguments O (an Object) and options (an ECMAScript language value)
and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It is used to create a "cause" prop-
erty on O when a "cause" property is present on options. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If options is an Object and ? HasProperty(options, "cause") is true, then

a. Let cause be ? Get(options, "cause").
b. Perform CreateNonEnumerableDataPropertyOrThrow(O, "cause", cause).
2. Return UNUSED.

21 Numbers and Dates

21.1 Number Objects

21.1.1 The Number Constructor

The Number constructor:

is %Number%.
is the initial value of the "Number" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new Number object when called as a constructor.
performs a type conversion when called as a function rather than as a constructor.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified Number behaviour must include a super call to the Number constructor to create and initialize the
subclass instance with a ⁠[[NumberData]] internal slot.

[Link] Number ( value )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If value is present, then

a. Let prim be ? ToNumeric(value).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

b. If prim is a BigInt, let n be 𝔽(ℝ(prim)).

c. Otherwise, let n be prim.
2. Else,
a. Let n be +0𝔽.
3. If NewTarget is undefined, return n.
4. Let O be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(NewTarget, "%[Link]%", « ⁠[[NumberData]] »).
5. Set O.⁠[[NumberData]] to n.
6. Return O.

21.1.2 Properties of the Number Constructor

The Number constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

[Link] [Link]

The value of [Link] is the Number value for the magnitude of the difference between 1 and the smallest
value greater than 1 that is representable as a Number value, which is approximately
2.2204460492503130808472633361816 × 10-16.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] [Link] ( number )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If number is not a Number, return false.

2. If number is not finite, return false.
3. Otherwise, return true.

[Link] [Link] ( number )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If number is an integral Number, return true.

2. Return false.

[Link] [Link] ( number )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If number is not a Number, return false.

2. If number is NaN, return true.
3. Otherwise, return false.

NOTE This function differs from the global isNaN function (19.2.3) in that it does not convert its argument to a
Number before determining whether it is NaN.

[Link] [Link] ( number )

NOTE An integer n is a "safe integer" if and only if the Number value for n is not the Number value for any
other integer.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If number is an integral Number, then

a. If abs(ℝ(number)) ≤ 253 - 1, return true.
2. Return false.

[Link] Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER

NOTE Due to rounding behaviour necessitated by precision limitations of IEEE 754-2019, the Number value for
every integer greater than Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER is shared with at least one other integer. Such
large-magnitude integers are therefore not safe, and are not guaranteed to be exactly representable as
Number values or even to be distinguishable from each other. For example, both 9007199254740992 and
9007199254740993 evaluate to the Number value 9007199254740992𝔽.

The value of Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER is 9007199254740991𝔽 (𝔽(253 - 1)).

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] Number.MAX_VALUE

The value of Number.MAX_VALUE is the largest positive finite value of the Number type, which is approximately
1.7976931348623157 × 10308.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] Number.MIN_SAFE_INTEGER

NOTE Due to rounding behaviour necessitated by precision limitations of IEEE 754-2019, the Number value for
every integer less than Number.MIN_SAFE_INTEGER is shared with at least one other integer. Such large-
magnitude integers are therefore not safe, and are not guaranteed to be exactly representable as Number
values or even to be distinguishable from each other. For example, both -9007199254740992 and
-9007199254740993 evaluate to the Number value -9007199254740992𝔽.

The value of Number.MIN_SAFE_INTEGER is -9007199254740991𝔽 (𝔽(-(253 - 1))).

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] Number.MIN_VALUE

The value of Number.MIN_VALUE is the smallest positive value of the Number type, which is approximately 5 × 10-324.

In the IEEE 754-2019 double precision binary representation, the smallest possible value is a denormalized number. If
an implementation does not support denormalized values, the value of Number.MIN_VALUE must be the smallest non-
zero positive value that can actually be represented by the implementation.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] [Link]

The value of [Link] is NaN.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY

The value of Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY is -∞𝔽.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] [Link] ( string )

The initial value of the "parseFloat" property is %parseFloat%.

[Link] [Link] ( string, radix )

The initial value of the "parseInt" property is %parseInt%.

[Link] Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY

The value of Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY is +∞𝔽.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the Number prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

21.1.3 Properties of the Number Prototype Object

The Number prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
is itself a Number object; it has a ⁠[[NumberData]] internal slot with the value +0𝔽.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

Unless explicitly stated otherwise, the methods of the Number prototype object defined below are not generic and the
this value passed to them must be either a Number value or an object that has a ⁠[[NumberData]] internal slot that has
been initialized to a Number value.

The phrase “this Number value” within the specification of a method refers to the result returned by calling the abstract
operation ThisNumberValue with the this value of the method invocation passed as the argument.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %Number%.

[Link] [Link] ( fractionDigits )

This method returns a String containing this Number value represented in decimal exponential notation with one digit
before the significand's decimal point and fractionDigits digits after the significand's decimal point. If fractionDigits is un-
defined, it includes as many significand digits as necessary to uniquely specify the Number (just like in ToString except
that in this case the Number is always output in exponential notation).

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let x be ? ThisNumberValue(this value).

2. Let f be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(fractionDigits).
3. Assert: If fractionDigits is undefined, then f is 0.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4. If x is not finite, return Number::toString(x, 10).

5. If f < 0 or f > 100, throw a RangeError exception.
6. Set x to ℝ(x).
7. Let s be the empty String.
8. If x < 0, then
a. Set s to "-".
b. Set x to -x.
9. If x = 0, then
a. Let m be the String value consisting of f + 1 occurrences of the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO).
b. Let e be 0.
10. Else,
a. If fractionDigits is not undefined, then
i. Let e and n be integers such that 10f ≤ n < 10f + 1 and for which n × 10e - f - x is as close to zero as
possible. If there are two such sets of e and n, pick the e and n for which n × 10e - f is larger.
b. Else,
i. Let e, n, and ff be integers such that ff ≥ 0, 10ff ≤ n < 10ff + 1, 𝔽(n × 10e - ff) is 𝔽(x), and ff is as small as
possible. Note that the decimal representation of n has ff + 1 digits, n is not divisible by 10, and the least
significant digit of n is not necessarily uniquely determined by these criteria.
ii. Set f to ff.
c. Let m be the String value consisting of the digits of the decimal representation of n (in order, with no leading
zeroes).
11. If f ≠ 0, then
a. Let a be the first code unit of m.
b. Let b be the other f code units of m.
c. Set m to the string-concatenation of a, ".", and b.
12. If e = 0, then
a. Let c be "+".
b. Let d be "0".
13. Else,
a. If e > 0, then
i. Let c be "+".
b. Else,
i. Assert: e < 0.
ii. Let c be "-".
iii. Set e to -e.
c. Let d be the String value consisting of the digits of the decimal representation of e (in order, with no leading
zeroes).
14. Set m to the string-concatenation of m, "e", c, and d.
15. Return the string-concatenation of s and m.

NOTE For implementations that provide more accurate conversions than required by the rules above, it is
recommended that the following alternative version of step 10.b.i be used as a guideline:

i. Let e, n, and f be integers such that f ≥ 0, 10f ≤ n < 10f + 1, 𝔽(n × 10e - f) is 𝔽(x), and f is as small as
possible. If there are multiple possibilities for n, choose the value of n for which 𝔽(n × 10e - f) is closest in
value to 𝔽(x). If there are two such possible values of n, choose the one that is even.

[Link] [Link] ( fractionDigits )

NOTE 1 This method returns a String containing this Number value represented in decimal fixed-point notation with
fractionDigits digits after the decimal point. If fractionDigits is undefined, 0 is assumed.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let x be ? ThisNumberValue(this value).

2. Let f be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(fractionDigits).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Assert: If fractionDigits is undefined, then f is 0.

4. If f is not finite, throw a RangeError exception.
5. If f < 0 or f > 100, throw a RangeError exception.
6. If x is not finite, return Number::toString(x, 10).
7. Set x to ℝ(x).
8. Let s be the empty String.
9. If x < 0, then
a. Set s to "-".
b. Set x to -x.
10. If x ≥ 1021, then
a. Let m be ! ToString(𝔽(x)).
11. Else,
a. Let n be an integer for which n / 10f - x is as close to zero as possible. If there are two such n, pick the larger n.
b. If n = 0, let m be "0"; otherwise let m be the String value consisting of the digits of the decimal representation of
n (in order, with no leading zeroes).
c. If f ≠ 0, then
i. Let k be the length of m.
ii. If k ≤ f, then
1. Let z be the String value consisting of f + 1 - k occurrences of the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO).
2. Set m to the string-concatenation of z and m.
3. Set k to f + 1.
iii. Let a be the first k - f code units of m.
iv. Let b be the other f code units of m.
v. Set m to the string-concatenation of a, ".", and b.
12. Return the string-concatenation of s and m.

NOTE 2 The output of toFixed may be more precise than toString for some values because toString only prints
enough significant digits to distinguish the number from adjacent Number values. For example,

(1000000000000000128).toString() returns "1000000000000000100", while

(1000000000000000128).toFixed(0) returns "1000000000000000128".

[Link] [Link] ( [ reserved1 [ , reserved2 ] ] )

An ECMAScript implementation that includes the ECMA-402 Internationalization API must implement this method as
specified in the ECMA-402 specification. If an ECMAScript implementation does not include the ECMA-402 API the fol-
lowing specification of this method is used:

This method produces a String value that represents this Number value formatted according to the conventions of the
host environment's current locale. This method is implementation-defined, and it is permissible, but not encouraged, for
it to return the same thing as toString.

The meanings of the optional parameters to this method are defined in the ECMA-402 specification; implementations
that do not include ECMA-402 support must not use those parameter positions for anything else.

[Link] [Link] ( precision )

This method returns a String containing this Number value represented either in decimal exponential notation with one
digit before the significand's decimal point and precision - 1 digits after the significand's decimal point or in decimal fixed
notation with precision significant digits. If precision is undefined, it calls ToString instead.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let x be ? ThisNumberValue(this value).

2. If precision is undefined, return ! ToString(x).
3. Let p be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(precision).
4. If x is not finite, return Number::toString(x, 10).
5. If p < 1 or p > 100, throw a RangeError exception.
6. Set x to ℝ(x).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7. Let s be the empty String.

8. If x < 0, then
a. Set s to the code unit 0x002D (HYPHEN-MINUS).
b. Set x to -x.
9. If x = 0, then
a. Let m be the String value consisting of p occurrences of the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO).
b. Let e be 0.
10. Else,
a. Let e and n be integers such that 10p - 1 ≤ n < 10p and for which n × 10e - p + 1 - x is as close to zero as
possible. If there are two such sets of e and n, pick the e and n for which n × 10e - p + 1 is larger.
b. Let m be the String value consisting of the digits of the decimal representation of n (in order, with no leading
zeroes).
c. If e < -6 or e ≥ p, then
i. Assert: e ≠ 0.
ii. If p ≠ 1, then
1. Let a be the first code unit of m.
2. Let b be the other p - 1 code units of m.
3. Set m to the string-concatenation of a, ".", and b.
iii. If e > 0, then
1. Let c be the code unit 0x002B (PLUS SIGN).
iv. Else,
1. Assert: e < 0.
2. Let c be the code unit 0x002D (HYPHEN-MINUS).
3. Set e to -e.
v. Let d be the String value consisting of the digits of the decimal representation of e (in order, with no leading
zeroes).
vi. Return the string-concatenation of s, m, the code unit 0x0065 (LATIN SMALL LETTER E), c, and d.
11. If e = p - 1, return the string-concatenation of s and m.
12. If e ≥ 0, then
a. Set m to the string-concatenation of the first e + 1 code units of m, the code unit 0x002E (FULL STOP), and the
remaining p - (e + 1) code units of m.
13. Else,
a. Set m to the string-concatenation of the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO), the code unit 0x002E (FULL STOP),
-(e + 1) occurrences of the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO), and the String m.
14. Return the string-concatenation of s and m.

[Link] [Link] ( [ radix ] )

NOTE The optional radix should be an integral Number value in the inclusive interval from 2𝔽 to 36𝔽. If radix is
undefined then 10𝔽 is used as the value of radix.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let x be ? ThisNumberValue(this value).

2. If radix is undefined, let radixMV be 10.
3. Else, let radixMV be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(radix).
4. If radixMV is not in the inclusive interval from 2 to 36, throw a RangeError exception.
5. Return Number::toString(x, radixMV).

This method is not generic; it throws a TypeError exception if its this value is not a Number or a Number object.
Therefore, it cannot be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

The "length" property of this method is 1𝔽.

[Link] [Link] ( )

1. Return ? ThisNumberValue(this value).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].1 ThisNumberValue ( value )

The abstract operation ThisNumberValue takes argument value (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a
normal completion containing a Number or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If value is a Number, return value.

2. If value is an Object and value has a [[NumberData]] internal slot, then
a. Let n be value.⁠[[NumberData]].
b. Assert: n is a Number.
c. Return n.
3. Throw a TypeError exception.

21.1.4 Properties of Number Instances

Number instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the Number prototype object. Number instances
also have a ⁠[[NumberData]] internal slot. The ⁠[[NumberData]] internal slot is the Number value represented by this
Number object.

21.2 BigInt Objects

21.2.1 The BigInt Constructor

The BigInt constructor:

is %BigInt%.
is the initial value of the "BigInt" property of the global object.
performs a type conversion when called as a function rather than as a constructor.
is not intended to be used with the new operator or to be subclassed. It may be used as the value of an extends
clause of a class definition but a super call to the BigInt constructor will cause an exception.

[Link] BigInt ( value )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let prim be ? ToPrimitive(value, NUMBER).
3. If prim is a Number, return ? NumberToBigInt(prim).
4. Otherwise, return ? ToBigInt(prim).

[Link].1 NumberToBigInt ( number )

The abstract operation NumberToBigInt takes argument number (a Number) and returns either a normal completion
containing a BigInt or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If number is not an integral Number, throw a RangeError exception.

2. Return ℤ(ℝ(number)).

21.2.2 Properties of the BigInt Constructor

The BigInt constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( bits, bigint )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Set bits to ? ToIndex(bits).

2. Set bigint to ? ToBigInt(bigint).
3. Let mod be ℝ(bigint) modulo 2bits.
4. If mod ≥ 2bits - 1, return ℤ(mod - 2bits); otherwise return ℤ(mod).

[Link] [Link] ( bits, bigint )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Set bits to ? ToIndex(bits).

2. Set bigint to ? ToBigInt(bigint).
3. Return ℤ(ℝ(bigint) modulo 2bits).

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the BigInt prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

21.2.3 Properties of the BigInt Prototype Object

The BigInt prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
is not a BigInt object; it does not have a ⁠[[BigIntData]] internal slot.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

The phrase “this BigInt value” within the specification of a method refers to the result returned by calling the abstract op-
eration ThisBigIntValue with the this value of the method invocation passed as the argument.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %BigInt%.

[Link] [Link] ( [ reserved1 [ , reserved2 ] ] )

This method produces a String value that represents this BigInt value formatted according to the conventions of the host
environment's current locale. This method is implementation-defined, and it is permissible, but not encouraged, for it to
return the same thing as toString.

[Link] [Link] ( [ radix ] )

NOTE The optional radix should be an integral Number value in the inclusive interval from 2𝔽 to 36𝔽. If radix is
undefined then 10𝔽 is used as the value of radix.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let x be ? ThisBigIntValue(this value).

This method is not generic; it throws a TypeError exception if its this value is not a BigInt or a BigInt object. Therefore,
it cannot be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( )

1. Return ? ThisBigIntValue(this value).

[Link].1 ThisBigIntValue ( value )

The abstract operation ThisBigIntValue takes argument value (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a nor-
mal completion containing a BigInt or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If value is a BigInt, return value.

2. If value is an Object and value has a [[BigIntData]] internal slot, then
a. Assert: value.⁠[[BigIntData]] is a BigInt.
b. Return value.⁠[[BigIntData]].
3. Throw a TypeError exception.

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "BigInt".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

21.2.4 Properties of BigInt Instances

BigInt instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the BigInt prototype object. BigInt instances also have a
[[BigIntData]] internal slot. The ⁠[[BigIntData]] internal slot is the BigInt value represented by this BigInt object.

21.3 The Math Object

The Math object:

is %Math%.
is the initial value of the "Math" property of the global object.
is an ordinary object.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
is not a function object.
does not have a ⁠[[Construct]] internal method; it cannot be used as a constructor with the new operator.
does not have a ⁠[[Call]] internal method; it cannot be invoked as a function.

NOTE In this specification, the phrase “the Number value for x” has a technical meaning defined in [Link].

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

21.3.1 Value Properties of the Math Object

[Link] Math.E

The Number value for e, the base of the natural logarithms, which is approximately 2.7182818284590452354.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] Math.LN10

The Number value for the natural logarithm of 10, which is approximately 2.302585092994046.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] Math.LN2

The Number value for the natural logarithm of 2, which is approximately 0.6931471805599453.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] Math.LOG10E

The Number value for the base-10 logarithm of e, the base of the natural logarithms; this value is
approximately 0.4342944819032518.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

NOTE The value of Math.LOG10E is approximately the reciprocal of the value of Math.LN10.

[Link] Math.LOG2E

The Number value for the base-2 logarithm of e, the base of the natural logarithms; this value is
approximately 1.4426950408889634.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

NOTE The value of Math.LOG2E is approximately the reciprocal of the value of Math.LN2.

[Link] [Link]

The Number value for π, the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, which is
approximately 3.1415926535897932.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] Math.SQRT1_2

The Number value for the square root of ½, which is approximately 0.7071067811865476.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

NOTE The value of Math.SQRT1_2 is approximately the reciprocal of the value of Math.SQRT2.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Math.SQRT2

The Number value for the square root of 2, which is approximately 1.4142135623730951.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] Math [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "Math".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

21.3.2 Function Properties of the Math Object

NOTE The behaviour of the functions acos, acosh, asin, asinh, atan, atanh, atan2, cbrt, cos, cosh, exp,
expm1, hypot, log, log1p, log2, log10, pow, random, sin, sinh, tan, and tanh is not precisely
specified here except to require specific results for certain argument values that represent boundary cases
of interest. For other argument values, these functions are intended to compute approximations to the
results of familiar mathematical functions, but some latitude is allowed in the choice of approximation
algorithms. The general intent is that an implementer should be able to use the same mathematical library
for ECMAScript on a given hardware platform that is available to C programmers on that platform.

Although the choice of algorithms is left to the implementation, it is recommended (but not specified by this
standard) that implementations use the approximation algorithms for IEEE 754-2019 arithmetic contained in
fdlibm, the freely distributable mathematical library from Sun Microsystems ([Link]

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function returns the absolute value of x; the result has the same magnitude as x but has positive sign.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is NaN, return NaN.
3. If n is -0𝔽, return +0𝔽.
4. If n is -∞𝔽, return +∞𝔽.
5. If n < -0𝔽, return -n.
6. Return n.

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function returns the inverse cosine of x. The result is expressed in radians and is in the inclusive interval from +0𝔽
to 𝔽(π).

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is NaN, n > 1𝔽, or n < -1𝔽, return NaN.
3. If n is 1𝔽, return +0𝔽.
4. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing the inverse cosine of ℝ(n).

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function returns the inverse hyperbolic cosine of x.

It performs the following steps when called:

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is either NaN or +∞𝔽, return n.
3. If n is 1𝔽, return +0𝔽.
4. If n < 1𝔽, return NaN.
5. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing the inverse hyperbolic cosine of ℝ(n).

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function returns the inverse sine of x. The result is expressed in radians and is in the inclusive interval from 𝔽(-π /
2) to 𝔽(π / 2).

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is one of NaN, +0𝔽, or -0𝔽, return n.
3. If n > 1𝔽 or n < -1𝔽, return NaN.
4. If n is 1𝔽, return +∞𝔽.
5. If n is -1𝔽, return -∞𝔽.
6. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing the inverse hyperbolic tangent of ℝ(n).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Math.atan2 ( y, x )

This function returns the inverse tangent of the quotient y / x of the arguments y and x, where the signs of y and x are
used to determine the quadrant of the result. Note that it is intentional and traditional for the two-argument inverse
tangent function that the argument named y be first and the argument named x be second. The result is expressed in
radians and is in the inclusive interval from -π to +π.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let ny be ? ToNumber(y).
2. Let nx be ? ToNumber(x).
3. If ny is NaN or nx is NaN, return NaN.
4. If ny is +∞𝔽, then
a. If nx is +∞𝔽, return an implementation-approximated Number value representing π / 4.
b. If nx is -∞𝔽, return an implementation-approximated Number value representing 3π / 4.
c. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing π / 2.
5. If ny is -∞𝔽, then
a. If nx is +∞𝔽, return an implementation-approximated Number value representing -π / 4.
b. If nx is -∞𝔽, return an implementation-approximated Number value representing -3π / 4.
c. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing -π / 2.
6. If ny is +0𝔽, then
a. If nx > +0𝔽 or nx is +0𝔽, return +0𝔽.
b. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing π.
7. If ny is -0𝔽, then
a. If nx > +0𝔽 or nx is +0𝔽, return -0𝔽.
b. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing -π.
8. Assert: ny is finite and is neither +0𝔽 nor -0𝔽.
9. If ny > +0𝔽, then
a. If nx is +∞𝔽, return +0𝔽.
b. If nx is -∞𝔽, return an implementation-approximated Number value representing π.
c. If nx is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return an implementation-approximated Number value representing π / 2.
10. If ny < -0𝔽, then
a. If nx is +∞𝔽, return -0𝔽.
b. If nx is -∞𝔽, return an implementation-approximated Number value representing -π.
c. If nx is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return an implementation-approximated Number value representing -π / 2.
11. Assert: nx is finite and is neither +0𝔽 nor -0𝔽.
12. Let r be the inverse tangent of abs(ℝ(ny) / ℝ(nx)).
13. If nx < -0𝔽, then
a. If ny > +0𝔽, set r to π - r.
b. Else, set r to -π + r.
14. Else,
a. If ny < -0𝔽, set r to -r.
15. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing r.

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function returns the cube root of x.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is not finite or n is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return n.
3. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing the cube root of ℝ(n).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function returns the smallest (closest to -∞) integral Number value that is not less than x. If x is already an integral
Number, the result is x.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is not finite or n is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return n.
3. If n < -0𝔽 and n > -1𝔽, return -0𝔽.
4. If n is an integral Number, return n.
5. Return the smallest (closest to -∞) integral Number value that is not less than n.

NOTE The value of [Link](x) is the same as the value of -[Link](-x).

[Link] Math.clz32 ( x )

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

natural logarithms).

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is either NaN or +∞𝔽, return n.
3. If n is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return 1𝔽.
4. If n is -∞𝔽, return +0𝔽.
5. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing the exponential function of ℝ(n).

[Link] Math.expm1 ( x )

This function returns the result of subtracting 1 from the exponential function of x (e raised to the power of x, where e is
the base of the natural logarithms). The result is computed in a way that is accurate even when the value of x is close
to 0.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is one of NaN, +0𝔽, -0𝔽, or +∞𝔽, return n.
3. If n is -∞𝔽, return -1𝔽.
4. Let exp be the exponential function of ℝ(n).
5. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing exp - 1.

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function returns the greatest (closest to +∞) integral Number value that is not greater than x. If x is already an integ-
ral Number, the result is x.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is not finite or n is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return n.
3. If n < 1𝔽 and n > +0𝔽, return +0𝔽.
4. If n is an integral Number, return n.
5. Return the greatest (closest to +∞) integral Number value that is not greater than n.

NOTE The value of [Link](x) is the same as the value of -[Link](-x).

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is NaN, return NaN.
3. If n is one of +0𝔽, -0𝔽, +∞𝔽, or -∞𝔽, return n.
4. Let n32 be the result of converting n to IEEE 754-2019 binary32 format using roundTiesToEven mode.
5. Let n64 be the result of converting n32 to IEEE 754-2019 binary64 format.
6. Return the ECMAScript Number value corresponding to n64.

[Link] Math.f16round ( x )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is NaN, return NaN.
3. If n is one of +0𝔽, -0𝔽, +∞𝔽, or -∞𝔽, return n.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4. Let n16 be the result of converting n to IEEE 754-2019 binary16 format using roundTiesToEven mode.
5. Let n64 be the result of converting n16 to IEEE 754-2019 binary64 format.
6. Return the ECMAScript Number value corresponding to n64.

NOTE This operation is not the same as casting to binary32 and then to binary16 because of the possibility of
double-rounding: consider the number k = 1.00048828125000022204𝔽, for example, for which
Math.f16round(k) is 1.0009765625𝔽, but Math.f16round([Link](k)) is 1𝔽.

Not all platforms provide native support for casting from binary64 to binary16. There are various libraries
which can provide this, including the MIT-licensed half library. Alternatively, it is possible to first cast from
binary64 to binary32 under roundTiesToEven and then check whether the result could lead to incorrect
double-rounding. The cases which could can be handled explicitly by adjusting the mantissa of the binary32
value so that it is the value which would be produced by performing the initial cast under roundTiesToOdd.
Casting the adjusted value to binary16 under roundTiesToEven then produces the correct value.

[Link] [Link] ( ...args )

Given zero or more arguments, this function returns the square root of the sum of squares of its arguments.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let coerced be a new empty List.

2. For each element arg of args, do
a. Let n be ? ToNumber(arg).
b. Append n to coerced.
3. For each element number of coerced, do
a. If number is either +∞𝔽 or -∞𝔽, return +∞𝔽.
4. Let onlyZero be true.
5. For each element number of coerced, do
a. If number is NaN, return NaN.
b. If number is neither +0𝔽 nor -0𝔽, set onlyZero to false.
6. If onlyZero is true, return +0𝔽.
7. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing the square root of the sum of squares of the
mathematical values of the elements of coerced.

The "length" property of this function is 2𝔽.

NOTE Implementations should take care to avoid the loss of precision from overflows and underflows that are
prone to occur in naive implementations when this function is called with two or more arguments.

[Link] [Link] ( x, y )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let a be ℝ(? ToUint32(x)).

2. Let b be ℝ(? ToUint32(y)).
3. Let product be (a × b) modulo 232.
4. If product ≥ 231, return 𝔽(product - 232); otherwise return 𝔽(product).

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function returns the natural logarithm of x.

It performs the following steps when called:

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is either NaN or +∞𝔽, return n.
3. If n is 1𝔽, return +0𝔽.
4. If n is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return -∞𝔽.
5. If n < -0𝔽, return NaN.
6. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing the natural logarithm of ℝ(n).

[Link] Math.log1p ( x )

This function returns the natural logarithm of 1 + x. The result is computed in a way that is accurate even when the value
of x is close to zero.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is one of NaN, +0𝔽, -0𝔽, or +∞𝔽, return n.
3. If n is -1𝔽, return -∞𝔽.
4. If n < -1𝔽, return NaN.
5. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing the natural logarithm of 1 + ℝ(n).

[Link] Math.log10 ( x )

This function returns the base 10 logarithm of x.

It performs the following steps when called:

[Link] Math.log2 ( x )

This function returns the base 2 logarithm of x.

It performs the following steps when called:

[Link] [Link] ( ...args )

Given zero or more arguments, this function calls ToNumber on each of the arguments and returns the largest of the
resulting values.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let coerced be a new empty List.

2. For each element arg of args, do
a. Let n be ? ToNumber(arg).
b. Append n to coerced.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Let highest be -∞𝔽.

4. For each element number of coerced, do
a. If number is NaN, return NaN.
b. If number is +0𝔽 and highest is -0𝔽, set highest to +0𝔽.
c. If number > highest, set highest to number.
5. Return highest.

NOTE The comparison of values to determine the largest value is done using the IsLessThan algorithm except that
+0𝔽 is considered to be larger than -0𝔽.

The "length" property of this function is 2𝔽.

[Link] [Link] ( ...args )

Given zero or more arguments, this function calls ToNumber on each of the arguments and returns the smallest of the
resulting values.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let coerced be a new empty List.

2. For each element arg of args, do
a. Let n be ? ToNumber(arg).
b. Append n to coerced.
3. Let lowest be +∞𝔽.
4. For each element number of coerced, do
a. If number is NaN, return NaN.
b. If number is -0𝔽 and lowest is +0𝔽, set lowest to -0𝔽.
c. If number < lowest, set lowest to number.
5. Return lowest.

NOTE The comparison of values to determine the largest value is done using the IsLessThan algorithm except that
+0𝔽 is considered to be larger than -0𝔽.

The "length" property of this function is 2𝔽.

[Link] [Link] ( base, exponent )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Set base to ? ToNumber(base).

2. Set exponent to ? ToNumber(exponent).
3. Return Number::exponentiate(base, exponent).

[Link] [Link] ( )

This function returns a Number value with positive sign, greater than or equal to +0𝔽 but strictly less than 1𝔽, chosen
randomly or pseudo randomly with approximately uniform distribution over that range, using an implementation-defined
algorithm or strategy.

Each [Link] function created for distinct realms must produce a distinct sequence of values from
successive calls.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function returns the Number value that is closest to x and is integral. If two integral Numbers are equally close to x,
then the result is the Number value that is closer to +∞. If x is already integral, the result is x.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is not finite or n is an integral Number, return n.
3. If n < 0.5𝔽 and n > +0𝔽, return +0𝔽.
4. If n < -0𝔽 and n ≥ -0.5𝔽, return -0𝔽.
5. Return the integral Number closest to n, preferring the Number closer to +∞ in the case of a tie.

NOTE 1 [Link](3.5) returns 4, but [Link](-3.5) returns -3.

NOTE 2 The value of [Link](x) is not always the same as the value of [Link](x + 0.5). When x is
-0𝔽 or x is less than -0𝔽 but greater than or equal to -0.5𝔽, [Link](x) returns -0𝔽, but
[Link](x + 0.5) returns +0𝔽. [Link](x) may also differ from the value of
[Link](x + 0.5)because of internal rounding when computing x + 0.5.

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function returns the sign of x, indicating whether x is positive, negative, or zero.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is one of NaN, +0𝔽, or -0𝔽, return n.
3. If n < -0𝔽, return -1𝔽.
4. Return 1𝔽.

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function returns the sine of x. The argument is expressed in radians.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is one of NaN, +0𝔽, or -0𝔽, return n.
3. If n is either +∞𝔽 or -∞𝔽, return NaN.
4. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing the sine of ℝ(n).

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function returns the hyperbolic sine of x.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is not finite or n is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return n.
3. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing the hyperbolic sine of ℝ(n).

NOTE The value of [Link](x) is the same as the value of ([Link](x) - [Link](-x)) / 2.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function returns the square root of x.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is one of NaN, +0𝔽, -0𝔽, or +∞𝔽, return n.
3. If n < -0𝔽, return NaN.
4. Return 𝔽(the square root of ℝ(n)).

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function returns the tangent of x. The argument is expressed in radians.

It performs the following steps when called:

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function returns the hyperbolic tangent of x.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is one of NaN, +0𝔽, or -0𝔽, return n.
3. If n is +∞𝔽, return 1𝔽.
4. If n is -∞𝔽, return -1𝔽.
5. Return an implementation-approximated Number value representing the hyperbolic tangent of ℝ(n).

NOTE The value of [Link](x) is the same as the value of

([Link](x) - [Link](-x)) / ([Link](x) + [Link](-x)).

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function returns the integral part of the number x, removing any fractional digits. If x is already integral, the result
is x.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToNumber(x).
2. If n is not finite or n is either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return n.
3. If n < 1𝔽 and n > +0𝔽, return +0𝔽.
4. If n < -0𝔽 and n > -1𝔽, return -0𝔽.
5. Return the integral Number nearest n in the direction of +0𝔽.

21.4 Date Objects

21.4.1 Overview of Date Objects and Definitions of Abstract Operations

The following abstract operations operate on time values (defined in [Link]). Note that, in every case, if any argument
to one of these functions is NaN, the result will be NaN.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Time Values and Time Range

Time measurement in ECMAScript is analogous to time measurement in POSIX, in particular sharing definition in terms
of the proleptic Gregorian calendar, an epoch of midnight at the beginning of 1 January 1970 UTC, and an accounting of
every day as comprising exactly 86,400 seconds (each of which is 1000 milliseconds long).

An ECMAScript time value is a Number, either a finite integral Number representing an instant in time to millisecond pre-
cision or NaN representing no specific instant. A time value that is a multiple of 24 × 60 × 60 × 1000 = 86,400,000 (i.e.,
is 86,400,000 × d for some integer d) represents the instant at the start of the UTC day that follows the epoch by d
whole UTC days (preceding the epoch for negative d). Every other finite time value t is defined relative to the greatest
preceding time value s that is such a multiple, and represents the instant that occurs within the same UTC day as s but
follows it by (t - s) milliseconds.

Time values do not account for UTC leap seconds—there are no time values representing instants within positive leap
seconds, and there are time values representing instants removed from the UTC timeline by negative leap seconds.
However, the definition of time values nonetheless yields piecewise alignment with UTC, with discontinuities only at leap
second boundaries and zero difference outside of leap seconds.

A Number can exactly represent all integers from -9,007,199,254,740,992 to 9,007,199,254,740,992 ([Link] and
[Link]). A time value supports a slightly smaller range of -8,640,000,000,000,000 to 8,640,000,000,000,000
milliseconds. This yields a supported time value range of exactly -100,000,000 days to 100,000,000 days relative to
midnight at the beginning of 1 January 1970 UTC.

The exact moment of midnight at the beginning of 1 January 1970 UTC is represented by the time value +0𝔽.

NOTE In the proleptic Gregorian calendar, leap years are precisely those which are both divisible by 4 and either
divisible by 400 or not divisible by 100.

The 400 year cycle of the proleptic Gregorian calendar contains 97 leap years. This yields an average of
365.2425 days per year, which is 31,556,952,000 milliseconds. Therefore, the maximum range a Number
could represent exactly with millisecond precision is approximately -285,426 to 285,426 years relative to
1970. The smaller range supported by a time value as specified in this section is approximately -273,790 to
273,790 years relative to 1970.

[Link] Time-related Constants

These constants are referenced by algorithms in the following sections.

HoursPerDay = 24
MinutesPerHour = 60
SecondsPerMinute = 60
msPerSecond = 1000𝔽
msPerMinute = 60000𝔽 = msPerSecond × 𝔽(SecondsPerMinute)
msPerHour = 3600000𝔽 = msPerMinute × 𝔽(MinutesPerHour)
msPerDay = 86400000𝔽 = msPerHour × 𝔽(HoursPerDay)

[Link] Day ( t )

The abstract operation Day takes argument t (a finite time value) and returns an integral Number. It returns the day
number of the day in which t falls. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return 𝔽(floor(ℝ(t / msPerDay))).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] TimeWithinDay ( t )

The abstract operation TimeWithinDay takes argument t (a finite time value) and returns an integral Number in the inter-
val from +0𝔽 (inclusive) to msPerDay (exclusive). It returns the number of milliseconds since the start of the day in which
t falls. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return 𝔽(ℝ(t) modulo ℝ(msPerDay)).

[Link] DaysInYear ( y )

The abstract operation DaysInYear takes argument y (an integral Number) and returns 365𝔽 or 366𝔽. It returns the num-
ber of days in year y. Leap years have 366 days; all other years have 365. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let ry be ℝ(y).
2. If (ry modulo 400) = 0, return 366𝔽.
3. If (ry modulo 100) = 0, return 365𝔽.
4. If (ry modulo 4) = 0, return 366𝔽.
5. Return 365𝔽.

[Link] DayFromYear ( y )

The abstract operation DayFromYear takes argument y (an integral Number) and returns an integral Number. It returns
the day number of the first day of year y. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let ry be ℝ(y).
2. NOTE: In the following steps, numYears1, numYears4, numYears100, and numYears400 represent the number of
years divisible by 1, 4, 100, and 400, respectively, that occur between the epoch and the start of year y. The
number is negative if y is before the epoch.
3. Let numYears1 be (ry - 1970).
4. Let numYears4 be floor((ry - 1969) / 4).
5. Let numYears100 be floor((ry - 1901) / 100).
6. Let numYears400 be floor((ry - 1601) / 400).
7. Return 𝔽(365 × numYears1 + numYears4 - numYears100 + numYears400).

[Link] TimeFromYear ( y )

The abstract operation TimeFromYear takes argument y (an integral Number) and returns a time value. It returns the
time value of the start of year y. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return msPerDay × DayFromYear(y).

[Link] YearFromTime ( t )

The abstract operation YearFromTime takes argument t (a finite time value) and returns an integral Number. It returns
the year in which t falls. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return the largest integral Number y (closest to +∞) such that TimeFromYear(y) ≤ t.

[Link] DayWithinYear ( t )

The abstract operation DayWithinYear takes argument t (a finite time value) and returns an integral Number in the in-
clusive interval from +0𝔽 to 365𝔽. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return Day(t) - DayFromYear(YearFromTime(t)).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] InLeapYear ( t )

The abstract operation InLeapYear takes argument t (a finite time value) and returns +0𝔽 or 1𝔽. It returns 1𝔽 if t is within
a leap year and +0𝔽 otherwise. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If DaysInYear(YearFromTime(t)) is 366𝔽, return 1𝔽; else return +0𝔽.

[Link] MonthFromTime ( t )

The abstract operation MonthFromTime takes argument t (a finite time value) and returns an integral Number in the in-
clusive interval from +0𝔽 to 11𝔽. It returns a Number identifying the month in which t falls. A month value of +0𝔽 specifies
January; 1𝔽 specifies February; 2𝔽 specifies March; 3𝔽 specifies April; 4𝔽 specifies May; 5𝔽 specifies June; 6𝔽 specifies
July; 7𝔽 specifies August; 8𝔽 specifies September; 9𝔽 specifies October; 10𝔽 specifies November; and 11𝔽 specifies
December. Note that MonthFromTime(+0𝔽) = +0𝔽, corresponding to Thursday, 1 January 1970. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let inLeapYear be InLeapYear(t).

2. Let dayWithinYear be DayWithinYear(t).
3. If dayWithinYear < 31𝔽, return +0𝔽.
4. If dayWithinYear < 59𝔽 + inLeapYear, return 1𝔽.
5. If dayWithinYear < 90𝔽 + inLeapYear, return 2𝔽.
6. If dayWithinYear < 120𝔽 + inLeapYear, return 3𝔽.
7. If dayWithinYear < 151𝔽 + inLeapYear, return 4𝔽.
8. If dayWithinYear < 181𝔽 + inLeapYear, return 5𝔽.
9. If dayWithinYear < 212𝔽 + inLeapYear, return 6𝔽.
10. If dayWithinYear < 243𝔽 + inLeapYear, return 7𝔽.
11. If dayWithinYear < 273𝔽 + inLeapYear, return 8𝔽.
12. If dayWithinYear < 304𝔽 + inLeapYear, return 9𝔽.
13. If dayWithinYear < 334𝔽 + inLeapYear, return 10𝔽.
14. Assert: dayWithinYear < 365𝔽 + inLeapYear.
15. Return 11𝔽.

[Link] DateFromTime ( t )

The abstract operation DateFromTime takes argument t (a finite time value) and returns an integral Number in
the inclusive interval from 1𝔽 to 31𝔽. It returns the day of the month in which t falls. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let inLeapYear be InLeapYear(t).

2. Let dayWithinYear be DayWithinYear(t).
3. Let month be MonthFromTime(t).
4. If month is +0𝔽, return dayWithinYear + 1𝔽.
5. If month is 1𝔽, return dayWithinYear - 30𝔽.
6. If month is 2𝔽, return dayWithinYear - 58𝔽 - inLeapYear.
7. If month is 3𝔽, return dayWithinYear - 89𝔽 - inLeapYear.
8. If month is 4𝔽, return dayWithinYear - 119𝔽 - inLeapYear.
9. If month is 5𝔽, return dayWithinYear - 150𝔽 - inLeapYear.
10. If month is 6𝔽, return dayWithinYear - 180𝔽 - inLeapYear.
11. If month is 7𝔽, return dayWithinYear - 211𝔽 - inLeapYear.
12. If month is 8𝔽, return dayWithinYear - 242𝔽 - inLeapYear.
13. If month is 9𝔽, return dayWithinYear - 272𝔽 - inLeapYear.
14. If month is 10𝔽, return dayWithinYear - 303𝔽 - inLeapYear.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

15. Assert: month is 11𝔽.

16. Return dayWithinYear - 333𝔽 - inLeapYear.

[Link] WeekDay ( t )

The abstract operation WeekDay takes argument t (a finite time value) and returns an integral Number in the inclusive
interval from +0𝔽 to 6𝔽. It returns a Number identifying the day of the week in which t falls. A weekday value of +0𝔽 spe-
cifies Sunday; 1𝔽 specifies Monday; 2𝔽 specifies Tuesday; 3𝔽 specifies Wednesday; 4𝔽 specifies Thursday; 5𝔽 specifies
Friday; and 6𝔽 specifies Saturday. Note that WeekDay(+0𝔽) = 4𝔽, corresponding to Thursday, 1 January 1970. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Return 𝔽(ℝ(Day(t) + 4𝔽) modulo 7).

[Link] HourFromTime ( t )

The abstract operation HourFromTime takes argument t (a finite time value) and returns an integral Number in the in-
clusive interval from +0𝔽 to 23𝔽. It returns the hour of the day in which t falls. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return 𝔽(floor(ℝ(t / msPerHour)) modulo HoursPerDay).

[Link] MinFromTime ( t )

The abstract operation MinFromTime takes argument t (a finite time value) and returns an integral Number in the inclus-
ive interval from +0𝔽 to 59𝔽. It returns the minute of the hour in which t falls. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return 𝔽(floor(ℝ(t / msPerMinute)) modulo MinutesPerHour).

[Link] SecFromTime ( t )

The abstract operation SecFromTime takes argument t (a finite time value) and returns an integral Number in the
inclusive interval from +0𝔽 to 59𝔽. It returns the second of the minute in which t falls. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Return 𝔽(floor(ℝ(t / msPerSecond)) modulo SecondsPerMinute).

[Link] msFromTime ( t )

The abstract operation msFromTime takes argument t (a finite time value) and returns an integral Number in the inclus-
ive interval from +0𝔽 to 999𝔽. It returns the millisecond of the second in which t falls. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Return 𝔽(ℝ(t) modulo ℝ(msPerSecond)).

[Link] GetUTCEpochNanoseconds ( year, month, day,

hour, minute, second, millisecond, microsecond, nanosecond )

The abstract operation GetUTCEpochNanoseconds takes arguments year (an integer), month (an integer in the inclus-
ive interval from 1 to 12), day (an integer in the inclusive interval from 1 to 31), hour (an integer in the inclusive interval
from 0 to 23), minute (an integer in the inclusive interval from 0 to 59), second (an integer in the inclusive interval from 0
to 59), millisecond (an integer in the inclusive interval from 0 to 999), microsecond (an integer in the inclusive interval
from 0 to 999), and nanosecond (an integer in the inclusive interval from 0 to 999) and returns a BigInt. The returned
value represents a number of nanoseconds since the epoch that corresponds to the given ISO 8601 calendar date and
wall-clock time in UTC. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let date be MakeDay(𝔽(year), 𝔽(month - 1), 𝔽(day)).

2. Let time be MakeTime(𝔽(hour), 𝔽(minute), 𝔽(second), 𝔽(millisecond)).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Let ms be MakeDate(date, time).

4. Assert: ms is an integral Number.
5. Return ℤ(ℝ(ms) × 106 + microsecond × 103 + nanosecond).

[Link] Time Zone Identifiers

Time zones in ECMAScript are represented by time zone identifiers, which are Strings composed entirely of code units
in the inclusive interval from 0x0000 to 0x007F. Time zones supported by an ECMAScript implementation may be avail-
able named time zones, represented by the ⁠[[Identifier]] field of the Time Zone Identifier Records returned by
AvailableNamedTimeZoneIdentifiers, or offset time zones, represented by Strings for which IsTimeZoneOffsetString re-
turns true.

A primary time zone identifier is the preferred identifier for an available named time zone. A non-primary time zone iden-
tifier is an identifier for an available named time zone that is not a primary time zone identifier. An available named time
zone identifier is either a primary time zone identifier or a non-primary time zone identifier. Each available named time
zone identifier is associated with exactly one available named time zone. Each available named time zone is associated
with exactly one primary time zone identifier and zero or more non-primary time zone identifiers.

ECMAScript implementations must support an available named time zone with the identifier "UTC", which must be the
primary time zone identifier for the UTC time zone. In addition, implementations may support any number of other avail-
able named time zones.

Implementations that follow the requirements for time zones as described in the ECMA-402 Internationalization API spe-
cification are called time zone aware. Time zone aware implementations must support available named time zones cor-
responding to the Zone and Link names of the IANA Time Zone Database, and only such names. In time zone aware
implementations, a primary time zone identifier is a Zone name, and a non-primary time zone identifier is a Link name,
respectively, in the IANA Time Zone Database except as specifically overridden by AvailableNamedTimeZoneIdentifiers
as specified in the ECMA-402 specification. Implementations that do not support the entire IANA Time Zone Database
are still recommended to use IANA Time Zone Database names as identifiers to represent time zones.

[Link] GetNamedTimeZoneEpochNanoseconds ( timeZoneIdentifier, year,

month, day, hour, minute, second, millisecond, microsecond, nanosecond )

The implementation-defined abstract operation GetNamedTimeZoneEpochNanoseconds takes arguments

timeZoneIdentifier (a String), year (an integer), month (an integer in the inclusive interval from 1 to 12), day (an integer
in the inclusive interval from 1 to 31), hour (an integer in the inclusive interval from 0 to 23), minute (an integer in the in-
clusive interval from 0 to 59), second (an integer in the inclusive interval from 0 to 59), millisecond (an integer in the in-
clusive interval from 0 to 999), microsecond (an integer in the inclusive interval from 0 to 999), and nanosecond (an in-
teger in the inclusive interval from 0 to 999) and returns a List of BigInts. Each value in the returned List represents a
number of nanoseconds since the epoch that corresponds to the given ISO 8601 calendar date and wall-clock time in
the named time zone identified by timeZoneIdentifier.

When the input represents a local time occurring more than once because of a negative time zone transition (e.g. when
daylight saving time ends or the time zone offset is decreased due to a time zone rule change), the returned List will
have more than one element and will be sorted by ascending numerical value. When the input represents a local
time skipped because of a positive time zone transition (e.g. when daylight saving time begins or the time zone offset
is increased due to a time zone rule change), the returned List will be empty. Otherwise, the returned List will have
one element.

The default implementation of GetNamedTimeZoneEpochNanoseconds, to be used for ECMAScript implementations

that do not include local political rules for any time zones, performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: timeZoneIdentifier is "UTC".

2. Let epochNanoseconds be GetUTCEpochNanoseconds(year, month, day, hour, minute, second, millisecond,
microsecond, nanosecond).
3. Return « epochNanoseconds ».

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE It is required for time zone aware implementations (and recommended for all others) to use the time zone
information of the IANA Time Zone Database [Link]

1:30 AM on 5 November 2017 in America/New_York is repeated twice, so

GetNamedTimeZoneEpochNanoseconds("America/New_York", 2017, 11, 5, 1, 30, 0, 0, 0, 0) would return
a List of length 2 in which the first element represents 05:30 UTC (corresponding with 01:30 US Eastern
Daylight Time at UTC offset -04:00) and the second element represents 06:30 UTC (corresponding with
01:30 US Eastern Standard Time at UTC offset -05:00).

2:30 AM on 12 March 2017 in America/New_York does not exist, so

GetNamedTimeZoneEpochNanoseconds("America/New_York", 2017, 3, 12, 2, 30, 0, 0, 0, 0) would return
an empty List.

[Link] GetNamedTimeZoneOffsetNanoseconds ( timeZoneIdentifier, epochNanoseconds )

The implementation-defined abstract operation GetNamedTimeZoneOffsetNanoseconds takes arguments

timeZoneIdentifier (a String) and epochNanoseconds (a BigInt) and returns an integer.

The returned integer represents the offset from UTC of the named time zone identified by timeZoneIdentifier, at the in-
stant corresponding with epochNanoseconds relative to the epoch, both in nanoseconds.

The default implementation of GetNamedTimeZoneOffsetNanoseconds, to be used for ECMAScript implementations

that do not include local political rules for any time zones, performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: timeZoneIdentifier is "UTC".

2. Return 0.

NOTE Time zone offset values may be positive or negative.

[Link] Time Zone Identifier Record

A Time Zone Identifier Record is a Record used to describe an available named time zone identifier and its correspond-
ing primary time zone identifier.

Time Zone Identifier Records have the fields listed in Table 64.

Table 64: Time Zone Identifier Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[Identifier]] a String An available named time zone identifier that is supported by the
implementation.
⁠[[PrimaryIdentifier]] a String The primary time zone identifier that ⁠[[Identifier]] resolves to.

NOTE If ⁠[[Identifier]] is a primary time zone identifier, then ⁠[[Identifier]] is ⁠[[PrimaryIdentifier]].

[Link] AvailableNamedTimeZoneIdentifiers ( )

The implementation-defined abstract operation AvailableNamedTimeZoneIdentifiers takes no arguments and returns a

List of Time Zone Identifier Records. Its result describes all available named time zone identifiers in this implementation,
as well as the primary time zone identifier corresponding to each available named time zone identifier. The List is
ordered according to the ⁠[[Identifier]] field of each Time Zone Identifier Record.

Time zone aware implementations, including all implementations that implement the ECMA-402 Internationalization API,
must implement the AvailableNamedTimeZoneIdentifiers abstract operation as specified in the ECMA-402 specification.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

For implementations that are not time zone aware, AvailableNamedTimeZoneIdentifiers performs the following steps
when called:

1. If the implementation does not include local political rules for any time zones, then
a. Return « the Time Zone Identifier Record { ⁠[[Identifier]]: "UTC", ⁠[[PrimaryIdentifier]]: "UTC" } ».
2. Let identifiers be the List of unique available named time zone identifiers, sorted according to lexicographic code
unit order.
3. Let result be a new empty List.
4. For each element identifier of identifiers, do
a. Let primary be identifier.
b. If identifier is a non-primary time zone identifier in this implementation and identifier is not "UTC", then
i. Set primary to the primary time zone identifier associated with identifier.
ii. NOTE: An implementation may need to resolve identifier iteratively to obtain the primary time zone
identifier.
c. Let record be the Time Zone Identifier Record { ⁠[[Identifier]]: identifier, ⁠[[PrimaryIdentifier]]: primary }.
d. Append record to result.
5. Assert: result contains a Time Zone Identifier Record r such that r.⁠[[Identifier]] is "UTC" and r.⁠[[PrimaryIdentifier]] is
"UTC".
6. Return result.

[Link] SystemTimeZoneIdentifier ( )

The implementation-defined abstract operation SystemTimeZoneIdentifier takes no arguments and returns a String.
It returns a String representing the host environment's current time zone, which is either a String representing a UTC
offset for which IsTimeZoneOffsetString returns true, or a primary time zone identifier. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. If the implementation only supports the UTC time zone, return "UTC".
2. Let systemTimeZoneString be the String representing the host environment's current time zone, either a primary
time zone identifier or an offset time zone identifier.
3. Return systemTimeZoneString.

NOTE To ensure the level of functionality that implementations commonly provide in the methods of the Date
object, it is recommended that SystemTimeZoneIdentifier return an IANA time zone name corresponding to
the host environment's time zone setting, if such a thing exists. GetNamedTimeZoneEpochNanoseconds
and GetNamedTimeZoneOffsetNanoseconds must reflect the local political rules for standard time and
daylight saving time in that time zone, if such rules exist.

For example, if the host environment is a browser on a system where the user has chosen US Eastern Time
as their time zone, SystemTimeZoneIdentifier returns "America/New_York".

[Link] LocalTime ( t )

The abstract operation LocalTime takes argument t (a finite time value) and returns an integral Number. It converts t
from UTC to local time. The local political rules for standard time and daylight saving time in effect at t should be used to
determine the result in the way specified in this section. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let systemTimeZoneIdentifier be SystemTimeZoneIdentifier().

NOTE 1 If political rules for the local time t are not available within the implementation, the result is t because
SystemTimeZoneIdentifier returns "UTC" and GetNamedTimeZoneOffsetNanoseconds returns 0.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 2 It is required for time zone aware implementations (and recommended for all others) to use the time zone
information of the IANA Time Zone Database [Link]

NOTE 3 Two different input time values tUTC are converted to the same local time tlocal at a negative time zone
transition when there are repeated times (e.g. the daylight saving time ends or the time zone adjustment
is decreased.).

LocalTime(UTC(tlocal)) is not necessarily always equal to tlocal. Correspondingly, UTC(LocalTime(tUTC)) is

not necessarily always equal to tUTC.

[Link] UTC ( t )

The abstract operation UTC takes argument t (a Number) and returns a time value. It converts t from local time to a
UTC time value. The local political rules for standard time and daylight saving time in effect at t should be used to de-
termine the result in the way specified in this section. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If t is not finite, return NaN.

2. Let systemTimeZoneIdentifier be SystemTimeZoneIdentifier().
3. If IsTimeZoneOffsetString(systemTimeZoneIdentifier) is true, then
a. Let offsetNs be ParseTimeZoneOffsetString(systemTimeZoneIdentifier).
4. Else,
a. Let possibleInstants be GetNamedTimeZoneEpochNanoseconds(systemTimeZoneIdentifier,
ℝ(YearFromTime(t)), ℝ(MonthFromTime(t)) + 1, ℝ(DateFromTime(t)), ℝ(HourFromTime(t)), ℝ(MinFromTime(t)),
ℝ(SecFromTime(t)), ℝ(msFromTime(t)), 0, 0).
b. NOTE: The following steps ensure that when t represents local time repeating multiple times at a negative time
zone transition (e.g. when the daylight saving time ends or the time zone offset is decreased due to a time zone
rule change) or skipped local time at a positive time zone transition (e.g. when the daylight saving time starts or
the time zone offset is increased due to a time zone rule change), t is interpreted using the time zone offset
before the transition.
c. If possibleInstants is not empty, then
i. Let disambiguatedInstant be possibleInstants[0].
d. Else,
i. NOTE: t represents a local time skipped at a positive time zone transition (e.g. due to daylight saving time
starting or a time zone rule change increasing the UTC offset).
ii. Let possibleInstantsBefore be GetNamedTimeZoneEpochNanoseconds(systemTimeZoneIdentifier,
ℝ(YearFromTime(tBefore)), ℝ(MonthFromTime(tBefore)) + 1, ℝ(DateFromTime(tBefore)),
ℝ(HourFromTime(tBefore)), ℝ(MinFromTime(tBefore)), ℝ(SecFromTime(tBefore)),
ℝ(msFromTime(tBefore)), 0, 0), where tBefore is the largest integral Number < t for which
possibleInstantsBefore is not empty (i.e., tBefore represents the last local time before the transition).
iii. Let disambiguatedInstant be the last element of possibleInstantsBefore.
e. Let offsetNs be GetNamedTimeZoneOffsetNanoseconds(systemTimeZoneIdentifier, disambiguatedInstant).
5. Let offsetMs be truncate(offsetNs / 106).
6. Return t - 𝔽(offsetMs).

Input t is nominally a time value but may be any Number value. The algorithm must not limit t to the time value range, so
that inputs corresponding with a boundary of the time value range can be supported regardless of local UTC offset. For
example, the maximum time value is 8.64 × 1015, corresponding with "+275760-09-13T00:00:00Z". In an environment
where the local time zone offset is ahead of UTC by 1 hour at that instant, it is represented by the larger input of 8.64 ×
1015 + 3.6 × 106, corresponding with "+275760-09-13T01:00:00+01:00".

If political rules for the local time t are not available within the implementation, the result is t because
SystemTimeZoneIdentifier returns "UTC" and GetNamedTimeZoneOffsetNanoseconds returns 0.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 1 It is required for time zone aware implementations (and recommended for all others) to use the time zone
information of the IANA Time Zone Database [Link]

1:30 AM on 5 November 2017 in America/New_York is repeated twice (fall backward), but it must be
interpreted as 1:30 AM UTC-04 instead of 1:30 AM UTC-05. In UTC(TimeClip(MakeDate(MakeDay(2017,
10, 5), MakeTime(1, 30, 0, 0)))), the value of offsetMs is -4 × msPerHour.

2:30 AM on 12 March 2017 in America/New_York does not exist, but it must be interpreted as 2:30 AM UTC-
05 (equivalent to 3:30 AM UTC-04). In UTC(TimeClip(MakeDate(MakeDay(2017, 2, 12), MakeTime(2, 30, 0,
0)))), the value of offsetMs is -5 × msPerHour.

NOTE 2 UTC(LocalTime(tUTC)) is not necessarily always equal to tUTC. Correspondingly, LocalTime(UTC(tlocal)) is

not necessarily always equal to tlocal.

[Link] MakeTime ( hour, min, sec, ms )

The abstract operation MakeTime takes arguments hour (a Number), min (a Number), sec (a Number), and ms (a
Number) and returns a Number. It calculates a number of milliseconds. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If hour is not finite, min is not finite, sec is not finite, or ms is not finite, return NaN.
2. Let h be 𝔽(! ToIntegerOrInfinity(hour)).
3. Let m be 𝔽(! ToIntegerOrInfinity(min)).
4. Let s be 𝔽(! ToIntegerOrInfinity(sec)).
5. Let milli be 𝔽(! ToIntegerOrInfinity(ms)).
6. Return ((h × msPerHour + m × msPerMinute) + s × msPerSecond) + milli.

NOTE The arithmetic in MakeTime is floating-point arithmetic, which is not associative, so the operations must be
performed in the correct order.

[Link] MakeDay ( year, month, date )

The abstract operation MakeDay takes arguments year (a Number), month (a Number), and date (a Number) and re-
turns a Number. It calculates a number of days. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If year is not finite, month is not finite, or date is not finite, return NaN.
2. Let y be 𝔽(! ToIntegerOrInfinity(year)).
3. Let m be 𝔽(! ToIntegerOrInfinity(month)).
4. Let dt be 𝔽(! ToIntegerOrInfinity(date)).
5. Let ym be y + 𝔽(floor(ℝ(m) / 12)).
6. If ym is not finite, return NaN.
7. Let mn be 𝔽(ℝ(m) modulo 12).
8. Find a finite time value t such that YearFromTime(t) is ym, MonthFromTime(t) is mn, and DateFromTime(t) is 1𝔽; but
if this is not possible (because some argument is out of range), return NaN.
9. Return Day(t) + dt - 1𝔽.

[Link] MakeDate ( day, time )

The abstract operation MakeDate takes arguments day (a Number) and time (a Number) and returns a Number. It cal-
culates a number of milliseconds. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If day is not finite or time is not finite, return NaN.

2. Let tv be day × msPerDay + time.
3. If tv is not finite, return NaN.
4. Return tv.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] MakeFullYear ( year )

The abstract operation MakeFullYear takes argument year (a Number) and returns an integral Number or NaN. It returns
the full year associated with the integer part of year, interpreting any value in the inclusive interval from 0 to 99 as a
count of years since the start of 1900. For alignment with the proleptic Gregorian calendar, "full year" is defined as the
signed count of complete years since the start of year 0 (1 B.C.). It performs the following steps when called:

1. If year is NaN, return NaN.

2. Let truncated be ! ToIntegerOrInfinity(year).
3. If truncated is in the inclusive interval from 0 to 99, return 1900𝔽 + 𝔽(truncated).
4. Return 𝔽(truncated).

[Link] TimeClip ( time )

The abstract operation TimeClip takes argument time (a Number) and returns a Number. It calculates a number of milli-
seconds. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If time is not finite, return NaN.

2. If abs(ℝ(time)) > 8.64 × 1015, return NaN.
3. Return 𝔽(! ToIntegerOrInfinity(time)).

[Link] Date Time String Format

ECMAScript defines a string interchange format for date-times based upon a simplification of the ISO 8601 calendar
date extended format. The format is as follows: YYYY-MM-DDTHH:mm:[Link]

Where the elements are as follows:

YYYY is the year in the proleptic Gregorian calendar as four decimal digits from 0000 to 9999, or as an
expanded year of "+" or "-" followed by six decimal digits.
- "-" (hyphen) appears literally twice in the string.
MM is the month of the year as two decimal digits from 01 (January) to 12 (December).
DD is the day of the month as two decimal digits from 01 to 31.
T "T" appears literally in the string, to indicate the beginning of the time element.
HH is the number of complete hours that have passed since midnight as two decimal digits from 00 to 24.
: ":" (colon) appears literally twice in the string.
mm is the number of complete minutes since the start of the hour as two decimal digits from 00 to 59.
ss is the number of complete seconds since the start of the minute as two decimal digits from 00 to 59.
. "." (dot) appears literally in the string.
sss is the number of complete milliseconds since the start of the second as three decimal digits.
Z is the UTC offset representation specified as "Z" (for UTC with no offset) or as either "+" or "-" followed by
a time expression HH:mm (a subset of the time zone offset string format for indicating local time ahead of or
behind UTC, respectively)

This format includes date-only forms:

YYYY
YYYY-MM
YYYY-MM-DD

It also includes “date-time” forms that consist of one of the above date-only forms immediately followed by one of the fol-
lowing time forms with an optional UTC offset representation appended:

THH:mm
THH:mm:ss
THH:mm:[Link]

A string containing out-of-bounds or nonconforming elements is not a valid instance of this format.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 1 As every day both starts and ends with midnight, the two notations 00:00 and 24:00 are available to
distinguish the two midnights that can be associated with one date. This means that the following two
notations refer to exactly the same point in time: 1995-02-04T24:00 and 1995-02-05T00:00. This
interpretation of the latter form as "end of a calendar day" is consistent with ISO 8601, even though that
specification reserves it for describing time intervals and does not permit it within representations of single
points in time.

NOTE 2 There exists no international standard that specifies abbreviations for civil time zones like CET, EST, etc.
and sometimes the same abbreviation is even used for two very different time zones. For this reason, both
ISO 8601 and this format specify numeric representations of time zone offsets.

[Link].1 Expanded Years

Covering the full time value range of approximately 273,790 years forward or backward from 1 January 1970 ([Link])
requires representing years before 0 or after 9999. ISO 8601 permits expansion of the year representation, but only by
mutual agreement of the partners in information interchange. In the simplified ECMAScript format, such an expanded
year representation shall have 6 digits and is always prefixed with a + or - sign. The year 0 is considered positive and
must be prefixed with a + sign. The representation of the year 0 as -000000 is invalid. Strings matching the Date
Time String Format with expanded years representing instants in time outside the range of a time value are treated as
unrecognizable by [Link] and cause that function to return NaN without falling back to implementation-specific
behaviour or heuristics.

NOTE Examples of date-time values with expanded years:

-271821-04-20T00:00:00Z 271822 B.C.

-000001-01-01T00:00:00Z 2 B.C.
+000000-01-01T00:00:00Z 1 B.C.
+000001-01-01T00:00:00Z 1 A.D.
+001970-01-01T00:00:00Z 1970 A.D.
+002009-12-15T00:00:00Z 2009 A.D.
+275760-09-13T00:00:00Z 275760 A.D.

[Link] Time Zone Offset String Format

ECMAScript defines a string interchange format for UTC offsets, derived from ISO 8601. The format is described by the
following grammar.
Syntax

UTCOffset :::
ASCIISign Hour
ASCIISign Hour HourSubcomponents[+Extended]
ASCIISign Hour HourSubcomponents[~Extended]

ASCIISign ::: one of

+ -

Hour :::
0 DecimalDigit
1 DecimalDigit
20
21
22
23

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

HourSubcomponents[Extended] :::
TimeSeparator[?Extended] MinuteSecond
TimeSeparator[?Extended] MinuteSecond TimeSeparator[?Extended] MinuteSecond
TemporalDecimalFractionopt

TimeSeparator[Extended] :::
[+Extended] :
[~Extended] [empty]

MinuteSecond :::
0 DecimalDigit
1 DecimalDigit
2 DecimalDigit
3 DecimalDigit
4 DecimalDigit
5 DecimalDigit

TemporalDecimalFraction :::
TemporalDecimalSeparator DecimalDigit
TemporalDecimalSeparator DecimalDigit DecimalDigit
TemporalDecimalSeparator DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit
TemporalDecimalSeparator DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit
TemporalDecimalSeparator DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit
TemporalDecimalSeparator DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit
DecimalDigit
TemporalDecimalSeparator DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit
DecimalDigit DecimalDigit
TemporalDecimalSeparator DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit
DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit
TemporalDecimalSeparator DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit
DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit DecimalDigit

TemporalDecimalSeparator ::: one of

. ,

[Link].1 IsTimeZoneOffsetString ( offsetString )

The abstract operation IsTimeZoneOffsetString takes argument offsetString (a String) and returns a Boolean. The return
value indicates whether offsetString conforms to the grammar given by UTCOffset. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let parseResult be ParseText(offsetString, UTCOffset).

2. If parseResult is a List of errors, return false.
3. Return true.

[Link].2 ParseTimeZoneOffsetString ( offsetString )

The abstract operation ParseTimeZoneOffsetString takes argument offsetString (a String) and returns an integer. The
return value is the UTC offset, as a number of nanoseconds, that corresponds to the String offsetString. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let parseResult be ParseText(offsetString, UTCOffset).

2. Assert: parseResult is not a List of errors.
3. Assert: parseResult contains a ASCIISign Parse Node.
4. Let parsedSign be the source text matched by the ASCIISign Parse Node contained within parseResult.
5. If parsedSign is the single code point U+002D (HYPHEN-MINUS), then
a. Let sign be -1.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

6. Else,
a. Let sign be 1.
7. NOTE: Applications of StringToNumber below do not lose precision, since each of the parsed values is guaranteed
to be a sufficiently short string of decimal digits.
8. Assert: parseResult contains an Hour Parse Node.
9. Let parsedHours be the source text matched by the Hour Parse Node contained within parseResult.
10. Let hours be ℝ(StringToNumber(CodePointsToString(parsedHours))).
11. If parseResult does not contain a MinuteSecond Parse Node, then
a. Let minutes be 0.
12. Else,
a. Let parsedMinutes be the source text matched by the first MinuteSecond Parse Node contained within
parseResult.
b. Let minutes be ℝ(StringToNumber(CodePointsToString(parsedMinutes))).
13. If parseResult does not contain two MinuteSecond Parse Nodes, then
a. Let seconds be 0.
14. Else,
a. Let parsedSeconds be the source text matched by the second MinuteSecond Parse Node contained within
parseResult.
b. Let seconds be ℝ(StringToNumber(CodePointsToString(parsedSeconds))).
15. If parseResult does not contain a TemporalDecimalFraction Parse Node, then
a. Let nanoseconds be 0.
16. Else,
a. Let parsedFraction be the source text matched by the TemporalDecimalFraction Parse Node contained within
parseResult.
b. Let fraction be the string-concatenation of CodePointsToString(parsedFraction) and "000000000".
c. Let nanosecondsString be the substring of fraction from 1 to 10.
d. Let nanoseconds be ℝ(StringToNumber(nanosecondsString)).
17. Return sign × (((hours × 60 + minutes) × 60 + seconds) × 109 + nanoseconds).

21.4.2 The Date Constructor

The Date constructor:

is %Date%.
is the initial value of the "Date" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new Date when called as a constructor.
returns a String representing the current time (UTC) when called as a function rather than as a constructor.
is a function whose behaviour differs based upon the number and types of its arguments.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified Date behaviour must include a super call to the Date constructor to create and initialize the subclass
instance with a ⁠[[DateValue]] internal slot.

[Link] Date ( ...values )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is undefined, then

a. Let now be the time value (UTC) identifying the current time.
b. Return ToDateString(now).
2. Let numberOfArgs be the number of elements in values.
3. If numberOfArgs = 0, then
a. Let dv be the time value (UTC) identifying the current time.
4. Else if numberOfArgs = 1, then
a. Let value be values[0].
b. If value is an Object and value has a ⁠[[DateValue]] internal slot, then
i. Let tv be value.⁠[[DateValue]].
c. Else,
i. Let v be ? ToPrimitive(value).
ii. If v is a String, then

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

1. Assert: The next step never returns an abrupt completion because v is a String.
2. Let tv be the result of parsing v as a date, in exactly the same manner as for the parse method
([Link]).
iii. Else,
1. Let tv be ? ToNumber(v).
d. Let dv be TimeClip(tv).
5. Else,
a. Assert: numberOfArgs ≥ 2.
b. Let y be ? ToNumber(values[0]).
c. Let m be ? ToNumber(values[1]).
d. If numberOfArgs > 2, let dt be ? ToNumber(values[2]); else let dt be 1𝔽.
e. If numberOfArgs > 3, let h be ? ToNumber(values[3]); else let h be +0𝔽.
f. If numberOfArgs > 4, let min be ? ToNumber(values[4]); else let min be +0𝔽.
g. If numberOfArgs > 5, let s be ? ToNumber(values[5]); else let s be +0𝔽.
h. If numberOfArgs > 6, let milli be ? ToNumber(values[6]); else let milli be +0𝔽.
i. Let yr be MakeFullYear(y).
j. Let finalDate be MakeDate(MakeDay(yr, m, dt), MakeTime(h, min, s, milli)).
k. Let dv be TimeClip(UTC(finalDate)).
6. Let O be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(NewTarget, "%[Link]%", « ⁠[[DateValue]] »).
7. Set O.⁠[[DateValue]] to dv.
8. Return O.

21.4.3 Properties of the Date Constructor

The Date constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has a "length" property whose value is 7𝔽.
has the following properties:

[Link] [Link] ( )

This function returns the time value designating the UTC date and time of the occurrence of the call to it.

[Link] [Link] ( string )

This function applies the ToString operator to its argument. If ToString results in an abrupt completion the Completion
Record is immediately returned. Otherwise, this function interprets the resulting String as a date and time; it returns a
Number, the UTC time value corresponding to the date and time. The String may be interpreted as a local time, a UTC
time, or a time in some other time zone, depending on the contents of the String. The function first attempts to parse the
String according to the format described in Date Time String Format ([Link]), including expanded years. If the String
does not conform to that format the function may fall back to any implementation-specific heuristics or implementation-
specific date formats. Strings that are unrecognizable or contain out-of-bounds format element values shall cause this
function to return NaN.

If the String conforms to the Date Time String Format, substitute values take the place of absent format elements. When
the MM or DD elements are absent, "01" is used. When the HH, mm, or ss elements are absent, "00" is used. When the
sss element is absent, "000" is used. When the UTC offset representation is absent, date-only forms are interpreted as
a UTC time and date-time forms are interpreted as a local time.

If x is any Date whose milliseconds amount is zero within a particular implementation of ECMAScript, then all of the fol-
lowing expressions should produce the same numeric value in that implementation, if all the properties referenced have
their initial values:

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link]()
[Link]([Link]())
[Link]([Link]())
[Link]([Link]())

However, the expression

[Link]([Link]())

is not required to produce the same Number value as the preceding three expressions and, in general, the value
produced by this function is implementation-defined when given any String value that does not conform to the
Date Time String Format ([Link]) and that could not be produced in that implementation by the toString or
toUTCString method.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the Date prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] [Link] ( year [ , month [ , date [ , hours [ , minutes [ , seconds [ , ms ] ] ] ] ] ] )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let y be ? ToNumber(year).
2. If month is present, let m be ? ToNumber(month); else let m be +0𝔽.
3. If date is present, let dt be ? ToNumber(date); else let dt be 1𝔽.
4. If hours is present, let h be ? ToNumber(hours); else let h be +0𝔽.
5. If minutes is present, let min be ? ToNumber(minutes); else let min be +0𝔽.
6. If seconds is present, let s be ? ToNumber(seconds); else let s be +0𝔽.
7. If ms is present, let milli be ? ToNumber(ms); else let milli be +0𝔽.
8. Let yr be MakeFullYear(y).
9. Return TimeClip(MakeDate(MakeDay(yr, m, dt), MakeTime(h, min, s, milli))).

The "length" property of this function is 7𝔽.

NOTE This function differs from the Date constructor in two ways: it returns a time value as a Number, rather than
creating a Date, and it interprets the arguments in UTC rather than as local time.

21.4.4 Properties of the Date Prototype Object

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. If t is NaN, return NaN.
5. Return msFromTime(LocalTime(t)).

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. If t is NaN, return NaN.
5. Return MinFromTime(LocalTime(t)).

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. If t is NaN, return NaN.
5. Return WeekDay(t).

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. If t is NaN, return NaN.
5. Return SecFromTime(t).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( date )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. Let dt be ? ToNumber(date).
5. If t is NaN, return NaN.
6. Set t to LocalTime(t).
7. Let newDate be MakeDate(MakeDay(YearFromTime(t), MonthFromTime(t), dt), TimeWithinDay(t)).
8. Let u be TimeClip(UTC(newDate)).
9. Set dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]] to u.
10. Return u.

[Link] [Link] ( year [ , month [ , date ] ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. Let y be ? ToNumber(year).
5. If t is NaN, set t to +0𝔽; otherwise set t to LocalTime(t).
6. If month is not present, let m be MonthFromTime(t); otherwise let m be ? ToNumber(month).
7. If date is not present, let dt be DateFromTime(t); otherwise let dt be ? ToNumber(date).
8. Let newDate be MakeDate(MakeDay(y, m, dt), TimeWithinDay(t)).
9. Let u be TimeClip(UTC(newDate)).
10. Set dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]] to u.
11. Return u.

The "length" property of this method is 3𝔽.

NOTE If month is not present, this method behaves as if month was present with the value getMonth(). If date is
not present, it behaves as if date was present with the value getDate().

[Link] [Link] ( hour [ , min [ , sec [ , ms ] ] ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. Let h be ? ToNumber(hour).
5. If min is present, let m be ? ToNumber(min).
6. If sec is present, let s be ? ToNumber(sec).
7. If ms is present, let milli be ? ToNumber(ms).
8. If t is NaN, return NaN.
9. Set t to LocalTime(t).
10. If min is not present, let m be MinFromTime(t).
11. If sec is not present, let s be SecFromTime(t).
12. If ms is not present, let milli be msFromTime(t).
13. Let date be MakeDate(Day(t), MakeTime(h, m, s, milli)).
14. Let u be TimeClip(UTC(date)).
15. Set dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]] to u.
16. Return u.

The "length" property of this method is 4𝔽.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE If min is not present, this method behaves as if min was present with the value getMinutes(). If sec is not
present, it behaves as if sec was present with the value getSeconds(). If ms is not present, it behaves as
if ms was present with the value getMilliseconds().

[Link] [Link] ( ms )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. Set ms to ? ToNumber(ms).
5. If t is NaN, return NaN.
6. Set t to LocalTime(t).
7. Let time be MakeTime(HourFromTime(t), MinFromTime(t), SecFromTime(t), ms).
8. Let u be TimeClip(UTC(MakeDate(Day(t), time))).
9. Set dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]] to u.
10. Return u.

[Link] [Link] ( min [ , sec [ , ms ] ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. Let m be ? ToNumber(min).
5. If sec is present, let s be ? ToNumber(sec).
6. If ms is present, let milli be ? ToNumber(ms).
7. If t is NaN, return NaN.
8. Set t to LocalTime(t).
9. If sec is not present, let s be SecFromTime(t).
10. If ms is not present, let milli be msFromTime(t).
11. Let date be MakeDate(Day(t), MakeTime(HourFromTime(t), m, s, milli)).
12. Let u be TimeClip(UTC(date)).
13. Set dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]] to u.
14. Return u.

The "length" property of this method is 3𝔽.

NOTE If sec is not present, this method behaves as if sec was present with the value getSeconds(). If ms is not
present, this behaves as if ms was present with the value getMilliseconds().

[Link] [Link] ( month [ , date ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. Let m be ? ToNumber(month).
5. If date is present, let dt be ? ToNumber(date).
6. If t is NaN, return NaN.
7. Set t to LocalTime(t).
8. If date is not present, let dt be DateFromTime(t).
9. Let newDate be MakeDate(MakeDay(YearFromTime(t), m, dt), TimeWithinDay(t)).
10. Let u be TimeClip(UTC(newDate)).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

11. Set dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]] to u.

12. Return u.

The "length" property of this method is 2𝔽.

NOTE If date is not present, this method behaves as if date was present with the value getDate().

[Link] [Link] ( sec [ , ms ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. Let s be ? ToNumber(sec).
5. If ms is present, let milli be ? ToNumber(ms).
6. If t is NaN, return NaN.
7. Set t to LocalTime(t).
8. If ms is not present, let milli be msFromTime(t).
9. Let date be MakeDate(Day(t), MakeTime(HourFromTime(t), MinFromTime(t), s, milli)).
10. Let u be TimeClip(UTC(date)).
11. Set dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]] to u.
12. Return u.

The "length" property of this method is 2𝔽.

NOTE If ms is not present, this method behaves as if ms was present with the value getMilliseconds().

[Link] [Link] ( time )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be ? ToNumber(time).
4. Let v be TimeClip(t).
5. Set dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]] to v.
6. Return v.

[Link] [Link] ( date )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. Let dt be ? ToNumber(date).
5. If t is NaN, return NaN.
6. Let newDate be MakeDate(MakeDay(YearFromTime(t), MonthFromTime(t), dt), TimeWithinDay(t)).
7. Let v be TimeClip(newDate).
8. Set dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]] to v.
9. Return v.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( year [ , month [ , date ] ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. If t is NaN, set t to +0𝔽.
5. Let y be ? ToNumber(year).
6. If month is not present, let m be MonthFromTime(t); otherwise let m be ? ToNumber(month).
7. If date is not present, let dt be DateFromTime(t); otherwise let dt be ? ToNumber(date).
8. Let newDate be MakeDate(MakeDay(y, m, dt), TimeWithinDay(t)).
9. Let v be TimeClip(newDate).
10. Set dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]] to v.
11. Return v.

The "length" property of this method is 3𝔽.

NOTE If month is not present, this method behaves as if month was present with the value getUTCMonth(). If
date is not present, it behaves as if date was present with the value getUTCDate().

[Link] [Link] ( hour [ , min [ , sec [ , ms ] ] ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. Let h be ? ToNumber(hour).
5. If min is present, let m be ? ToNumber(min).
6. If sec is present, let s be ? ToNumber(sec).
7. If ms is present, let milli be ? ToNumber(ms).
8. If t is NaN, return NaN.
9. If min is not present, let m be MinFromTime(t).
10. If sec is not present, let s be SecFromTime(t).
11. If ms is not present, let milli be msFromTime(t).
12. Let date be MakeDate(Day(t), MakeTime(h, m, s, milli)).
13. Let v be TimeClip(date).
14. Set dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]] to v.
15. Return v.

The "length" property of this method is 4𝔽.

NOTE If min is not present, this method behaves as if min was present with the value getUTCMinutes(). If sec is
not present, it behaves as if sec was present with the value getUTCSeconds(). If ms is not present, it
behaves as if ms was present with the value getUTCMilliseconds().

[Link] [Link] ( ms )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. Set ms to ? ToNumber(ms).
5. If t is NaN, return NaN.
6. Let time be MakeTime(HourFromTime(t), MinFromTime(t), SecFromTime(t), ms).
7. Let v be TimeClip(MakeDate(Day(t), time)).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

8. Set dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]] to v.
9. Return v.

[Link] [Link] ( min [ , sec [ , ms ] ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. Let m be ? ToNumber(min).
5. If sec is present, let s be ? ToNumber(sec).
6. If ms is present, let milli be ? ToNumber(ms).
7. If t is NaN, return NaN.
8. If sec is not present, let s be SecFromTime(t).
9. If ms is not present, let milli be msFromTime(t).
10. Let date be MakeDate(Day(t), MakeTime(HourFromTime(t), m, s, milli)).
11. Let v be TimeClip(date).
12. Set dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]] to v.
13. Return v.

The "length" property of this method is 3𝔽.

NOTE If sec is not present, this method behaves as if sec was present with the value getUTCSeconds(). If ms is
not present, it behaves as if ms was present with the value return by getUTCMilliseconds().

[Link] [Link] ( month [ , date ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. Let m be ? ToNumber(month).
5. If date is present, let dt be ? ToNumber(date).
6. If t is NaN, return NaN.
7. If date is not present, let dt be DateFromTime(t).
8. Let newDate be MakeDate(MakeDay(YearFromTime(t), m, dt), TimeWithinDay(t)).
9. Let v be TimeClip(newDate).
10. Set dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]] to v.
11. Return v.

The "length" property of this method is 2𝔽.

NOTE If date is not present, this method behaves as if date was present with the value getUTCDate().

[Link] [Link] ( sec [ , ms ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

8. Let date be MakeDate(Day(t), MakeTime(HourFromTime(t), MinFromTime(t), s, milli)).

9. Let v be TimeClip(date).
10. Set dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]] to v.
11. Return v.

The "length" property of this method is 2𝔽.

NOTE If ms is not present, this method behaves as if ms was present with the value getUTCMilliseconds().

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let tv be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. If tv is NaN, return "Invalid Date".
5. Let t be LocalTime(tv).
6. Return DateString(t).

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let tv be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. If tv is NaN, throw a RangeError exception.
5. Assert: tv is an integral Number.
6. If tv corresponds with a year that cannot be represented in the Date Time String Format, throw a RangeError
exception.
7. Return a String representation of tv in the Date Time String Format on the UTC time scale, including all format
elements and the UTC offset representation "Z".

[Link] [Link] ( key )

This method provides a String representation of a Date for use by [Link] (25.5.2).

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let tv be ? ToPrimitive(O, NUMBER).
3. If tv is a Number and tv is not finite, return null.
4. Return ? Invoke(O, "toISOString").

NOTE 1 The argument is ignored.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a Date. Therefore, it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method. However, it does require that any such object have
a toISOString method.

[Link] [Link] ( [ reserved1 [ , reserved2 ] ] )

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

lowing specification of this method is used:

This method returns a String value. The contents of the String are implementation-defined, but are intended to represent
the “date” portion of the Date in the current time zone in a convenient, human-readable form that corresponds to the
conventions of the host environment's current locale.

The meaning of the optional parameters to this method are defined in the ECMA-402 specification; implementations that
do not include ECMA-402 support must not use those parameter positions for anything else.

[Link] [Link] ( [ reserved1 [ , reserved2 ] ] )

This method returns a String value. The contents of the String are implementation-defined, but are intended to represent
the Date in the current time zone in a convenient, human-readable form that corresponds to the conventions of the host
environment's current locale.

[Link] [Link] ( [ reserved1 [ , reserved2 ] ] )

This method returns a String value. The contents of the String are implementation-defined, but are intended to represent
the “time” portion of the Date in the current time zone in a convenient, human-readable form that corresponds to the
conventions of the host environment's current locale.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let tv be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. Return ToDateString(tv).

NOTE 1 For any Date d such that d.⁠

[[DateValue]] is evenly divisible by 1000, the result of
[Link]([Link]()) = [Link](). See [Link].

NOTE 2 This method is not generic; it throws a TypeError exception if its this value is not a Date. Therefore, it
cannot be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link].1 TimeString ( tv )

The abstract operation TimeString takes argument tv (a Number, but not NaN) and returns a String. It performs the fol-
lowing steps when called:

1. Let hour be ToZeroPaddedDecimalString(ℝ(HourFromTime(tv)), 2).

2. Let minute be ToZeroPaddedDecimalString(ℝ(MinFromTime(tv)), 2).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Let second be ToZeroPaddedDecimalString(ℝ(SecFromTime(tv)), 2).

4. Return the string-concatenation of hour, ":", minute, ":", second, the code unit 0x0020 (SPACE), and "GMT".

[Link].2 DateString ( tv )

The abstract operation DateString takes argument tv (a Number, but not NaN) and returns a String. It performs the fol-
lowing steps when called:

1. Let weekday be the Name of the entry in Table 65 with the Number WeekDay(tv).
2. Let month be the Name of the entry in Table 66 with the Number MonthFromTime(tv).
3. Let day be ToZeroPaddedDecimalString(ℝ(DateFromTime(tv)), 2).
4. Let yv be YearFromTime(tv).
5. If yv is +0𝔽 or yv > +0𝔽, let yearSign be the empty String; otherwise let yearSign be "-".
6. Let paddedYear be ToZeroPaddedDecimalString(abs(ℝ(yv)), 4).
7. Return the string-concatenation of weekday, the code unit 0x0020 (SPACE), month, the code unit 0x0020
(SPACE), day, the code unit 0x0020 (SPACE), yearSign, and paddedYear.

Table 65: Names of days of the week

Number Name
+0𝔽 "Sun"

1𝔽 "Mon"

2𝔽 "Tue"

3𝔽 "Wed"

4𝔽 "Thu"

5𝔽 "Fri"

6𝔽 "Sat"

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Table 66: Names of months of the year

Number Name
+0𝔽 "Jan"

1𝔽 "Feb"

2𝔽 "Mar"

3𝔽 "Apr"

4𝔽 "May"

5𝔽 "Jun"

6𝔽 "Jul"

7𝔽 "Aug"

8𝔽 "Sep"

9𝔽 "Oct"

10𝔽 "Nov"

11𝔽 "Dec"

[Link].3 TimeZoneString ( tv )

The abstract operation TimeZoneString takes argument tv (an integral Number) and returns a String. It performs the fol-
lowing steps when called:

1. Let systemTimeZoneIdentifier be SystemTimeZoneIdentifier().

2. If IsTimeZoneOffsetString(systemTimeZoneIdentifier) is true, then
a. Let offsetNs be ParseTimeZoneOffsetString(systemTimeZoneIdentifier).
3. Else,
a. Let offsetNs be GetNamedTimeZoneOffsetNanoseconds(systemTimeZoneIdentifier, ℤ(ℝ(tv) × 106)).
4. Let offset be 𝔽(truncate(offsetNs / 106)).
5. If offset is +0𝔽 or offset > +0𝔽, then
a. Let offsetSign be "+".
b. Let absOffset be offset.
6. Else,
a. Let offsetSign be "-".
b. Let absOffset be -offset.
7. Let offsetMin be ToZeroPaddedDecimalString(ℝ(MinFromTime(absOffset)), 2).
8. Let offsetHour be ToZeroPaddedDecimalString(ℝ(HourFromTime(absOffset)), 2).
9. Let tzName be an implementation-defined string that is either the empty String or the string-concatenation of the
code unit 0x0020 (SPACE), the code unit 0x0028 (LEFT PARENTHESIS), an implementation-defined timezone
name, and the code unit 0x0029 (RIGHT PARENTHESIS).
10. Return the string-concatenation of offsetSign, offsetHour, offsetMin, and tzName.

[Link].4 ToDateString ( tv )

The abstract operation ToDateString takes argument tv (an integral Number or NaN) and returns a String. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. If tv is NaN, return "Invalid Date".

2. Let t be LocalTime(tv).
3. Return the string-concatenation of DateString(t), the code unit 0x0020 (SPACE), TimeString(t), and
TimeZoneString(tv).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let tv be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. If tv is NaN, return "Invalid Date".
5. Let t be LocalTime(tv).
6. Return the string-concatenation of TimeString(t) and TimeZoneString(tv).

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method returns a String value representing the instant in time corresponding to the this value. The format of the
String is based upon "HTTP-date" from RFC 7231, generalized to support the full range of times supported by
ECMAScript Dates.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let tv be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. If tv is NaN, return "Invalid Date".
5. Let weekday be the Name of the entry in Table 65 with the Number WeekDay(tv).
6. Let month be the Name of the entry in Table 66 with the Number MonthFromTime(tv).
7. Let day be ToZeroPaddedDecimalString(ℝ(DateFromTime(tv)), 2).
8. Let yv be YearFromTime(tv).
9. If yv is +0𝔽 or yv > +0𝔽, let yearSign be the empty String; otherwise let yearSign be "-".
10. Let paddedYear be ToZeroPaddedDecimalString(abs(ℝ(yv)), 4).
11. Return the string-concatenation of weekday, ",", the code unit 0x0020 (SPACE), day, the code unit 0x0020
(SPACE), month, the code unit 0x0020 (SPACE), yearSign, paddedYear, the code unit 0x0020 (SPACE), and
TimeString(tv).

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Return dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ] ( hint )

This method is called by ECMAScript language operators to convert a Date to a primitive value. The allowed values
for hint are "default", "number", and "string". Dates are unique among built-in ECMAScript object in that they treat
"default" as being equivalent to "string", All other built-in ECMAScript objects treat "default" as being equivalent
to "number".

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. If O is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. If hint is either "string" or "default", then
a. Let tryFirst be STRING.
4. Else if hint is "number", then
a. Let tryFirst be NUMBER.
5. Else,
a. Throw a TypeError exception.
6. Return ? OrdinaryToPrimitive(O, tryFirst).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

The value of the "name" property of this method is "[[Link]]".

21.4.5 Properties of Date Instances

Date instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the Date prototype object. Date instances also have a
[[DateValue]] internal slot. The ⁠[[DateValue]] internal slot is the time value represented by this Date.

22 Text Processing

22.1 String Objects

22.1.1 The String Constructor

The String constructor:

is %String%.
is the initial value of the "String" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new String object when called as a constructor.
performs a type conversion when called as a function rather than as a constructor.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified String behaviour must include a super call to the String constructor to create and initialize the subclass
instance with a ⁠[[StringData]] internal slot.

[Link] String ( value )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If value is not present, then

a. Let s be the empty String.
2. Else,
a. If NewTarget is undefined and value is a Symbol, return SymbolDescriptiveString(value).
b. Let s be ? ToString(value).
3. If NewTarget is undefined, return s.
4. Return StringCreate(s, ? GetPrototypeFromConstructor(NewTarget, "%[Link]%")).

22.1.2 Properties of the String Constructor

The String constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

[Link] [Link] ( ...codeUnits )

This function may be called with any number of arguments which form the rest parameter codeUnits.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let result be the empty String.

2. For each element next of codeUnits, do
a. Let nextCU be the code unit whose numeric value is ℝ(? ToUint16(next)).
b. Set result to the string-concatenation of result and nextCU.
3. Return result.

The "length" property of this function is 1𝔽.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( ...codePoints )

This function may be called with any number of arguments which form the rest parameter codePoints.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let result be the empty String.

2. For each element next of codePoints, do
a. Let nextCP be ? ToNumber(next).
b. If nextCP is not an integral Number, throw a RangeError exception.
c. If ℝ(nextCP) < 0 or ℝ(nextCP) > 0x10FFFF, throw a RangeError exception.
d. Set result to the string-concatenation of result and UTF16EncodeCodePoint(ℝ(nextCP)).
3. Assert: If codePoints is empty, then result is the empty String.
4. Return result.

The "length" property of this function is 1𝔽.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the String prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] [Link] ( template, ...substitutions )

This function may be called with a variable number of arguments. The first argument is template and the remainder of
the arguments form the List substitutions.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let substitutionCount be the number of elements in substitutions.

2. Let cooked be ? ToObject(template).
3. Let literals be ? ToObject(? Get(cooked, "raw")).
4. Let literalCount be ? LengthOfArrayLike(literals).
5. If literalCount ≤ 0, return the empty String.
6. Let R be the empty String.
7. Let nextIndex be 0.
8. Repeat,
a. Let nextLiteralVal be ? Get(literals, ! ToString(𝔽(nextIndex))).
b. Let nextLiteral be ? ToString(nextLiteralVal).
c. Set R to the string-concatenation of R and nextLiteral.
d. If nextIndex + 1 = literalCount, return R.
e. If nextIndex < substitutionCount, then
i. Let nextSubVal be substitutions[nextIndex].
ii. Let nextSub be ? ToString(nextSubVal).
iii. Set R to the string-concatenation of R and nextSub.
f. Set nextIndex to nextIndex + 1.

NOTE This function is intended for use as a tag function of a Tagged Template (13.3.11). When called as
such, the first argument will be a well formed template object and the rest parameter will contain the
substitution values.

22.1.3 Properties of the String Prototype Object

The String prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
is a String exotic object and has the internal methods specified for such objects.
has a ⁠[[StringData]] internal slot whose value is the empty String.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

has a "length" property whose initial value is +0𝔽 and whose attributes are { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]:
false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

Unless explicitly stated otherwise, the methods of the String prototype object defined below are not generic and the this
value passed to them must be either a String value or an object that has a ⁠[[StringData]] internal slot that has been ini-
tialized to a String value.

[Link] [Link] ( index )

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Let len be the length of S.
4. Let relativeIndex be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(index).
5. If relativeIndex ≥ 0, then
a. Let k be relativeIndex.
6. Else,
a. Let k be len + relativeIndex.
7. If k < 0 or k ≥ len, return undefined.
8. Return the substring of S from k to k + 1.

[Link] [Link] ( pos )

NOTE 1 This method returns a single element String containing the code unit at index pos within the String value
resulting from converting this object to a String. If there is no element at that index, the result is the empty
String. The result is a String value, not a String object.

If pos is an integral Number, then the result of [Link](pos) is equivalent to the result
of [Link](pos, pos + 1).

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Let position be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(pos).
4. Let size be the length of S.
5. If position < 0 or position ≥ size, return the empty String.
6. Return the substring of S from position to position + 1.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( pos )

NOTE 1 This method returns a Number (a non-negative integral Number less than 216) that is the numeric value of
the code unit at index pos within the String resulting from converting this object to a String. If there is no
element at that index, the result is NaN.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Let position be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(pos).
4. Let size be the length of S.
5. If position < 0 or position ≥ size, return NaN.
6. Return the Number value for the numeric value of the code unit at index position within the String S.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( pos )

NOTE 1 This method returns a non-negative integral Number less than or equal to 0x10FFFF𝔽 that is the numeric
value of the UTF-16 encoded code point (6.1.4) starting at the string element at index pos within the String
resulting from converting this object to a String. If there is no element at that index, the result is undefined.
If a valid UTF-16 surrogate pair does not begin at pos, the result is the code unit at pos.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Let position be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(pos).
4. Let size be the length of S.
5. If position < 0 or position ≥ size, return undefined.
6. Let cp be CodePointAt(S, position).
7. Return 𝔽(cp.⁠[[CodePoint]]).

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( ...args )

NOTE 1 When this method is called it returns the String value consisting of the code units of the this value
(converted to a String) followed by the code units of each of the arguments converted to a String. The result
is a String value, not a String object.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Let R be S.
4. For each element next of args, do
a. Let nextString be ? ToString(next).
b. Set R to the string-concatenation of R and nextString.
5. Return R.

The "length" property of this method is 1𝔽.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %String%.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( searchString [ , endPosition ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Let isRegExp be ? IsRegExp(searchString).
4. If isRegExp is true, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Let searchStr be ? ToString(searchString).
6. Let len be the length of S.
7. If endPosition is undefined, let pos be len; else let pos be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(endPosition).
8. Let end be the result of clamping pos between 0 and len.
9. Let searchLength be the length of searchStr.
10. If searchLength = 0, return true.
11. Let start be end - searchLength.
12. If start < 0, return false.
13. Let substring be the substring of S from start to end.
14. If substring is searchStr, return true.
15. Return false.

NOTE 1 This method returns true if the sequence of code units of searchString converted to a String is the same as
the corresponding code units of this object (converted to a String) starting at endPosition - length(this).
Otherwise it returns false.

NOTE 2 Throwing an exception if the first argument is a RegExp is specified in order to allow future editions to define
extensions that allow such argument values.

NOTE 3 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( searchString [ , position ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Let isRegExp be ? IsRegExp(searchString).
4. If isRegExp is true, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Let searchStr be ? ToString(searchString).
6. Let pos be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(position).
7. Assert: If position is undefined, then pos is 0.
8. Let len be the length of S.
9. Let start be the result of clamping pos between 0 and len.
10. Let index be StringIndexOf(S, searchStr, start).
11. If index is NOT-FOUND, return false.
12. Return true.

NOTE 1 If searchString appears as a substring of the result of converting this object to a String, at one or more
indices that are greater than or equal to position, this function returns true; otherwise, it returns false. If
position is undefined, 0 is assumed, so as to search all of the String.

NOTE 2 Throwing an exception if the first argument is a RegExp is specified in order to allow future editions to define
extensions that allow such argument values.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 3 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( searchString [ , position ] )

NOTE 1 If searchString appears as a substring of the result of converting this object to a String, at one or more
indices that are greater than or equal to position, then the smallest such index is returned; otherwise, -1𝔽 is
returned. If position is undefined, +0𝔽 is assumed, so as to search all of the String.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Let searchStr be ? ToString(searchString).
4. Let pos be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(position).
5. Assert: If position is undefined, then pos is 0.
6. Let len be the length of S.
7. Let start be the result of clamping pos between 0 and len.
8. Let result be StringIndexOf(S, searchStr, start).
9. If result is NOT-FOUND, return -1𝔽.
10. Return 𝔽(result).

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Return IsStringWellFormedUnicode(S).

[Link] [Link] ( searchString [ , position ] )

NOTE 1 If searchString appears as a substring of the result of converting this object to a String at one or more
indices that are smaller than or equal to position, then the greatest such index is returned; otherwise, -1𝔽 is
returned. If position is undefined, the length of the String value is assumed, so as to search all of the String.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Let searchStr be ? ToString(searchString).
4. Let numPos be ? ToNumber(position).
5. Assert: If position is undefined, then numPos is NaN.
6. If numPos is NaN, let pos be +∞; otherwise let pos be ! ToIntegerOrInfinity(numPos).
7. Let len be the length of S.
8. Let searchLen be the length of searchStr.
9. Let start be the result of clamping pos between 0 and len - searchLen.
10. Let result be StringLastIndexOf(S, searchStr, start).
11. If result is NOT-FOUND, return -1𝔽.
12. Return 𝔽(result).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( that [ , reserved1 [ , reserved2 ] ] )

This method returns a Number other than NaN representing the result of an implementation-defined locale-sensitive
String comparison of the this value (converted to a String S) with that (converted to a String thatValue). The result is in-
tended to correspond with a sort order of String values according to conventions of the host environment's current loc-
ale, and will be negative when S is ordered before thatValue, positive when S is ordered after thatValue, and zero in all
other cases (representing no relative ordering between S and thatValue).

Before performing the comparisons, this method performs the following steps to prepare the Strings:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Let thatValue be ? ToString(that).

The meaning of the optional second and third parameters to this method are defined in the ECMA-402 specification;
implementations that do not include ECMA-402 support must not assign any other interpretation to those
parameter positions.

The actual return values are implementation-defined to permit encoding additional information in them, but this method,
when considered as a method of two arguments, is required to be a consistent comparator defining a total ordering on
the set of all Strings. This method is also required to recognize and honour canonical equivalence according to the
Unicode Standard, including returning +0𝔽 when comparing distinguishable Strings that are canonically equivalent.

NOTE 1 This method itself is not directly suitable as an argument to [Link] because the latter
requires a function of two arguments.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 2 This method may rely on whatever language- and/or locale-sensitive comparison functionality is available to
the ECMAScript environment from the host environment, and is intended to compare according to the
conventions of the host environment's current locale. However, regardless of comparison capabilities, this
method must recognize and honour canonical equivalence according to the Unicode Standard—for
example, the following comparisons must all return +0𝔽:

// Å ANGSTROM SIGN vs.

// Å LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A + COMBINING RING ABOVE
"\u212B".localeCompare("A\u030A")

// Ω OHM SIGN vs.

// Ω GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMEGA
"\u2126".localeCompare("\u03A9")

// ṩ LATIN SMALL LETTER S WITH DOT BELOW AND DOT ABOVE vs.
// ṩ LATIN SMALL LETTER S + COMBINING DOT ABOVE + COMBINING DOT BELOW
"\u1E69".localeCompare("s\u0307\u0323")

// ḍ̇ LATIN SMALL LETTER D WITH DOT ABOVE + COMBINING DOT BELOW vs.
// ḍ̇ LATIN SMALL LETTER D WITH DOT BELOW + COMBINING DOT ABOVE
"\u1E0B\u0323".localeCompare("\u1E0D\u0307")

// 가 HANGUL CHOSEONG KIYEOK + HANGUL JUNGSEONG A vs.

// 가 HANGUL SYLLABLE GA
"\u1100\u1161".localeCompare("\uAC00")

For a definition and discussion of canonical equivalence see the Unicode Standard, chapters 2 and
3, as well as Unicode Standard Annex #15, Unicode Normalization Forms and Unicode Technical
Note #5, Canonical Equivalence in Applications. Also see Unicode Technical Standard #10, Unicode
Collation Algorithm.

It is recommended that this method should not honour Unicode compatibility equivalents or compatibility
decompositions as defined in the Unicode Standard, chapter 3, section 3.7.

NOTE 3 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( regexp )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. If regexp is neither undefined nor null, then
a. Let matcher be ? GetMethod(regexp, %[Link]%).
b. If matcher is not undefined, then
i. Return ? Call(matcher, regexp, « O »).
3. Let S be ? ToString(O).
4. Let rx be ? RegExpCreate(regexp, undefined).
5. Return ? Invoke(rx, %[Link]%, « S »).

NOTE This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( regexp )

This method performs a regular expression match of the String representing the this value against regexp and returns
an iterator that yields match results. Each match result is an Array containing the matched portion of the String as the
first element, followed by the portions matched by any capturing groups. If the regular expression never matches, the re-
turned iterator does not yield any match results.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. If regexp is neither undefined nor null, then
a. Let isRegExp be ? IsRegExp(regexp).
b. If isRegExp is true, then
i. Let flags be ? Get(regexp, "flags").
ii. Perform ? RequireObjectCoercible(flags).
iii. If ? ToString(flags) does not contain "g", throw a TypeError exception.
c. Let matcher be ? GetMethod(regexp, %[Link]%).
d. If matcher is not undefined, then
i. Return ? Call(matcher, regexp, « O »).
3. Let S be ? ToString(O).
4. Let rx be ? RegExpCreate(regexp, "g").
5. Return ? Invoke(rx, %[Link]%, « S »).

NOTE 1 This method is intentionally generic, it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

NOTE 2 Similarly to [Link], [Link] is designed to typically act

without mutating its inputs.

[Link] [Link] ( [ form ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. If form is undefined, let f be "NFC".
4. Else, let f be ? ToString(form).
5. If f is not one of "NFC", "NFD", "NFKC", or "NFKD", throw a RangeError exception.
6. Let ns be the String value that is the result of normalizing S into the normalization form named by f as specified in
the latest Unicode Standard, Normalization Forms.
7. Return ns.

NOTE This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( maxLength [ , fillString ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Return ? StringPaddingBuiltinsImpl(O, maxLength, fillString, END).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( maxLength [ , fillString ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Return ? StringPaddingBuiltinsImpl(O, maxLength, fillString, START).

[Link].1 StringPaddingBuiltinsImpl ( O, maxLength, fillString, placement )

The abstract operation StringPaddingBuiltinsImpl takes arguments O (an ECMAScript language value), maxLength (an
ECMAScript language value), fillString (an ECMAScript language value), and placement (START or END) and returns
either a normal completion containing a String or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be ? ToString(O).
2. Let intMaxLength be ℝ(? ToLength(maxLength)).
3. Let stringLength be the length of S.
4. If intMaxLength ≤ stringLength, return S.
5. If fillString is undefined, set fillString to the String value consisting solely of the code unit 0x0020 (SPACE).
6. Else, set fillString to ? ToString(fillString).
7. Return StringPad(S, intMaxLength, fillString, placement).

[Link].2 StringPad ( S, maxLength, fillString, placement )

The abstract operation StringPad takes arguments S (a String), maxLength (a non-negative integer), fillString (a String),
and placement (START or END) and returns a String. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let stringLength be the length of S.

2. If maxLength ≤ stringLength, return S.
3. If fillString is the empty String, return S.
4. Let fillLen be maxLength - stringLength.
5. Let truncatedStringFiller be the String value consisting of repeated concatenations of fillString truncated to length
fillLen.
6. If placement is START, return the string-concatenation of truncatedStringFiller and S.
7. Else, return the string-concatenation of S and truncatedStringFiller.

NOTE 1 The argument maxLength will be clamped such that it can be no smaller than the length of S.

NOTE 2 The argument fillString defaults to " " (the String value consisting of the code unit 0x0020 SPACE).

[Link].3 ToZeroPaddedDecimalString ( n, minLength )

The abstract operation ToZeroPaddedDecimalString takes arguments n (a non-negative integer) and minLength (a non-
negative integer) and returns a String. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be the String representation of n, formatted as a decimal number.

2. Return StringPad(S, minLength, "0", START).

[Link] [Link] ( count )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Let n be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(count).
4. If n < 0 or n = +∞, throw a RangeError exception.
5. If n = 0, return the empty String.
6. Return the String value that is made from n copies of S appended together.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 1 This method creates the String value consisting of the code units of the this value (converted to String)
repeated count times.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( searchValue, replaceValue )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. If searchValue is neither undefined nor null, then
a. Let replacer be ? GetMethod(searchValue, %[Link]%).
b. If replacer is not undefined, then
i. Return ? Call(replacer, searchValue, « O, replaceValue »).
3. Let string be ? ToString(O).
4. Let searchString be ? ToString(searchValue).
5. Let functionalReplace be IsCallable(replaceValue).
6. If functionalReplace is false, then
a. Set replaceValue to ? ToString(replaceValue).
7. Let searchLength be the length of searchString.
8. Let position be StringIndexOf(string, searchString, 0).
9. If position is NOT-FOUND, return string.
10. Let preceding be the substring of string from 0 to position.
11. Let following be the substring of string from position + searchLength.
12. If functionalReplace is true, then
a. Let replacement be ? ToString(? Call(replaceValue, undefined, « searchString, 𝔽(position), string »)).
13. Else,
a. Assert: replaceValue is a String.
b. Let captures be a new empty List.
c. Let replacement be ! GetSubstitution(searchString, string, position, captures, undefined, replaceValue).
14. Return the string-concatenation of preceding, replacement, and following.

NOTE This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link].1 GetSubstitution ( matched, str, position, captures, namedCaptures, replacementTemplate )

The abstract operation GetSubstitution takes arguments matched (a String), str (a String), position (a non-negative in-
teger), captures (a List of either Strings or undefined), namedCaptures (an Object or undefined), and replacement-
Template (a String) and returns either a normal completion containing a String or a throw completion. For the purposes
of this abstract operation, a decimal digit is a code unit in the inclusive interval from 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO) to 0x0039
(DIGIT NINE). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let stringLength be the length of str.

2. Assert: position ≤ stringLength.
3. Let result be the empty String.
4. Let templateRemainder be replacementTemplate.
5. Repeat, while templateRemainder is not the empty String,
a. NOTE: The following steps isolate ref (a prefix of templateRemainder), determine refReplacement (its
replacement), and then append that replacement to result.
b. If templateRemainder starts with "$$", then
i. Let ref be "$$".
ii. Let refReplacement be "$".
c. Else if templateRemainder starts with "$`", then
i. Let ref be "$`".
ii. Let refReplacement be the substring of str from 0 to position.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

d. Else if templateRemainder starts with "$&", then

i. Let ref be "$&".
ii. Let refReplacement be matched.
e. Else if templateRemainder starts with "$'" (0x0024 (DOLLAR SIGN) followed by 0x0027 (APOSTROPHE)),
then
i. Let ref be "$'".
ii. Let matchLength be the length of matched.
iii. Let tailPos be position + matchLength.
iv. Let refReplacement be the substring of str from min(tailPos, stringLength).
v. NOTE: tailPos can exceed stringLength only if this abstract operation was invoked by a call to the intrinsic
%[Link]% method of %[Link]% on an object whose "exec" property is not the
intrinsic %[Link]%.
f. Else if templateRemainder starts with "$" followed by 1 or more decimal digits, then
i. If templateRemainder starts with "$" followed by 2 or more decimal digits, let digitCount be 2; otherwise let
digitCount be 1.
ii. Let digits be the substring of templateRemainder from 1 to 1 + digitCount.
iii. Let index be ℝ(StringToNumber(digits)).
iv. Assert: 0 ≤ index ≤ 99.
v. Let captureLen be the number of elements in captures.
vi. If index > captureLen and digitCount = 2, then
1. NOTE: When a two-digit replacement pattern specifies an index exceeding the count of capturing
groups, it is treated as a one-digit replacement pattern followed by a literal digit.
2. Set digitCount to 1.
3. Set digits to the substring of digits from 0 to 1.
4. Set index to ℝ(StringToNumber(digits)).
vii. Let ref be the substring of templateRemainder from 0 to 1 + digitCount.
viii. If 1 ≤ index ≤ captureLen, then
1. Let capture be captures[index - 1].
2. If capture is undefined, then
a. Let refReplacement be the empty String.
3. Else,
a. Let refReplacement be capture.
ix. Else,
1. Let refReplacement be ref.
g. Else if templateRemainder starts with "$<", then
i. Let gtPos be StringIndexOf(templateRemainder, ">", 0).
ii. If gtPos is NOT-FOUND or namedCaptures is undefined, then
1. Let ref be "$<".
2. Let refReplacement be ref.
iii. Else,
1. Let ref be the substring of templateRemainder from 0 to gtPos + 1.
2. Let groupName be the substring of templateRemainder from 2 to gtPos.
3. Assert: namedCaptures is an Object.
4. Let capture be ? Get(namedCaptures, groupName).
5. If capture is undefined, then
a. Let refReplacement be the empty String.
6. Else,
a. Let refReplacement be ? ToString(capture).
h. Else,
i. Let ref be the substring of templateRemainder from 0 to 1.
ii. Let refReplacement be ref.
i. Let refLength be the length of ref.
j. Set templateRemainder to the substring of templateRemainder from refLength.
k. Set result to the string-concatenation of result and refReplacement.
6. Return result.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( searchValue, replaceValue )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. If searchValue is neither undefined nor null, then
a. Let isRegExp be ? IsRegExp(searchValue).
b. If isRegExp is true, then
i. Let flags be ? Get(searchValue, "flags").
ii. Perform ? RequireObjectCoercible(flags).
iii. If ? ToString(flags) does not contain "g", throw a TypeError exception.
c. Let replacer be ? GetMethod(searchValue, %[Link]%).
d. If replacer is not undefined, then
i. Return ? Call(replacer, searchValue, « O, replaceValue »).
3. Let string be ? ToString(O).
4. Let searchString be ? ToString(searchValue).
5. Let functionalReplace be IsCallable(replaceValue).
6. If functionalReplace is false, then
a. Set replaceValue to ? ToString(replaceValue).
7. Let searchLength be the length of searchString.
8. Let advanceBy be max(1, searchLength).
9. Let matchPositions be a new empty List.
10. Let position be StringIndexOf(string, searchString, 0).
11. Repeat, while position is not NOT-FOUND,
a. Append position to matchPositions.
b. Set position to StringIndexOf(string, searchString, position + advanceBy).
12. Let endOfLastMatch be 0.
13. Let result be the empty String.
14. For each element p of matchPositions, do
a. Let preserved be the substring of string from endOfLastMatch to p.
b. If functionalReplace is true, then
i. Let replacement be ? ToString(? Call(replaceValue, undefined, « searchString, 𝔽(p), string »)).
c. Else,
i. Assert: replaceValue is a String.
ii. Let captures be a new empty List.
iii. Let replacement be ! GetSubstitution(searchString, string, p, captures, undefined, replaceValue).
d. Set result to the string-concatenation of result, preserved, and replacement.
e. Set endOfLastMatch to p + searchLength.
15. If endOfLastMatch < the length of string, then
a. Set result to the string-concatenation of result and the substring of string from endOfLastMatch.
16. Return result.

[Link] [Link] ( regexp )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. If regexp is neither undefined nor null, then
a. Let searcher be ? GetMethod(regexp, %[Link]%).
b. If searcher is not undefined, then
i. Return ? Call(searcher, regexp, « O »).
3. Let string be ? ToString(O).
4. Let rx be ? RegExpCreate(regexp, undefined).
5. Return ? Invoke(rx, %[Link]%, « string »).

NOTE This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( start, end )

This method returns a substring of the result of converting this object to a String, starting from index start and running to,
but not including, index end (or through the end of the String if end is undefined). If start is negative, it is treated as
sourceLength + start where sourceLength is the length of the String. If end is negative, it is treated as sourceLength +
end where sourceLength is the length of the String. The result is a String value, not a String object.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Let len be the length of S.
4. Let intStart be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(start).
5. If intStart = -∞, let from be 0.
6. Else if intStart < 0, let from be max(len + intStart, 0).
7. Else, let from be min(intStart, len).
8. If end is undefined, let intEnd be len; else let intEnd be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(end).
9. If intEnd = -∞, let to be 0.
10. Else if intEnd < 0, let to be max(len + intEnd, 0).
11. Else, let to be min(intEnd, len).
12. If from ≥ to, return the empty String.
13. Return the substring of S from from to to.

NOTE This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( separator, limit )

This method returns an Array into which substrings of the result of converting this object to a String have been stored.
The substrings are determined by searching from left to right for occurrences of separator; these occurrences are not
part of any String in the returned array, but serve to divide up the String value. The value of separator may be a String of
any length or it may be an object, such as a RegExp, that has a %[Link]% method.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. If separator is neither undefined nor null, then
a. Let splitter be ? GetMethod(separator, %[Link]%).
b. If splitter is not undefined, then
i. Return ? Call(splitter, separator, « O, limit »).
3. Let S be ? ToString(O).
4. If limit is undefined, let lim be 232 - 1; else let lim be ℝ(? ToUint32(limit)).
5. Let R be ? ToString(separator).
6. If lim = 0, then
a. Return CreateArrayFromList(« »).
7. If separator is undefined, then
a. Return CreateArrayFromList(« S »).
8. Let separatorLength be the length of R.
9. If separatorLength = 0, then
a. Let strLen be the length of S.
b. Let outLen be the result of clamping lim between 0 and strLen.
c. Let head be the substring of S from 0 to outLen.
d. Let codeUnits be a List consisting of the sequence of code units that are the elements of head.
e. Return CreateArrayFromList(codeUnits).
10. If S is the empty String, return CreateArrayFromList(« S »).
11. Let substrings be a new empty List.
12. Let i be 0.
13. Let j be StringIndexOf(S, R, 0).
14. Repeat, while j is not NOT-FOUND,
a. Let T be the substring of S from i to j.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

b. Append T to substrings.
c. If the number of elements in substrings is lim, return CreateArrayFromList(substrings).
d. Set i to j + separatorLength.
e. Set j to StringIndexOf(S, R, i).
15. Let T be the substring of S from i.
16. Append T to substrings.
17. Return CreateArrayFromList(substrings).

NOTE 1 The value of separator may be an empty String. In this case, separator does not match the empty substring
at the beginning or end of the input String, nor does it match the empty substring at the end of the previous
separator match. If separator is the empty String, the String is split up into individual code unit elements; the
length of the result array equals the length of the String, and each substring contains one code unit.

If the this value is (or converts to) the empty String, the result depends on whether separator can match the
empty String. If it can, the result array contains no elements. Otherwise, the result array contains one
element, which is the empty String.

If separator is undefined, then the result array contains just one String, which is the this value (converted
to a String). If limit is not undefined, then the output array is truncated so that it contains no more than
limit elements.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( searchString [ , position ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Let isRegExp be ? IsRegExp(searchString).
4. If isRegExp is true, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Let searchStr be ? ToString(searchString).
6. Let len be the length of S.
7. If position is undefined, let pos be 0; else let pos be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(position).
8. Let start be the result of clamping pos between 0 and len.
9. Let searchLength be the length of searchStr.
10. If searchLength = 0, return true.
11. Let end be start + searchLength.
12. If end > len, return false.
13. Let substring be the substring of S from start to end.
14. If substring is searchStr, return true.
15. Return false.

NOTE 2 Throwing an exception if the first argument is a RegExp is specified in order to allow future editions to define
extensions that allow such argument values.

NOTE 3 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( start, end )

This method returns a substring of the result of converting this object to a String, starting from index start and running to,
but not including, index end of the String (or through the end of the String if end is undefined). The result is a String
value, not a String object.

If either argument is NaN or negative, it is replaced with zero; if either argument is strictly greater than the length of the
String, it is replaced with the length of the String.

If start is strictly greater than end, they are swapped.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Let len be the length of S.
4. Let intStart be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(start).
5. If end is undefined, let intEnd be len; else let intEnd be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(end).
6. Let finalStart be the result of clamping intStart between 0 and len.
7. Let finalEnd be the result of clamping intEnd between 0 and len.
8. Let from be min(finalStart, finalEnd).
9. Let to be max(finalStart, finalEnd).
10. Return the substring of S from from to to.

NOTE This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( [ reserved1 [ , reserved2 ] ] )

This method interprets a String value as a sequence of UTF-16 encoded code points, as described in 6.1.4.

It works exactly the same as toLowerCase except that it is intended to yield a locale-sensitive result corresponding
with conventions of the host environment's current locale. There will only be a difference in the few cases (such as
Turkish) where the rules for that language conflict with the regular Unicode case mappings.

NOTE This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( [ reserved1 [ , reserved2 ] ] )

This method interprets a String value as a sequence of UTF-16 encoded code points, as described in 6.1.4.

It works exactly the same as toUpperCase except that it is intended to yield a locale-sensitive result corresponding
with conventions of the host environment's current locale. There will only be a difference in the few cases (such as
Turkish) where the rules for that language conflict with the regular Unicode case mappings.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method interprets a String value as a sequence of UTF-16 encoded code points, as described in 6.1.4.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Let sText be StringToCodePoints(S).
4. Let lowerText be toLowercase(sText), according to the Unicode Default Case Conversion algorithm.
5. Let L be CodePointsToString(lowerText).
6. Return L.

The result must be derived according to the locale-insensitive case mappings in the Unicode Character Database (this
explicitly includes not only the file [Link], but also all locale-insensitive mappings in the file
[Link] that accompanies it).

NOTE 1 The case mapping of some code points may produce multiple code points. In this case the result String may
not be the same length as the source String. Because both toUpperCase and toLowerCase have context-
sensitive behaviour, the methods are not symmetrical. In other words,
[Link]().toLowerCase() is not necessarily equal to [Link]().

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? ThisStringValue(this value).

NOTE For a String object, this method happens to return the same thing as the valueOf method.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method interprets a String value as a sequence of UTF-16 encoded code points, as described in 6.1.4.

It behaves in exactly the same way as [Link], except that the String is mapped using the
toUppercase algorithm of the Unicode Default Case Conversion.

NOTE This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method returns a String representation of this object with all leading surrogates and trailing surrogates that are not
part of a surrogate pair replaced with U+FFFD (REPLACEMENT CHARACTER).

It performs the following steps when called:

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Let strLen be the length of S.
4. Let k be 0.
5. Let result be the empty String.
6. Repeat, while k < strLen,
a. Let cp be CodePointAt(S, k).
b. If cp.⁠[[IsUnpairedSurrogate]] is true, then
i. Set result to the string-concatenation of result and 0xFFFD (REPLACEMENT CHARACTER).
c. Else,
i. Set result to the string-concatenation of result and UTF16EncodeCodePoint(cp.⁠[[CodePoint]]).
d. Set k to k + cp.⁠[[CodeUnitCount]].
7. Return result.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method interprets a String value as a sequence of UTF-16 encoded code points, as described in 6.1.4.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be the this value.

2. Return ? TrimString(S, START+END).

NOTE This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link].1 TrimString ( string, where )

The abstract operation TrimString takes arguments string (an ECMAScript language value) and where (START, END, or
START+END) and returns either a normal completion containing a String or a throw completion. It interprets string as a
sequence of UTF-16 encoded code points, as described in 6.1.4. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let str be ? RequireObjectCoercible(string).

2. Let S be ? ToString(str).
3. If where is START, then
a. Let T be the String value that is a copy of S with leading white space removed.
4. Else if where is END, then
a. Let T be the String value that is a copy of S with trailing white space removed.
5. Else,
a. Assert: where is START+END.
b. Let T be the String value that is a copy of S with both leading and trailing white space removed.
6. Return T.

The definition of white space is the union of WhiteSpace and LineTerminator. When determining whether a Unicode
code point is in Unicode general category “Space_Separator” (“Zs”), code unit sequences are interpreted as UTF-16 en-
coded code point sequences as specified in 6.1.4.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method interprets a String value as a sequence of UTF-16 encoded code points, as described in 6.1.4.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be the this value.

2. Return ? TrimString(S, END).

NOTE This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method interprets a String value as a sequence of UTF-16 encoded code points, as described in 6.1.4.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be the this value.

2. Return ? TrimString(S, START).

NOTE This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore, it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? ThisStringValue(this value).

[Link].1 ThisStringValue ( value )

The abstract operation ThisStringValue takes argument value (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a nor-
mal completion containing a String or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If value is a String, return value.

2. If value is an Object and value has a [[StringData]] internal slot, then
a. Let s be value.⁠[[StringData]].
b. Assert: s is a String.
c. Return s.
3. Throw a TypeError exception.

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ] ( )

This method returns an iterator object that iterates over the code points of a String value, returning each code point as a
String value.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let s be ? ToString(O).
3. Let closure be a new Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures s and performs the following steps when
called:
a. Let len be the length of s.
b. Let position be 0.
c. Repeat, while position < len,
i. Let cp be CodePointAt(s, position).
ii. Let nextIndex be position + cp.⁠[[CodeUnitCount]].
iii. Let resultString be the substring of s from position to nextIndex.
iv. Set position to nextIndex.
v. Perform ? GeneratorYield(CreateIteratorResultObject(resultString, false)).
d. Return NormalCompletion(UNUSED).
4. Return CreateIteratorFromClosure(closure, "%StringIteratorPrototype%", %StringIteratorPrototype%).

The value of the "name" property of this method is "[[Link]]".

22.1.4 Properties of String Instances

String instances are String exotic objects and have the internal methods specified for such objects. String instances in-
herit properties from the String prototype object. String instances also have a ⁠[[StringData]] internal slot. The

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[[StringData]] internal slot is the String value represented by this String object.

String instances have a "length" property, and a set of enumerable properties with integer-indexed names.

[Link] length

The number of elements in the String value represented by this String object.

Once a String object is initialized, this property is unchanging. It has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]:
false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

22.1.5 String Iterator Objects

A String Iterator is an object that represents a specific iteration over some specific String instance object. There is not a
named constructor for String Iterator objects. Instead, String Iterator objects are created by calling certain methods of
String instance objects.

[Link] The %StringIteratorPrototype% Object

The %StringIteratorPrototype% object:

has properties that are inherited by all String Iterator objects.

is an ordinary object.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
has the following properties:

[Link].1 %StringIteratorPrototype%.next ( )

1. Return ? GeneratorResume(this value, EMPTY, "%StringIteratorPrototype%").

[Link].2 %StringIteratorPrototype% [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "String Iterator".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

22.2 RegExp (Regular Expression) Objects

A RegExp object contains a regular expression and the associated flags.

NOTE The form and functionality of regular expressions is modelled after the regular expression facility in the Perl
5 programming language.

22.2.1 Patterns

The RegExp constructor applies the following grammar to the input pattern String. An error occurs if the grammar can-
not interpret the String as an expansion of Pattern.
Syntax

Pattern[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::

Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Disjunction[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::

Alternative[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
Alternative[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] |
Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]

Alternative[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::

[empty]
Alternative[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
Term[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]

Term[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::

Assertion[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
Atom[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
Atom[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] Quantifier

Assertion[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::

^
$
\b
\B
(?= Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )
(?! Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )
(?<= Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )
(?<! Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )

Quantifier ::
QuantifierPrefix
QuantifierPrefix ?

QuantifierPrefix ::
*
+
?
{ DecimalDigits[~Sep] }
{ DecimalDigits[~Sep] ,}
{ DecimalDigits[~Sep] , DecimalDigits[~Sep] }

Atom[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::

PatternCharacter
.
\ AtomEscape[?UnicodeMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
CharacterClass[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode]
( GroupSpecifier[?UnicodeMode] opt
Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )
(? RegularExpressionModifiers :
Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )
(? RegularExpressionModifiers - RegularExpressionModifiers :
Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )

RegularExpressionModifiers ::
[empty]
RegularExpressionModifiers RegularExpressionModifier

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

RegularExpressionModifier :: one of
i m s

SyntaxCharacter :: one of
^ $ \ . * + ? ( ) [ ] { } |

PatternCharacter ::
SourceCharacter but not SyntaxCharacter

AtomEscape[UnicodeMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::
DecimalEscape
CharacterClassEscape[?UnicodeMode]
CharacterEscape[?UnicodeMode]
[+NamedCaptureGroups] k GroupName[?UnicodeMode]

CharacterEscape[UnicodeMode] ::
ControlEscape
c AsciiLetter
0 [lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]
HexEscapeSequence
RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence[?UnicodeMode]
IdentityEscape[?UnicodeMode]

ControlEscape :: one of
f n r t v

GroupSpecifier[UnicodeMode] ::
? GroupName[?UnicodeMode]

GroupName[UnicodeMode] ::
< RegExpIdentifierName[?UnicodeMode] >

RegExpIdentifierName[UnicodeMode] ::
RegExpIdentifierStart[?UnicodeMode]
RegExpIdentifierName[?UnicodeMode] RegExpIdentifierPart[?UnicodeMode]

RegExpIdentifierStart[UnicodeMode] ::
IdentifierStartChar
\ RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence[+UnicodeMode]
[~UnicodeMode] UnicodeLeadSurrogate UnicodeTrailSurrogate

RegExpIdentifierPart[UnicodeMode] ::
IdentifierPartChar
\ RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence[+UnicodeMode]
[~UnicodeMode] UnicodeLeadSurrogate UnicodeTrailSurrogate

RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence[UnicodeMode] ::
[+UnicodeMode] u HexLeadSurrogate \u HexTrailSurrogate
[+UnicodeMode] u HexLeadSurrogate
[+UnicodeMode] u HexTrailSurrogate
[+UnicodeMode] u HexNonSurrogate
[~UnicodeMode] u Hex4Digits
[+UnicodeMode] u{ CodePoint }

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

UnicodeLeadSurrogate ::
any Unicode code point in the inclusive interval from U+D800 to U+DBFF

UnicodeTrailSurrogate ::
any Unicode code point in the inclusive interval from U+DC00 to U+DFFF

Each \u HexTrailSurrogate for which the choice of associated u HexLeadSurrogate is ambiguous shall be associated
with the nearest possible u HexLeadSurrogate that would otherwise have no corresponding \u HexTrailSurrogate.

HexLeadSurrogate ::
Hex4Digits but only if the MV of Hex4Digits is in the inclusive interval from 0xD800 to 0xDBFF

HexTrailSurrogate ::
Hex4Digits but only if the MV of Hex4Digits is in the inclusive interval from 0xDC00 to 0xDFFF

HexNonSurrogate ::
Hex4Digits but only if the MV of Hex4Digits is not in the inclusive interval from 0xD800 to 0xDFFF

IdentityEscape[UnicodeMode] ::
[+UnicodeMode] SyntaxCharacter
[+UnicodeMode] /
[~UnicodeMode] SourceCharacter but not UnicodeIDContinue

DecimalEscape ::
NonZeroDigit DecimalDigits[~Sep] opt [lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]

CharacterClassEscape[UnicodeMode] ::
d
D
s
S
w
W
[+UnicodeMode] p{ UnicodePropertyValueExpression }
[+UnicodeMode] P{ UnicodePropertyValueExpression }

UnicodePropertyValueExpression ::
UnicodePropertyName = UnicodePropertyValue
LoneUnicodePropertyNameOrValue

UnicodePropertyName ::
UnicodePropertyNameCharacters

UnicodePropertyNameCharacters ::
UnicodePropertyNameCharacter UnicodePropertyNameCharactersopt

UnicodePropertyValue ::
UnicodePropertyValueCharacters

LoneUnicodePropertyNameOrValue ::
UnicodePropertyValueCharacters

UnicodePropertyValueCharacters ::
UnicodePropertyValueCharacter UnicodePropertyValueCharactersopt

UnicodePropertyValueCharacter ::
UnicodePropertyNameCharacter
DecimalDigit

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

UnicodePropertyNameCharacter ::
AsciiLetter
_

CharacterClass[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode] ::
[ [lookahead ≠ ^] ClassContents[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode] ]
[^ ClassContents[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode] ]

ClassContents[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode] ::
[empty]
[~UnicodeSetsMode] NonemptyClassRanges[?UnicodeMode]
[+UnicodeSetsMode] ClassSetExpression

NonemptyClassRanges[UnicodeMode] ::
ClassAtom[?UnicodeMode]
ClassAtom[?UnicodeMode] NonemptyClassRangesNoDash[?UnicodeMode]
ClassAtom[?UnicodeMode] - ClassAtom[?UnicodeMode]
ClassContents[?UnicodeMode, ~UnicodeSetsMode]

NonemptyClassRangesNoDash[UnicodeMode] ::
ClassAtom[?UnicodeMode]
ClassAtomNoDash[?UnicodeMode] NonemptyClassRangesNoDash[?UnicodeMode]
ClassAtomNoDash[?UnicodeMode] - ClassAtom[?UnicodeMode]
ClassContents[?UnicodeMode, ~UnicodeSetsMode]

ClassAtom[UnicodeMode] ::
-
ClassAtomNoDash[?UnicodeMode]

ClassAtomNoDash[UnicodeMode] ::
SourceCharacter but not one of \ or ] or -
\ ClassEscape[?UnicodeMode]

ClassEscape[UnicodeMode] ::
b
-
[+UnicodeMode]
CharacterClassEscape[?UnicodeMode]
CharacterEscape[?UnicodeMode]

ClassSetExpression ::
ClassUnion
ClassIntersection
ClassSubtraction

ClassUnion ::
ClassSetRange ClassUnionopt
ClassSetOperand ClassUnionopt

ClassIntersection ::
ClassSetOperand && [lookahead ≠ &] ClassSetOperand
ClassIntersection && [lookahead ≠ &] ClassSetOperand

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ClassSubtraction ::
ClassSetOperand -- ClassSetOperand
ClassSubtraction -- ClassSetOperand

ClassSetRange ::
ClassSetCharacter - ClassSetCharacter

ClassSetOperand ::
NestedClass
ClassStringDisjunction
ClassSetCharacter

NestedClass ::
[ [lookahead ≠ ^] ClassContents[+UnicodeMode, +UnicodeSetsMode] ]
[^ ClassContents[+UnicodeMode, +UnicodeSetsMode] ]
\ CharacterClassEscape[+UnicodeMode]

NOTE 1 The first two lines here are equivalent to CharacterClass.

ClassStringDisjunction ::
\q{ ClassStringDisjunctionContents }

ClassStringDisjunctionContents ::
ClassString
ClassString | ClassStringDisjunctionContents

ClassString ::
[empty]
NonEmptyClassString

NonEmptyClassString ::
ClassSetCharacter NonEmptyClassStringopt

ClassSetCharacter ::
[lookahead ∉ ClassSetReservedDoublePunctuator] SourceCharacter but not ClassSetSyntaxCharacter
\ CharacterEscape[+UnicodeMode]
\ ClassSetReservedPunctuator
\b

ClassSetReservedDoublePunctuator :: one of
&& !! ## $$ %% ** ++ ,, .. :: ;; << == >> ?? @@ ^^ `` ~~

ClassSetSyntaxCharacter :: one of
( ) [ ] { } / - \ |

ClassSetReservedPunctuator :: one of
& - ! # % , : ; < = > @ ` ~

NOTE 2 A number of productions in this section are given alternative definitions in section B.1.2.

[Link] Static Semantics: Early Errors

NOTE This section is amended in B.1.2.1.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Pattern :: Disjunction

It is a Syntax Error if CountLeftCapturingParensWithin(Pattern) ≥ 232 - 1.

It is a Syntax Error if Pattern contains two distinct GroupSpecifiers x and y such that the CapturingGroupName of x
is the CapturingGroupName of y and such that MightBothParticipate(x, y) is true.

QuantifierPrefix :: { DecimalDigits , DecimalDigits }

It is a Syntax Error if the MV of the first DecimalDigits is strictly greater than the MV of the second DecimalDigits.

Atom :: (? RegularExpressionModifiers : Disjunction )

It is a Syntax Error if the source text matched by RegularExpressionModifiers contains the same code point more
than once.

Atom :: (? RegularExpressionModifiers - RegularExpressionModifiers : Disjunction )

It is a Syntax Error if the source text matched by the first RegularExpressionModifiers and the source text matched
by the second RegularExpressionModifiers are both empty.
It is a Syntax Error if the source text matched by the first RegularExpressionModifiers contains the same code point
more than once.
It is a Syntax Error if the source text matched by the second RegularExpressionModifiers contains the same code
point more than once.
It is a Syntax Error if any code point in the source text matched by the first RegularExpressionModifiers is also
contained in the source text matched by the second RegularExpressionModifiers.

AtomEscape :: k GroupName

It is a Syntax Error if GroupSpecifiersThatMatch(GroupName) is empty.

AtomEscape :: DecimalEscape

It is a Syntax Error if the CapturingGroupNumber of DecimalEscape is strictly greater than

CountLeftCapturingParensWithin(the Pattern containing AtomEscape).

NonemptyClassRanges :: ClassAtom - ClassAtom ClassContents

It is a Syntax Error if IsCharacterClass of the first ClassAtom is true or IsCharacterClass of the second ClassAtom is
true.
It is a Syntax Error if IsCharacterClass of the first ClassAtom is false, IsCharacterClass of the second ClassAtom is
false, and the CharacterValue of the first ClassAtom is strictly greater than the CharacterValue of the second
ClassAtom.

NonemptyClassRangesNoDash :: ClassAtomNoDash - ClassAtom ClassContents

It is a Syntax Error if IsCharacterClass of ClassAtomNoDash is true or IsCharacterClass of ClassAtom is true.

It is a Syntax Error if IsCharacterClass of ClassAtomNoDash is false, IsCharacterClass of ClassAtom is false, and
the CharacterValue of ClassAtomNoDash is strictly greater than the CharacterValue of ClassAtom.

RegExpIdentifierStart :: \ RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence

It is a Syntax Error if the CharacterValue of RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence is not the numeric value of some code
point matched by the IdentifierStartChar lexical grammar production.

RegExpIdentifierStart :: UnicodeLeadSurrogate UnicodeTrailSurrogate

It is a Syntax Error if the RegExpIdentifierCodePoint of RegExpIdentifierStart is not matched by the UnicodeIDStart

lexical grammar production.

RegExpIdentifierPart :: \ RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence

It is a Syntax Error if the CharacterValue of RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence is not the numeric value of some code
point matched by the IdentifierPartChar lexical grammar production.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

RegExpIdentifierPart :: UnicodeLeadSurrogate UnicodeTrailSurrogate

It is a Syntax Error if the RegExpIdentifierCodePoint of RegExpIdentifierPart is not matched by the

UnicodeIDContinue lexical grammar production.

UnicodePropertyValueExpression :: UnicodePropertyName = UnicodePropertyValue

It is a Syntax Error if the source text matched by UnicodePropertyName is not a Unicode property name or property
alias listed in the “Property name and aliases” column of Table 69.
It is a Syntax Error if the source text matched by UnicodePropertyValue is not a property value or property value
alias for the Unicode property or property alias given by the source text matched by UnicodePropertyName listed in
[Link].

UnicodePropertyValueExpression :: LoneUnicodePropertyNameOrValue

It is a Syntax Error if the source text matched by LoneUnicodePropertyNameOrValue is not a Unicode property
value or property value alias for the General_Category (gc) property listed in [Link], nor a
binary property or binary property alias listed in the “Property name and aliases” column of Table 70, nor a binary
property of strings listed in the “Property name” column of Table 71.
It is a Syntax Error if the enclosing Pattern does not have a [UnicodeSetsMode] parameter and the source text matched
by LoneUnicodePropertyNameOrValue is a binary property of strings listed in the “Property name” column of Table
71.

CharacterClassEscape :: P{ UnicodePropertyValueExpression }

It is a Syntax Error if MayContainStrings of the UnicodePropertyValueExpression is true.

CharacterClass :: [^ ClassContents ]

It is a Syntax Error if MayContainStrings of the ClassContents is true.

NestedClass :: [^ ClassContents ]

It is a Syntax Error if MayContainStrings of the ClassContents is true.

ClassSetRange :: ClassSetCharacter - ClassSetCharacter

It is a Syntax Error if the CharacterValue of the first ClassSetCharacter is strictly greater than the CharacterValue of
the second ClassSetCharacter.

[Link] Static Semantics: CountLeftCapturingParensWithin ( node )

The abstract operation CountLeftCapturingParensWithin takes argument node (a Parse Node) and returns a non-negat-
ive integer. It returns the number of left-capturing parentheses in node. A left-capturing parenthesis is any ( pattern
character that is matched by the ( terminal of the Atom :: ( GroupSpecifieropt Disjunction ) production.

NOTE This section is amended in B.1.2.2.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: node is an instance of a production in the RegExp Pattern grammar.

2. Return the number of Atom :: ( GroupSpecifieropt Disjunction ) Parse Nodes contained within node.

[Link] Static Semantics: CountLeftCapturingParensBefore ( node )

The abstract operation CountLeftCapturingParensBefore takes argument node (a Parse Node) and returns a non-negat-
ive integer. It returns the number of left-capturing parentheses within the enclosing pattern that occur to the left of node.

NOTE This section is amended in B.1.2.2.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: node is an instance of a production in the RegExp Pattern grammar.

2. Let pattern be the Pattern containing node.
3. Return the number of Atom :: ( GroupSpecifieropt Disjunction ) Parse Nodes contained within pattern that
either occur before node or contain node.

[Link] Static Semantics: MightBothParticipate ( x, y )

The abstract operation MightBothParticipate takes arguments x (a Parse Node) and y (a Parse Node) and returns a
Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: x and y have the same enclosing Pattern.

2. If the enclosing Pattern contains a Disjunction :: Alternative | Disjunction Parse Node such that either x is
contained within the Alternative and y is contained within the derived Disjunction, or x is contained within the derived
Disjunction and y is contained within the Alternative, return false.
3. Return true.

[Link] Static Semantics: CapturingGroupNumber

The syntax-directed operation CapturingGroupNumber takes no arguments and returns a positive integer.

NOTE This section is amended in B.1.2.1.

It is defined piecewise over the following productions:

DecimalEscape :: NonZeroDigit

1. Return the MV of NonZeroDigit.

DecimalEscape :: NonZeroDigit DecimalDigits

1. Let n be the number of code points in DecimalDigits.

2. Return (the MV of NonZeroDigit × 10n plus the MV of DecimalDigits).

The definitions of “the MV of NonZeroDigit” and “the MV of DecimalDigits” are in 12.9.3.

[Link] Static Semantics: IsCharacterClass

The syntax-directed operation IsCharacterClass takes no arguments and returns a Boolean.

NOTE This section is amended in B.1.2.3.

It is defined piecewise over the following productions:

ClassAtom ::
-
ClassAtomNoDash ::
SourceCharacter but not one of \ or ] or -
ClassEscape ::
b
-
CharacterEscape

1. Return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ClassEscape :: CharacterClassEscape

1. Return true.

[Link] Static Semantics: CharacterValue

The syntax-directed operation CharacterValue takes no arguments and returns a non-negative integer.

NOTE 1 This section is amended in B.1.2.4.

It is defined piecewise over the following productions:

ClassAtom :: -

1. Return the numeric value of U+002D (HYPHEN-MINUS).

ClassAtomNoDash :: SourceCharacter but not one of \ or ] or -

1. Let ch be the code point matched by SourceCharacter.

2. Return the numeric value of ch.

ClassEscape :: b

1. Return the numeric value of U+0008 (BACKSPACE).

ClassEscape :: -

1. Return the numeric value of U+002D (HYPHEN-MINUS).

CharacterEscape :: ControlEscape

1. Return the numeric value according to Table 67.

Table 67: ControlEscape Code Point Values

ControlEscape Numeric Value Code Point Unicode Name Symbol
t 9 U+0009 CHARACTER TABULATION <HT>
n 10 U+000A LINE FEED (LF) <LF>
v 11 U+000B LINE TABULATION <VT>
f 12 U+000C FORM FEED (FF) <FF>
r 13 U+000D CARRIAGE RETURN (CR) <CR>

CharacterEscape :: c AsciiLetter

1. Let ch be the code point matched by AsciiLetter.

2. Let i be the numeric value of ch.
3. Return the remainder of dividing i by 32.

CharacterEscape :: 0 [lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]

1. Return the numeric value of U+0000 (NULL).

NOTE 2 \0 represents the <NUL> character and cannot be followed by a decimal digit.

CharacterEscape :: HexEscapeSequence

1. Return the MV of HexEscapeSequence.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence :: u HexLeadSurrogate \u HexTrailSurrogate

1. Let lead be the CharacterValue of HexLeadSurrogate.

2. Let trail be the CharacterValue of HexTrailSurrogate.
3. Let cp be UTF16SurrogatePairToCodePoint(lead, trail).
4. Return the numeric value of cp.

RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence :: u Hex4Digits

1. Return the MV of Hex4Digits.

RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence :: u{ CodePoint }

1. Return the MV of CodePoint.

HexLeadSurrogate :: Hex4Digits
HexTrailSurrogate :: Hex4Digits
HexNonSurrogate :: Hex4Digits

1. Return the MV of Hex4Digits.

CharacterEscape :: IdentityEscape

1. Let ch be the code point matched by IdentityEscape.

2. Return the numeric value of ch.

ClassSetCharacter :: SourceCharacter but not ClassSetSyntaxCharacter

1. Let ch be the code point matched by SourceCharacter.

2. Return the numeric value of ch.

ClassSetCharacter :: \ ClassSetReservedPunctuator

1. Let ch be the code point matched by ClassSetReservedPunctuator.

2. Return the numeric value of ch.

ClassSetCharacter :: \b

1. Return the numeric value of U+0008 (BACKSPACE).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ClassSetOperand ::
ClassSetCharacter

1. Return false.

UnicodePropertyValueExpression :: LoneUnicodePropertyNameOrValue

1. If the source text matched by LoneUnicodePropertyNameOrValue is a binary property of strings listed in the
“Property name” column of Table 71, return true.
2. Return false.

ClassUnion :: ClassSetRange ClassUnionopt

1. If the ClassUnion is present, return MayContainStrings of the ClassUnion.

2. Return false.

ClassUnion :: ClassSetOperand ClassUnionopt

1. If MayContainStrings of the ClassSetOperand is true, return true.

2. If ClassUnion is present, return MayContainStrings of the ClassUnion.
3. Return false.

ClassIntersection :: ClassSetOperand && ClassSetOperand

1. If MayContainStrings of the first ClassSetOperand is false, return false.

2. If MayContainStrings of the second ClassSetOperand is false, return false.
3. Return true.

ClassIntersection :: ClassIntersection && ClassSetOperand

1. If MayContainStrings of the ClassIntersection is false, return false.

2. If MayContainStrings of the ClassSetOperand is false, return false.
3. Return true.

ClassSubtraction :: ClassSetOperand -- ClassSetOperand

1. Return MayContainStrings of the first ClassSetOperand.

ClassSubtraction :: ClassSubtraction -- ClassSetOperand

1. Return MayContainStrings of the ClassSubtraction.

ClassStringDisjunctionContents :: ClassString | ClassStringDisjunctionContents

1. If MayContainStrings of the ClassString is true, return true.

2. Return MayContainStrings of the ClassStringDisjunctionContents.

ClassString :: [empty]

1. Return true.

ClassString :: NonEmptyClassString

1. Return MayContainStrings of the NonEmptyClassString.

NonEmptyClassString :: ClassSetCharacter NonEmptyClassStringopt

1. If NonEmptyClassString is present, return true.

2. Return false.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Static Semantics: GroupSpecifiersThatMatch ( thisGroupName )

The abstract operation GroupSpecifiersThatMatch takes argument thisGroupName (a GroupName Parse Node) and re-
turns a List of GroupSpecifier Parse Nodes. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let name be the CapturingGroupName of thisGroupName.

2. Let pattern be the Pattern containing thisGroupName.
3. Let result be a new empty List.
4. For each GroupSpecifier gs that pattern contains, do
a. If the CapturingGroupName of gs is name, then
i. Append gs to result.
5. Return result.

[Link] Static Semantics: CapturingGroupName

The syntax-directed operation CapturingGroupName takes no arguments and returns a String. It is defined piecewise
over the following productions:
GroupName :: < RegExpIdentifierName >

1. Let idTextUnescaped be the RegExpIdentifierCodePoints of RegExpIdentifierName.

2. Return CodePointsToString(idTextUnescaped).

[Link] Static Semantics: RegExpIdentifierCodePoints

The syntax-directed operation RegExpIdentifierCodePoints takes no arguments and returns a List of code points. It is
defined piecewise over the following productions:
RegExpIdentifierName :: RegExpIdentifierStart

1. Let cp be the RegExpIdentifierCodePoint of RegExpIdentifierStart.

2. Return « cp ».

RegExpIdentifierName :: RegExpIdentifierName RegExpIdentifierPart

1. Let cps be the RegExpIdentifierCodePoints of the derived RegExpIdentifierName.

2. Let cp be the RegExpIdentifierCodePoint of RegExpIdentifierPart.
3. Return the list-concatenation of cps and « cp ».

[Link] Static Semantics: RegExpIdentifierCodePoint

The syntax-directed operation RegExpIdentifierCodePoint takes no arguments and returns a code point. It is defined
piecewise over the following productions:
RegExpIdentifierStart :: IdentifierStartChar

1. Return the code point matched by IdentifierStartChar.

RegExpIdentifierPart :: IdentifierPartChar

1. Return the code point matched by IdentifierPartChar.

RegExpIdentifierStart :: \ RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence
RegExpIdentifierPart :: \ RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence

1. Return the code point whose numeric value is the CharacterValue of RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence.

RegExpIdentifierStart :: UnicodeLeadSurrogate UnicodeTrailSurrogate

RegExpIdentifierPart :: UnicodeLeadSurrogate UnicodeTrailSurrogate

1. Let lead be the code unit whose numeric value is the numeric value of the code point matched by
UnicodeLeadSurrogate.
2. Let trail be the code unit whose numeric value is the numeric value of the code point matched by

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

UnicodeTrailSurrogate.
3. Return UTF16SurrogatePairToCodePoint(lead, trail).

22.2.2 Pattern Semantics

A regular expression pattern is converted into an Abstract Closure using the process described below. An implementa-
tion is encouraged to use more efficient algorithms than the ones listed below, as long as the results are the same. The
Abstract Closure is used as the value of a RegExp object's ⁠[[RegExpMatcher]] internal slot.

A Pattern is a BMP pattern if its associated flags contain neither a u nor a v. Otherwise, it is a Unicode pattern. A BMP
pattern matches against a String interpreted as consisting of a sequence of 16-bit values that are Unicode code points
in the range of the Basic Multilingual Plane. A Unicode pattern matches against a String interpreted as consisting of
Unicode code points encoded using UTF-16. In the context of describing the behaviour of a BMP pattern “character”
means a single 16-bit Unicode BMP code point. In the context of describing the behaviour of a Unicode pattern “charac-
ter” means a UTF-16 encoded code point (6.1.4). In either context, “character value” means the numeric value of the
corresponding non-encoded code point.

The syntax and semantics of Pattern is defined as if the source text for the Pattern was a List of SourceCharacter val-
ues where each SourceCharacter corresponds to a Unicode code point. If a BMP pattern contains a non-BMP
SourceCharacter the entire pattern is encoded using UTF-16 and the individual code units of that encoding are used as
the elements of the List.

NOTE For example, consider a pattern expressed in source text as the single non-BMP character U+1D11E
(MUSICAL SYMBOL G CLEF). Interpreted as a Unicode pattern, it would be a single element (character)
List consisting of the single code point U+1D11E. However, interpreted as a BMP pattern, it is first UTF-16
encoded to produce a two element List consisting of the code units 0xD834 and 0xDD1E.

Patterns are passed to the RegExp constructor as ECMAScript String values in which non-BMP characters
are UTF-16 encoded. For example, the single character MUSICAL SYMBOL G CLEF pattern, expressed as
a String value, is a String of length 2 whose elements were the code units 0xD834 and 0xDD1E. So no
further translation of the string would be necessary to process it as a BMP pattern consisting of two pattern
characters. However, to process it as a Unicode pattern UTF16SurrogatePairToCodePoint must be used in
producing a List whose sole element is a single pattern character, the code point U+1D11E.

An implementation may not actually perform such translations to or from UTF-16, but the semantics of this
specification requires that the result of pattern matching be as if such translations were performed.

[Link] Notation

The descriptions below use the following internal data structures:

A CharSetElement is one of the two following entities:

If rer.⁠[[UnicodeSets]] is false, then a CharSetElement is a character in the sense of the Pattern Semantics
above.
If rer.⁠[[UnicodeSets]] is true, then a CharSetElement is a sequence whose elements are characters in the
sense of the Pattern Semantics above. This includes the empty sequence, sequences of one character, and
sequences of more than one character. For convenience, when working with CharSetElements of this kind, an
individual character is treated interchangeably with a sequence of one character.
A CharSet is a mathematical set of CharSetElements.
A CaptureRange is a Record { ⁠[[StartIndex]], ⁠[[EndIndex]] } that represents the range of characters included in a
capture, where ⁠[[StartIndex]] is an integer representing the start index (inclusive) of the range within Input, and
⁠[[EndIndex]] is an integer representing the end index (exclusive) of the range within Input. For any CaptureRange,
these indices must satisfy the invariant that ⁠[[StartIndex]] ≤ ⁠[[EndIndex]].
A MatchState is a Record { ⁠[[Input]], ⁠[[EndIndex]], ⁠[[Captures]] } where ⁠[[Input]] is a List of characters representing
the String being matched, ⁠[[EndIndex]] is an integer, and ⁠[[Captures]] is a List of values, one for each left-capturing
parenthesis in the pattern. MatchStates are used to represent partial match states in the regular expression
matching algorithms. The ⁠[[EndIndex]] is one plus the index of the last input character matched so far by the pattern,
while ⁠[[Captures]] holds the results of capturing parentheses. The nth element of ⁠[[Captures]] is either a
CaptureRange representing the range of characters captured by the nth set of capturing parentheses, or undefined

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

if the nth set of capturing parentheses hasn't been reached yet. Due to backtracking, many MatchStates may be in
use at any time during the matching process.
A MatcherContinuation is an Abstract Closure that takes one MatchState argument and returns either a MatchState
or FAILURE. The MatcherContinuation attempts to match the remaining portion (specified by the closure's captured
values) of the pattern against Input, starting at the intermediate state given by its MatchState argument. If the match
succeeds, the MatcherContinuation returns the final MatchState that it reached; if the match fails, the
MatcherContinuation returns FAILURE.
A Matcher is an Abstract Closure that takes two arguments—a MatchState and a MatcherContinuation—and returns
either a MatchState or FAILURE. A Matcher attempts to match a middle subpattern (specified by the closure's
captured values) of the pattern against the MatchState's ⁠[[Input]], starting at the intermediate state given by its
MatchState argument. The MatcherContinuation argument should be a closure that matches the rest of the pattern.
After matching the subpattern of a pattern to obtain a new MatchState, the Matcher then calls MatcherContinuation
on that new MatchState to test if the rest of the pattern can match as well. If it can, the Matcher returns the
MatchState returned by MatcherContinuation; if not, the Matcher may try different choices at its choice points,
repeatedly calling MatcherContinuation until it either succeeds or all possibilities have been exhausted.

[Link].1 RegExp Records

A RegExp Record is a Record value used to store information about a RegExp that is needed during compilation and
possibly during matching.

It has the following fields:

Table 68: RegExp Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[IgnoreCase]] a Boolean indicates whether "i" appears in the RegExp's flags
⁠[[Multiline]] a Boolean indicates whether "m" appears in the RegExp's flags
⁠[[DotAll]] a Boolean indicates whether "s" appears in the RegExp's flags
⁠[[Unicode]] a Boolean indicates whether "u" appears in the RegExp's flags
⁠[[UnicodeSets]] a Boolean indicates whether "v" appears in the RegExp's flags
⁠[[CapturingGroupsCount]] a non-negative integer the number of left-capturing parentheses in the RegExp's pattern

[Link] Runtime Semantics: CompilePattern

The syntax-directed operation CompilePattern takes argument rer (a RegExp Record) and returns an Abstract Closure
that takes a List of characters and a non-negative integer and returns either a MatchState or FAILURE. It is defined
piecewise over the following productions:
Pattern :: Disjunction

1. Let m be CompileSubpattern of Disjunction with arguments rer and FORWARD.

2. Return a new Abstract Closure with parameters (Input, index) that captures rer and m and performs the following
steps when called:
a. Assert: Input is a List of characters.
b. Assert: 0 ≤ index ≤ the number of elements in Input.
c. Let c be a new MatcherContinuation with parameters (y) that captures nothing and performs the following steps
when called:
i. Assert: y is a MatchState.
ii. Return y.
d. Let cap be a List of rer.⁠[[CapturingGroupsCount]] undefined values, indexed 1 through
rer.[[CapturingGroupsCount]].
e. Let x be the MatchState { ⁠[[Input]]: Input, ⁠[[EndIndex]]: index, ⁠[[Captures]]: cap }.
f. Return m(x, c).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE A Pattern compiles to an Abstract Closure value. RegExpBuiltinExec can then apply this procedure to a List
of characters and an offset within that List to determine whether the pattern would match starting at exactly
that offset within the List, and, if it does match, what the values of the capturing parentheses would be. The
algorithms in 22.2.2 are designed so that compiling a pattern may throw a SyntaxError exception; on the
other hand, once the pattern is successfully compiled, applying the resulting Abstract Closure to find a match
in a List of characters cannot throw an exception (except for any implementation-defined exceptions that can
occur anywhere such as out-of-memory).

[Link] Runtime Semantics: CompileSubpattern

The syntax-directed operation CompileSubpattern takes arguments rer (a RegExp Record) and direction (FORWARD or
BACKWARD) and returns a Matcher.

NOTE 1 This section is amended in B.1.2.5.

It is defined piecewise over the following productions:

Disjunction :: Alternative | Disjunction

1. Let m1 be CompileSubpattern of Alternative with arguments rer and direction.

2. Let m2 be CompileSubpattern of Disjunction with arguments rer and direction.
3. Return MatchTwoAlternatives(m1, m2).

NOTE 2 The | regular expression operator separates two alternatives. The pattern first tries to match the left
Alternative (followed by the sequel of the regular expression); if it fails, it tries to match the right Disjunction
(followed by the sequel of the regular expression). If the left Alternative, the right Disjunction, and the sequel
all have choice points, all choices in the sequel are tried before moving on to the next choice in the left
Alternative. If choices in the left Alternative are exhausted, the right Disjunction is tried instead of the left
Alternative. Any capturing parentheses inside a portion of the pattern skipped by | produce undefined
values instead of Strings. Thus, for example,

/a|ab/.exec("abc")

returns the result "a" and not "ab". Moreover,

/((a)|(ab))((c)|(bc))/.exec("abc")

returns the array

["abc", "a", "a", undefined, "bc", undefined, "bc"]

and not

["abc", "ab", undefined, "ab", "c", "c", undefined]

The order in which the two alternatives are tried is independent of the value of direction.

Alternative :: [empty]

1. Return EmptyMatcher().

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Alternative :: Alternative Term

1. Let m1 be CompileSubpattern of Alternative with arguments rer and direction.

2. Let m2 be CompileSubpattern of Term with arguments rer and direction.
3. Return MatchSequence(m1, m2, direction).

NOTE 3 Consecutive Terms try to simultaneously match consecutive portions of Input. When direction is FORWARD,
if the left Alternative, the right Term, and the sequel of the regular expression all have choice points, all
choices in the sequel are tried before moving on to the next choice in the right Term, and all choices in the
right Term are tried before moving on to the next choice in the left Alternative. When direction is BACKWARD,
the evaluation order of Alternative and Term are reversed.

Term :: Assertion

1. Return CompileAssertion of Assertion with argument rer.

NOTE 4 The resulting Matcher is independent of direction.

Term :: Atom

1. Return CompileAtom of Atom with arguments rer and direction.

Term :: Atom Quantifier

1. Let m be CompileAtom of Atom with arguments rer and direction.

2. Let q be CompileQuantifier of Quantifier.
3. Assert: q.⁠[[Min]] ≤ q.⁠[[Max]].
4. Let parenIndex be CountLeftCapturingParensBefore(Term).
5. Let parenCount be CountLeftCapturingParensWithin(Atom).
6. Return a new Matcher with parameters (x, c) that captures m, q, parenIndex, and parenCount and performs the
following steps when called:
a. Assert: x is a MatchState.
b. Assert: c is a MatcherContinuation.
c. Return RepeatMatcher(m, q.⁠[[Min]], q.⁠[[Max]], q.⁠[[Greedy]], x, c, parenIndex, parenCount).

[Link].1 RepeatMatcher ( m, min, max, greedy, x, c, parenIndex, parenCount )

The abstract operation RepeatMatcher takes arguments m (a Matcher), min (a non-negative integer), max (a non-negat-
ive integer or +∞), greedy (a Boolean), x (a MatchState), c (a MatcherContinuation), parenIndex (a non-negative in-
teger), and parenCount (a non-negative integer) and returns either a MatchState or FAILURE. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. If max = 0, return c(x).

2. Let d be a new MatcherContinuation with parameters (y) that captures m, min, max, greedy, x, c, parenIndex, and
parenCount and performs the following steps when called:
a. Assert: y is a MatchState.
b. If min = 0 and y.⁠[[EndIndex]] = x.⁠[[EndIndex]], return FAILURE.
c. If min = 0, let min2 be 0; otherwise let min2 be min - 1.
d. If max = +∞, let max2 be +∞; otherwise let max2 be max - 1.
e. Return RepeatMatcher(m, min2, max2, greedy, y, c, parenIndex, parenCount).
3. Let cap be a copy of x.⁠[[Captures]].
4. For each integer k in the inclusive interval from parenIndex + 1 to parenIndex + parenCount, set cap[k] to
undefined.
5. Let Input be x.⁠[[Input]].
6. Let e be x.⁠[[EndIndex]].
7. Let xr be the MatchState { ⁠[[Input]]: Input, ⁠[[EndIndex]]: e, ⁠[[Captures]]: cap }.
8. If min ≠ 0, return m(xr, d).
9. If greedy is false, then
a. Let z be c(x).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

b. If z is not FAILURE, return z.

c. Return m(xr, d).
10. Let z be m(xr, d).
11. If z is not FAILURE, return z.
12. Return c(x).

NOTE 1 An Atom followed by a Quantifier is repeated the number of times specified by the Quantifier. A Quantifier
can be non-greedy, in which case the Atom pattern is repeated as few times as possible while still matching
the sequel, or it can be greedy, in which case the Atom pattern is repeated as many times as possible while
still matching the sequel. The Atom pattern is repeated rather than the input character sequence that it
matches, so different repetitions of the Atom can match different input substrings.

NOTE 2 If the Atom and the sequel of the regular expression all have choice points, the Atom is first matched as
many (or as few, if non-greedy) times as possible. All choices in the sequel are tried before moving on to the
next choice in the last repetition of Atom. All choices in the last (nth) repetition of Atom are tried before
moving on to the next choice in the next-to-last (n - 1)st repetition of Atom; at which point it may turn out that
more or fewer repetitions of Atom are now possible; these are exhausted (again, starting with either as few
or as many as possible) before moving on to the next choice in the (n - 1)st repetition of Atom and so on.

Compare

/a[a-z]{2,4}/.exec("abcdefghi")

which returns "abcde" with

/a[a-z]{2,4}?/.exec("abcdefghi")

which returns "abc".

Consider also

/(aa|aabaac|ba|b|c)*/.exec("aabaac")

which, by the choice point ordering above, returns the array

["aaba", "ba"]

and not any of:

["aabaac", "aabaac"]
["aabaac", "c"]

The above ordering of choice points can be used to write a regular expression that calculates the greatest
common divisor of two numbers (represented in unary notation). The following example calculates the gcd of
10 and 15:

"aaaaaaaaaa,aaaaaaaaaaaaaaa".replace(/^(a+)\1*,\1+$/, "$1")

which returns the gcd in unary notation "aaaaa".

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 3 Step 4 of the RepeatMatcher clears Atom's captures each time Atom is repeated. We can see its behaviour
in the regular expression

/(z)((a+)?(b+)?(c))*/.exec("zaacbbbcac")

which returns the array

["zaacbbbcac", "z", "ac", "a", undefined, "c"]

and not

["zaacbbbcac", "z", "ac", "a", "bbb", "c"]

because each iteration of the outermost * clears all captured Strings contained in the quantified Atom, which
in this case includes capture Strings numbered 2, 3, 4, and 5.

NOTE 4 Step 2.b of the RepeatMatcher states that once the minimum number of repetitions has been satisfied, any
more expansions of Atom that match the empty character sequence are not considered for further
repetitions. This prevents the regular expression engine from falling into an infinite loop on patterns such as:

/(a*)*/.exec("b")

or the slightly more complicated:

/(a*)b\1+/.exec("baaaac")

which returns the array

["b", ""]

[Link].2 EmptyMatcher ( )

The abstract operation EmptyMatcher takes no arguments and returns a Matcher. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Return a new Matcher with parameters (x, c) that captures nothing and performs the following steps when called:
a. Assert: x is a MatchState.
b. Assert: c is a MatcherContinuation.
c. Return c(x).

[Link].3 MatchTwoAlternatives ( m1, m2 )

The abstract operation MatchTwoAlternatives takes arguments m1 (a Matcher) and m2 (a Matcher) and returns a
Matcher. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return a new Matcher with parameters (x, c) that captures m1 and m2 and performs the following steps when
called:
a. Assert: x is a MatchState.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

b. Assert: c is a MatcherContinuation.
c. Let r be m1(x, c).
d. If r is not FAILURE, return r.
e. Return m2(x, c).

[Link].4 MatchSequence ( m1, m2, direction )

The abstract operation MatchSequence takes arguments m1 (a Matcher), m2 (a Matcher), and direction (FORWARD or
BACKWARD) and returns a Matcher. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If direction is FORWARD, then

a. Return a new Matcher with parameters (x, c) that captures m1 and m2 and performs the following steps when
called:
i. Assert: x is a MatchState.
ii. Assert: c is a MatcherContinuation.
iii. Let d be a new MatcherContinuation with parameters (y) that captures c and m2 and performs the following
steps when called:
1. Assert: y is a MatchState.
2. Return m2(y, c).
iv. Return m1(x, d).
2. Else,
a. Assert: direction is BACKWARD.
b. Return a new Matcher with parameters (x, c) that captures m1 and m2 and performs the following steps when
called:
i. Assert: x is a MatchState.
ii. Assert: c is a MatcherContinuation.
iii. Let d be a new MatcherContinuation with parameters (y) that captures c and m1 and performs the following
steps when called:
1. Assert: y is a MatchState.
2. Return m1(y, c).
iv. Return m2(x, d).

[Link] Runtime Semantics: CompileAssertion

The syntax-directed operation CompileAssertion takes argument rer (a RegExp Record) and returns a Matcher.

NOTE 1 This section is amended in B.1.2.6.

It is defined piecewise over the following productions:

Assertion :: ^

1. Return a new Matcher with parameters (x, c) that captures rer and performs the following steps when called:
a. Assert: x is a MatchState.
b. Assert: c is a MatcherContinuation.
c. Let Input be x.⁠[[Input]].
d. Let e be x.⁠[[EndIndex]].
e. If e = 0, or if rer.⁠[[Multiline]] is true and the character Input[e - 1] is matched by LineTerminator, then
i. Return c(x).
f. Return FAILURE.

NOTE 2 Even when the y flag is used with a pattern, ^ always matches only at the beginning of Input, or (if
rer.⁠[[Multiline]] is true) at the beginning of a line.

Assertion :: $

1. Return a new Matcher with parameters (x, c) that captures rer and performs the following steps when called:
a. Assert: x is a MatchState.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

b. Assert: c is a MatcherContinuation.
c. Let Input be x.⁠[[Input]].
d. Let e be x.⁠[[EndIndex]].
e. Let InputLength be the number of elements in Input.
f. If e = InputLength, or if rer.⁠[[Multiline]] is true and the character Input[e] is matched by LineTerminator, then
i. Return c(x).
g. Return FAILURE.
Assertion :: \b

1. Return a new Matcher with parameters (x, c) that captures rer and performs the following steps when called:
a. Assert: x is a MatchState.
b. Assert: c is a MatcherContinuation.
c. Let Input be x.⁠[[Input]].
d. Let e be x.⁠[[EndIndex]].
e. Let a be IsWordChar(rer, Input, e - 1).
f. Let b be IsWordChar(rer, Input, e).
g. If a is true and b is false, or if a is false and b is true, return c(x).
h. Return FAILURE.

Assertion :: \B

1. Return a new Matcher with parameters (x, c) that captures rer and performs the following steps when called:
a. Assert: x is a MatchState.
b. Assert: c is a MatcherContinuation.
c. Let Input be x.⁠[[Input]].
d. Let e be x.⁠[[EndIndex]].
e. Let a be IsWordChar(rer, Input, e - 1).
f. Let b be IsWordChar(rer, Input, e).
g. If a is true and b is true, or if a is false and b is false, return c(x).
h. Return FAILURE.

Assertion :: (?= Disjunction )

1. Let m be CompileSubpattern of Disjunction with arguments rer and FORWARD.

2. Return a new Matcher with parameters (x, c) that captures m and performs the following steps when called:
a. Assert: x is a MatchState.
b. Assert: c is a MatcherContinuation.
c. Let d be a new MatcherContinuation with parameters (y) that captures nothing and performs the following steps
when called:
i. Assert: y is a MatchState.
ii. Return y.
d. Let r be m(x, d).
e. If r is FAILURE, return FAILURE.
f. Assert: r is a MatchState.
g. Let cap be r.⁠[[Captures]].
h. Let Input be x.⁠[[Input]].
i. Let xe be x.⁠[[EndIndex]].
j. Let z be the MatchState { ⁠[[Input]]: Input, ⁠[[EndIndex]]: xe, ⁠[[Captures]]: cap }.
k. Return c(z).

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 3 The form (?= Disjunction ) specifies a zero-width positive lookahead. In order for it to succeed, the pattern
inside Disjunction must match at the current position, but the current position is not advanced before
matching the sequel. If Disjunction can match at the current position in several ways, only the first one is
tried. Unlike other regular expression operators, there is no backtracking into a (?= form (this unusual
behaviour is inherited from Perl). This only matters when the Disjunction contains capturing parentheses and
the sequel of the pattern contains backreferences to those captures.

For example,

/(?=(a+))/.exec("baaabac")

matches the empty String immediately after the first b and therefore returns the array:

["", "aaa"]

To illustrate the lack of backtracking into the lookahead, consider:

/(?=(a+))a*b\1/.exec("baaabac")

This expression returns

["aba", "a"]

and not:

["aaaba", "a"]

Assertion :: (?! Disjunction )

1. Let m be CompileSubpattern of Disjunction with arguments rer and FORWARD.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 4 The form (?! Disjunction ) specifies a zero-width negative lookahead. In order for it to succeed, the pattern
inside Disjunction must fail to match at the current position. The current position is not advanced before
matching the sequel. Disjunction can contain capturing parentheses, but backreferences to them only make
sense from within Disjunction itself. Backreferences to these capturing parentheses from elsewhere in the
pattern always return undefined because the negative lookahead must fail for the pattern to succeed.
For example,

/(.*?)a(?!(a+)b\2c)\2(.*)/.exec("baaabaac")

looks for an a not immediately followed by some positive number n of a's, a b, another n a's (specified by
the first \2) and a c. The second \2 is outside the negative lookahead, so it matches against undefined
and therefore always succeeds. The whole expression returns the array:

["baaabaac", "ba", undefined, "abaac"]

Assertion :: (?<= Disjunction )

1. Let m be CompileSubpattern of Disjunction with arguments rer and BACKWARD.

Assertion :: (?<! Disjunction )

1. Let m be CompileSubpattern of Disjunction with arguments rer and BACKWARD.

[Link].1 IsWordChar ( rer, Input, e )

The abstract operation IsWordChar takes arguments rer (a RegExp Record), Input (a List of characters), and e (an in-
teger) and returns a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let InputLength be the number of elements in Input.

2. If e = -1 or e = InputLength, return false.
3. Let c be the character Input[e].

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4. If WordCharacters(rer) contains c, return true.

5. Return false.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: CompileQuantifier

The syntax-directed operation CompileQuantifier takes no arguments and returns a Record with fields ⁠[[Min]] (a non-
negative integer), ⁠[[Max]] (a non-negative integer or +∞), and ⁠[[Greedy]] (a Boolean). It is defined piecewise over the fol-
lowing productions:
Quantifier :: QuantifierPrefix

1. Let qp be CompileQuantifierPrefix of QuantifierPrefix.

2. Return the Record { ⁠[[Min]]: qp.⁠[[Min]], ⁠[[Max]]: qp.⁠[[Max]], ⁠[[Greedy]]: true }.

Quantifier :: QuantifierPrefix ?

1. Let qp be CompileQuantifierPrefix of QuantifierPrefix.

2. Return the Record { ⁠[[Min]]: qp.⁠[[Min]], ⁠[[Max]]: qp.⁠[[Max]], ⁠[[Greedy]]: false }.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: CompileQuantifierPrefix

The syntax-directed operation CompileQuantifierPrefix takes no arguments and returns a Record with fields ⁠[[Min]] (a
non-negative integer) and ⁠[[Max]] (a non-negative integer or +∞). It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
QuantifierPrefix :: *

1. Return the Record { ⁠[[Min]]: 0, ⁠[[Max]]: +∞ }.

QuantifierPrefix :: +

1. Return the Record { ⁠[[Min]]: 1, ⁠[[Max]]: +∞ }.

QuantifierPrefix :: ?

1. Return the Record { ⁠[[Min]]: 0, ⁠[[Max]]: 1 }.

QuantifierPrefix :: { DecimalDigits }

1. Let i be the MV of DecimalDigits (see 12.9.3).

2. Return the Record { ⁠[[Min]]: i, ⁠[[Max]]: i }.

QuantifierPrefix :: { DecimalDigits ,}

1. Let i be the MV of DecimalDigits.

2. Return the Record { ⁠[[Min]]: i, ⁠[[Max]]: +∞ }.

QuantifierPrefix :: { DecimalDigits , DecimalDigits }

1. Let i be the MV of the first DecimalDigits.

2. Let j be the MV of the second DecimalDigits.
3. Return the Record { ⁠[[Min]]: i, ⁠[[Max]]: j }.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: CompileAtom

The syntax-directed operation CompileAtom takes arguments rer (a RegExp Record) and direction (FORWARD or
BACKWARD) and returns a Matcher.

NOTE 1 This section is amended in B.1.2.7.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

It is defined piecewise over the following productions:

Atom :: PatternCharacter

1. Let ch be the character matched by PatternCharacter.

2. Let A be a one-element CharSet containing the character ch.
3. Return CharacterSetMatcher(rer, A, false, direction).

Atom :: .

1. Let A be AllCharacters(rer).
2. If rer.⁠[[DotAll]] is not true, then
a. Remove from A all characters corresponding to a code point on the right-hand side of the LineTerminator
production.
3. Return CharacterSetMatcher(rer, A, false, direction).

Atom :: CharacterClass

1. Let cc be CompileCharacterClass of CharacterClass with argument rer.

2. Let cs be cc.⁠[[CharSet]].
3. If rer.⁠[[UnicodeSets]] is false, or if every CharSetElement of cs consists of a single character (including if cs is
empty), return CharacterSetMatcher(rer, cs, cc.⁠[[Invert]], direction).
4. Assert: cc.⁠[[Invert]] is false.
5. Let lm be an empty List of Matchers.
6. For each CharSetElement s in cs containing more than 1 character, iterating in descending order of length, do
a. Let cs2 be a one-element CharSet containing the last code point of s.
b. Let m2 be CharacterSetMatcher(rer, cs2, false, direction).
c. For each code point c1 in s, iterating backwards from its second-to-last code point, do
i. Let cs1 be a one-element CharSet containing c1.
ii. Let m1 be CharacterSetMatcher(rer, cs1, false, direction).
iii. Set m2 to MatchSequence(m1, m2, direction).
d. Append m2 to lm.
7. Let singles be the CharSet containing every CharSetElement of cs that consists of a single character.
8. Append CharacterSetMatcher(rer, singles, false, direction) to lm.
9. If cs contains the empty sequence of characters, append EmptyMatcher() to lm.
10. Let m2 be the last Matcher in lm.
11. For each Matcher m1 of lm, iterating backwards from its second-to-last element, do
a. Set m2 to MatchTwoAlternatives(m1, m2).
12. Return m2.

Atom :: ( GroupSpecifieropt Disjunction )

1. Let m be CompileSubpattern of Disjunction with arguments rer and direction.

2. Let parenIndex be CountLeftCapturingParensBefore(Atom).
3. Return a new Matcher with parameters (x, c) that captures direction, m, and parenIndex and performs the following
steps when called:
a. Assert: x is a MatchState.
b. Assert: c is a MatcherContinuation.
c. Let d be a new MatcherContinuation with parameters (y) that captures x, c, direction, and parenIndex and
performs the following steps when called:
i. Assert: y is a MatchState.
ii. Let cap be a copy of y.⁠[[Captures]].
iii. Let Input be x.⁠[[Input]].
iv. Let xe be x.⁠[[EndIndex]].
v. Let ye be y.⁠[[EndIndex]].
vi. If direction is FORWARD, then
1. Assert: xe ≤ ye.
2. Let r be the CaptureRange { ⁠[[StartIndex]]: xe, ⁠[[EndIndex]]: ye }.
vii. Else,
1. Assert: direction is BACKWARD.
2. Assert: ye ≤ xe.
3. Let r be the CaptureRange { ⁠[[StartIndex]]: ye, ⁠[[EndIndex]]: xe }.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

viii. Set cap[parenIndex + 1] to r.

ix. Let z be the MatchState { ⁠[[Input]]: Input, ⁠[[EndIndex]]: ye, ⁠[[Captures]]: cap }.
x. Return c(z).
d. Return m(x, d).

NOTE 2 Parentheses of the form ( Disjunction ) serve both to group the components of the Disjunction pattern
together and to save the result of the match. The result can be used either in a backreference (\ followed by
a non-zero decimal number), referenced in a replace String, or returned as part of an array from the regular
expression matching Abstract Closure. To inhibit the capturing behaviour of parentheses, use the form (?:
Disjunction ) instead.

Atom :: (? RegularExpressionModifiers : Disjunction )

1. Let addModifiers be the source text matched by RegularExpressionModifiers.

2. Let removeModifiers be the empty String.
3. Let modifiedRer be UpdateModifiers(rer, CodePointsToString(addModifiers), removeModifiers).
4. Return CompileSubpattern of Disjunction with arguments modifiedRer and direction.

Atom :: (? RegularExpressionModifiers - RegularExpressionModifiers : Disjunction )

1. Let addModifiers be the source text matched by the first RegularExpressionModifiers.

2. Let removeModifiers be the source text matched by the second RegularExpressionModifiers.
3. Let modifiedRer be UpdateModifiers(rer, CodePointsToString(addModifiers), CodePointsToString(removeModifiers)).
4. Return CompileSubpattern of Disjunction with arguments modifiedRer and direction.

AtomEscape :: DecimalEscape

1. Let n be the CapturingGroupNumber of DecimalEscape.

2. Assert: n ≤ rer.⁠[[CapturingGroupsCount]].
3. Return BackreferenceMatcher(rer, « n », direction).

NOTE 3 An escape sequence of the form \ followed by a non-zero decimal number n matches the result of the nth
set of capturing parentheses ([Link]). It is an error if the regular expression has fewer than n capturing
parentheses. If the regular expression has n or more capturing parentheses but the nth one is undefined
because it has not captured anything, then the backreference always succeeds.

AtomEscape :: CharacterEscape

1. Let cv be the CharacterValue of CharacterEscape.

2. Let ch be the character whose character value is cv.
3. Let A be a one-element CharSet containing the character ch.
4. Return CharacterSetMatcher(rer, A, false, direction).

AtomEscape :: CharacterClassEscape

1. Let cs be CompileToCharSet of CharacterClassEscape with argument rer.

2. If rer.⁠[[UnicodeSets]] is false, or if every CharSetElement of cs consists of a single character (including if cs is
empty), return CharacterSetMatcher(rer, cs, false, direction).
3. Let lm be an empty List of Matchers.
4. For each CharSetElement s in cs containing more than 1 character, iterating in descending order of length, do
a. Let cs2 be a one-element CharSet containing the last code point of s.
b. Let m2 be CharacterSetMatcher(rer, cs2, false, direction).
c. For each code point c1 in s, iterating backwards from its second-to-last code point, do
i. Let cs1 be a one-element CharSet containing c1.
ii. Let m1 be CharacterSetMatcher(rer, cs1, false, direction).
iii. Set m2 to MatchSequence(m1, m2, direction).
d. Append m2 to lm.
5. Let singles be the CharSet containing every CharSetElement of cs that consists of a single character.
6. Append CharacterSetMatcher(rer, singles, false, direction) to lm.
7. If cs contains the empty sequence of characters, append EmptyMatcher() to lm.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

8. Let m2 be the last Matcher in lm.

9. For each Matcher m1 of lm, iterating backwards from its second-to-last element, do
a. Set m2 to MatchTwoAlternatives(m1, m2).
10. Return m2.
AtomEscape :: k GroupName

1. Let matchingGroupSpecifiers be GroupSpecifiersThatMatch(GroupName).

2. Let parenIndices be a new empty List.
3. For each GroupSpecifier groupSpecifier of matchingGroupSpecifiers, do
a. Let parenIndex be CountLeftCapturingParensBefore(groupSpecifier).
b. Append parenIndex to parenIndices.
4. Return BackreferenceMatcher(rer, parenIndices, direction).

[Link].1 CharacterSetMatcher ( rer, A, invert, direction )

The abstract operation CharacterSetMatcher takes arguments rer (a RegExp Record), A (a CharSet), invert (a
Boolean), and direction (FORWARD or BACKWARD) and returns a Matcher. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If rer.⁠[[UnicodeSets]] is true, then

a. Assert: invert is false.
b. Assert: Every CharSetElement of A consists of a single character.
2. Return a new Matcher with parameters (x, c) that captures rer, A, invert, and direction and performs the following
steps when called:
a. Assert: x is a MatchState.
b. Assert: c is a MatcherContinuation.
c. Let Input be x.⁠[[Input]].
d. Let e be x.⁠[[EndIndex]].
e. If direction is FORWARD, let f be e + 1.
f. Else, let f be e - 1.
g. Let InputLength be the number of elements in Input.
h. If f < 0 or f > InputLength, return FAILURE.
i. Let index be min(e, f).
j. Let ch be the character Input[index].
k. Let cc be Canonicalize(rer, ch).
l. If there exists a CharSetElement in A containing exactly one character a such that Canonicalize(rer, a) is cc, let
found be true; otherwise let found be false.
m. If invert is false and found is false, return FAILURE.
n. If invert is true and found is true, return FAILURE.
o. Let cap be x.⁠[[Captures]].
p. Let y be the MatchState { ⁠[[Input]]: Input, ⁠[[EndIndex]]: f, ⁠[[Captures]]: cap }.
q. Return c(y).

[Link].2 BackreferenceMatcher ( rer, ns, direction )

The abstract operation BackreferenceMatcher takes arguments rer (a RegExp Record), ns (a List of positive integers),
and direction (FORWARD or BACKWARD) and returns a Matcher. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return a new Matcher with parameters (x, c) that captures rer, ns, and direction and performs the following steps
when called:
a. Assert: x is a MatchState.
b. Assert: c is a MatcherContinuation.
c. Let Input be x.⁠[[Input]].
d. Let cap be x.⁠[[Captures]].
e. Let r be undefined.
f. For each integer n of ns, do
i. If cap[n] is not undefined, then
1. Assert: r is undefined.
2. Set r to cap[n].
g. If r is undefined, return c(x).
h. Let e be x.⁠[[EndIndex]].

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

i. Let rs be r.⁠[[StartIndex]].
j. Let re be r.⁠[[EndIndex]].
k. Let len be re - rs.
l. If direction is FORWARD, let f be e + len.
m. Else, let f be e - len.
n. Let InputLength be the number of elements in Input.
o. If f < 0 or f > InputLength, return FAILURE.
p. Let g be min(e, f).
q. If there exists an integer i in the interval from 0 (inclusive) to len (exclusive) such that Canonicalize(rer, Input[rs
+ i]) is not Canonicalize(rer, Input[g + i]), return FAILURE.
r. Let y be the MatchState { ⁠[[Input]]: Input, ⁠[[EndIndex]]: f, ⁠[[Captures]]: cap }.
s. Return c(y).

[Link].3 Canonicalize ( rer, ch )

The abstract operation Canonicalize takes arguments rer (a RegExp Record) and ch (a character) and returns a charac-
ter. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If HasEitherUnicodeFlag(rer) is true and rer.⁠[[IgnoreCase]] is true, then

a. If the file [Link] of the Unicode Character Database provides a simple or common case folding
mapping for ch, return the result of applying that mapping to ch.
b. Return ch.
2. If rer.⁠[[IgnoreCase]] is false, return ch.
3. Assert: ch is a UTF-16 code unit.
4. Let cp be the code point whose numeric value is the numeric value of ch.
5. Let u be toUppercase(« cp »), according to the Unicode Default Case Conversion algorithm.
6. Let uStr be CodePointsToString(u).
7. If the length of uStr ≠ 1, return ch.
8. Let cu be uStr's single code unit element.
9. If the numeric value of ch ≥ 128 and the numeric value of cu < 128, return ch.
10. Return cu.

NOTE In case-insignificant matches when HasEitherUnicodeFlag(rer) is true, all characters are implicitly case-
folded using the simple mapping provided by the Unicode Standard immediately before they are compared.
The simple mapping always maps to a single code point, so it does not map, for example, ß (U+00DF LATIN
SMALL LETTER SHARP S) to ss or SS. It may however map code points outside the Basic Latin block to
code points within it—for example, ſ (U+017F LATIN SMALL LETTER LONG S) case-folds to s (U+0073
LATIN SMALL LETTER S) and K (U+212A KELVIN SIGN) case-folds to k (U+006B LATIN SMALL LETTER
K). Strings containing those code points are matched by regular expressions such as /[a-z]/ui.

In case-insignificant matches when HasEitherUnicodeFlag(rer) is false, the mapping is based on Unicode

Default Case Conversion algorithm toUppercase rather than toCasefold, which results in some subtle
differences. For example, Ω (U+2126 OHM SIGN) is mapped by toUppercase to itself but by toCasefold to ω
(U+03C9 GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA) along with Ω (U+03A9 GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMEGA), so
"\u2126" is matched by /[ω]/ui and /[\u03A9]/ui but not by /[ω]/i or /[\u03A9]/i. Also, no code
point outside the Basic Latin block is mapped to a code point within it, so strings such as "\u017F ſ" and
"\u212A K" are not matched by /[a-z]/i.

[Link].4 UpdateModifiers ( rer, add, remove )

The abstract operation UpdateModifiers takes arguments rer (a RegExp Record), add (a String), and remove (a String)
and returns a RegExp Record. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: add and remove have no elements in common.

2. Let ignoreCase be rer.[[IgnoreCase]].
3. Let multiline be rer.⁠[[Multiline]].
4. Let dotAll be rer.⁠[[DotAll]].
5. Let unicode be rer.⁠[[Unicode]].
6. Let unicodeSets be rer.⁠[[UnicodeSets]].

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7. Let capturingGroupsCount be rer.⁠[[CapturingGroupsCount]].

8. If remove contains "i", set ignoreCase to false.
9. Else if add contains "i", set ignoreCase to true.
10. If remove contains "m", set multiline to false.
11. Else if add contains "m", set multiline to true.
12. If remove contains "s", set dotAll to false.
13. Else if add contains "s", set dotAll to true.
14. Return the RegExp Record { ⁠[[IgnoreCase]]: ignoreCase, ⁠[[Multiline]]: multiline, ⁠[[DotAll]]: dotAll, ⁠[[Unicode]]:
unicode, ⁠[[UnicodeSets]]: unicodeSets, ⁠[[CapturingGroupsCount]]: capturingGroupsCount }.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: CompileCharacterClass

The syntax-directed operation CompileCharacterClass takes argument rer (a RegExp Record) and returns a Record
with fields ⁠[[CharSet]] (a CharSet) and ⁠[[Invert]] (a Boolean). It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
CharacterClass :: [ ClassContents ]

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of ClassContents with argument rer.

2. Return the Record { ⁠[[CharSet]]: A, ⁠[[Invert]]: false }.

CharacterClass :: [^ ClassContents ]

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of ClassContents with argument rer.

2. If rer.⁠[[UnicodeSets]] is true, then
a. Return the Record { ⁠[[CharSet]]: CharacterComplement(rer, A), ⁠[[Invert]]: false }.
3. Return the Record { ⁠[[CharSet]]: A, ⁠[[Invert]]: true }.

[Link] Runtime Semantics: CompileToCharSet

The syntax-directed operation CompileToCharSet takes argument rer (a RegExp Record) and returns a CharSet.

NOTE 1 This section is amended in B.1.2.8.

It is defined piecewise over the following productions:

ClassContents :: [empty]

1. Return the empty CharSet.

NonemptyClassRanges :: ClassAtom NonemptyClassRangesNoDash

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of ClassAtom with argument rer.

2. Let B be CompileToCharSet of NonemptyClassRangesNoDash with argument rer.
3. Return the union of CharSets A and B.

NonemptyClassRanges :: ClassAtom - ClassAtom ClassContents

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of the first ClassAtom with argument rer.

2. Let B be CompileToCharSet of the second ClassAtom with argument rer.
3. Let C be CompileToCharSet of ClassContents with argument rer.
4. Let D be CharacterRange(A, B).
5. Return the union of D and C.

NonemptyClassRangesNoDash :: ClassAtomNoDash NonemptyClassRangesNoDash

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of ClassAtomNoDash with argument rer.

2. Let B be CompileToCharSet of NonemptyClassRangesNoDash with argument rer.
3. Return the union of CharSets A and B.

© Ecma International 2025

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NonemptyClassRangesNoDash :: ClassAtomNoDash - ClassAtom ClassContents

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of ClassAtomNoDash with argument rer.

2. Let B be CompileToCharSet of ClassAtom with argument rer.
3. Let C be CompileToCharSet of ClassContents with argument rer.
4. Let D be CharacterRange(A, B).
5. Return the union of D and C.

NOTE 2 ClassContents can expand into a single ClassAtom and/or ranges of two ClassAtom separated by dashes.
In the latter case the ClassContents includes all characters between the first ClassAtom and the second
ClassAtom, inclusive; an error occurs if either ClassAtom does not represent a single character (for
example, if one is \w) or if the first ClassAtom's character value is strictly greater than the second
ClassAtom's character value.

NOTE 3 Even if the pattern ignores case, the case of the two ends of a range is significant in determining which
characters belong to the range. Thus, for example, the pattern /[E-F]/i matches only the letters E, F, e,
and f, while the pattern /[E-f]/i matches all uppercase and lowercase letters in the Unicode Basic Latin
block as well as the symbols [, \, ], ^, _, and `.

NOTE 4 A - character can be treated literally or it can denote a range. It is treated literally if it is the first or last
character of ClassContents, the beginning or end limit of a range specification, or immediately follows a
range specification.

ClassAtom :: -

1. Return the CharSet containing the single character - U+002D (HYPHEN-MINUS).

ClassAtomNoDash :: SourceCharacter but not one of \ or ] or -

1. Return the CharSet containing the character matched by SourceCharacter.

ClassEscape ::
b
-
CharacterEscape

1. Let cv be the CharacterValue of this ClassEscape.

2. Let c be the character whose character value is cv.
3. Return the CharSet containing the single character c.

NOTE 5 A ClassAtom can use any of the escape sequences that are allowed in the rest of the regular expression
except for \b, \B, and backreferences. Inside a CharacterClass, \b means the backspace character, while
\B and backreferences raise errors. Using a backreference inside a ClassAtom causes an error.

CharacterClassEscape :: d

1. Return the ten-element CharSet containing the characters 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.

CharacterClassEscape :: D

1. Let S be the CharSet returned by CharacterClassEscape :: d .

2. Return CharacterComplement(rer, S).

CharacterClassEscape :: s

1. Return the CharSet containing all characters corresponding to a code point on the right-hand side of the
WhiteSpace or LineTerminator productions.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

CharacterClassEscape :: S

1. Let S be the CharSet returned by CharacterClassEscape :: s .

2. Return CharacterComplement(rer, S).

CharacterClassEscape :: w

1. Return MaybeSimpleCaseFolding(rer, WordCharacters(rer)).

CharacterClassEscape :: W

1. Let S be the CharSet returned by CharacterClassEscape :: w .

2. Return CharacterComplement(rer, S).

CharacterClassEscape :: p{ UnicodePropertyValueExpression }

1. Return CompileToCharSet of UnicodePropertyValueExpression with argument rer.

CharacterClassEscape :: P{ UnicodePropertyValueExpression }

1. Let S be CompileToCharSet of UnicodePropertyValueExpression with argument rer.

2. Assert: S contains only single code points.
3. Return CharacterComplement(rer, S).

UnicodePropertyValueExpression :: UnicodePropertyName = UnicodePropertyValue

1. Let ps be the source text matched by UnicodePropertyName.

2. Let p be UnicodeMatchProperty(rer, ps).
3. Assert: p is a Unicode property name or property alias listed in the “Property name and aliases” column of Table 69.
4. Let vs be the source text matched by UnicodePropertyValue.
5. Let v be UnicodeMatchPropertyValue(p, vs).
6. Let A be the CharSet containing all Unicode code points whose character database definition includes the property
p with value v.
7. Return MaybeSimpleCaseFolding(rer, A).

UnicodePropertyValueExpression :: LoneUnicodePropertyNameOrValue

1. Let s be the source text matched by LoneUnicodePropertyNameOrValue.

2. If UnicodeMatchPropertyValue(General_Category, s) is a Unicode property value or property value alias for the
General_Category (gc) property listed in [Link], then
a. Return the CharSet containing all Unicode code points whose character database definition includes the
property “General_Category” with value s.
3. Let p be UnicodeMatchProperty(rer, s).
4. Assert: p is a binary Unicode property or binary property alias listed in the “Property name and aliases” column of
Table 70, or a binary Unicode property of strings listed in the “Property name” column of Table 71.
5. Let A be the CharSet containing all CharSetElements whose character database definition includes the property p
with value “True”.
6. Return MaybeSimpleCaseFolding(rer, A).

ClassUnion :: ClassSetRange ClassUnionopt

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of ClassSetRange with argument rer.

2. If ClassUnion is present, then
a. Let B be CompileToCharSet of ClassUnion with argument rer.
b. Return the union of CharSets A and B.
3. Return A.

ClassUnion :: ClassSetOperand ClassUnionopt

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of ClassSetOperand with argument rer.

2. If ClassUnion is present, then

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

a. Let B be CompileToCharSet of ClassUnion with argument rer.

b. Return the union of CharSets A and B.
3. Return A.
ClassIntersection :: ClassSetOperand && ClassSetOperand

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of the first ClassSetOperand with argument rer.

2. Let B be CompileToCharSet of the second ClassSetOperand with argument rer.
3. Return the intersection of CharSets A and B.

ClassIntersection :: ClassIntersection && ClassSetOperand

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of the ClassIntersection with argument rer.

2. Let B be CompileToCharSet of the ClassSetOperand with argument rer.
3. Return the intersection of CharSets A and B.

ClassSubtraction :: ClassSetOperand -- ClassSetOperand

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of the first ClassSetOperand with argument rer.

2. Let B be CompileToCharSet of the second ClassSetOperand with argument rer.
3. Return the CharSet containing the CharSetElements of A which are not also CharSetElements of B.

ClassSubtraction :: ClassSubtraction -- ClassSetOperand

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of the ClassSubtraction with argument rer.

2. Let B be CompileToCharSet of the ClassSetOperand with argument rer.
3. Return the CharSet containing the CharSetElements of A which are not also CharSetElements of B.

ClassSetRange :: ClassSetCharacter - ClassSetCharacter

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of the first ClassSetCharacter with argument rer.

2. Let B be CompileToCharSet of the second ClassSetCharacter with argument rer.
3. Return MaybeSimpleCaseFolding(rer, CharacterRange(A, B)).

NOTE 6 The result will often consist of two or more ranges. When UnicodeSets is true and IgnoreCase is true, then
MaybeSimpleCaseFolding(rer, [Ā-č]) will include only the odd-numbered code points of that range.

ClassSetOperand :: ClassSetCharacter

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of ClassSetCharacter with argument rer.

2. Return MaybeSimpleCaseFolding(rer, A).

ClassSetOperand :: ClassStringDisjunction

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of ClassStringDisjunction with argument rer.

2. Return MaybeSimpleCaseFolding(rer, A).

ClassSetOperand :: NestedClass

1. Return CompileToCharSet of NestedClass with argument rer.

NestedClass :: [ ClassContents ]

1. Return CompileToCharSet of ClassContents with argument rer.

NestedClass :: [^ ClassContents ]

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of ClassContents with argument rer.

2. Return CharacterComplement(rer, A).

NestedClass :: \ CharacterClassEscape

1. Return CompileToCharSet of CharacterClassEscape with argument rer.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ClassStringDisjunction :: \q{ ClassStringDisjunctionContents }

1. Return CompileToCharSet of ClassStringDisjunctionContents with argument rer.

ClassStringDisjunctionContents :: ClassString

1. Let s be CompileClassSetString of ClassString with argument rer.

2. Return the CharSet containing the one string s.

ClassStringDisjunctionContents :: ClassString | ClassStringDisjunctionContents

1. Let s be CompileClassSetString of ClassString with argument rer.

2. Let A be the CharSet containing the one string s.
3. Let B be CompileToCharSet of ClassStringDisjunctionContents with argument rer.
4. Return the union of CharSets A and B.

ClassSetCharacter ::
SourceCharacter but not ClassSetSyntaxCharacter
\ CharacterEscape
\ ClassSetReservedPunctuator

1. Let cv be the CharacterValue of this ClassSetCharacter.

2. Let c be the character whose character value is cv.
3. Return the CharSet containing the single character c.

ClassSetCharacter :: \b

1. Return the CharSet containing the single character U+0008 (BACKSPACE).

[Link].1 CharacterRange ( A, B )

The abstract operation CharacterRange takes arguments A (a CharSet) and B (a CharSet) and returns a CharSet. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: A and B each contain exactly one character.

2. Let a be the one character in CharSet A.
3. Let b be the one character in CharSet B.
4. Let i be the character value of character a.
5. Let j be the character value of character b.
6. Assert: i ≤ j.
7. Return the CharSet containing all characters with a character value in the inclusive interval from i to j.

[Link].2 HasEitherUnicodeFlag ( rer )

The abstract operation HasEitherUnicodeFlag takes argument rer (a RegExp Record) and returns a Boolean. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. If rer.⁠[[Unicode]] is true or rer.⁠[[UnicodeSets]] is true, then

a. Return true.
2. Return false.

[Link].3 WordCharacters ( rer )

The abstract operation WordCharacters takes argument rer (a RegExp Record) and returns a CharSet. Returns a
CharSet containing the characters considered "word characters" for the purposes of \b, \B, \w, and \W It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let basicWordChars be the CharSet containing every character in the ASCII word characters.
2. Let extraWordChars be the CharSet containing all characters c such that c is not in basicWordChars but
Canonicalize(rer, c) is in basicWordChars.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Assert: extraWordChars is empty unless HasEitherUnicodeFlag(rer) is true and rer.⁠[[IgnoreCase]] is true.

4. Return the union of basicWordChars and extraWordChars.

[Link].4 AllCharacters ( rer )

The abstract operation AllCharacters takes argument rer (a RegExp Record) and returns a CharSet. Returns the set of
“all characters” according to the regular expression flags. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If rer.⁠[[UnicodeSets]] is true and rer.⁠[[IgnoreCase]] is true, then

a. Return the CharSet containing all Unicode code points c that do not have a Simple Case Folding mapping (that
is, scf(c)=c).
2. Else if HasEitherUnicodeFlag(rer) is true, then
a. Return the CharSet containing all code point values.
3. Else,
a. Return the CharSet containing all code unit values.

[Link].5 MaybeSimpleCaseFolding ( rer, A )

The abstract operation MaybeSimpleCaseFolding takes arguments rer (a RegExp Record) and A (a CharSet) and re-
turns a CharSet. If rer.⁠[[UnicodeSets]] is false or rer.⁠[[IgnoreCase]] is false, it returns A. Otherwise, it uses the Simple
Case Folding (scf(cp)) definitions in the file [Link] of the Unicode Character Database (each of which
maps a single code point to another single code point) to map each CharSetElement of A character-by-character into a
canonical form and returns the resulting CharSet. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If rer.⁠[[UnicodeSets]] is false or rer.⁠[[IgnoreCase]] is false, return A.

2. Let B be a new empty CharSet.
3. For each CharSetElement s of A, do
a. Let t be an empty sequence of characters.
b. For each single code point cp in s, do
i. Append scf(cp) to t.
c. Add t to B.
4. Return B.

[Link].6 CharacterComplement ( rer, S )

The abstract operation CharacterComplement takes arguments rer (a RegExp Record) and S (a CharSet) and returns a
CharSet. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let A be AllCharacters(rer).
2. Return the CharSet containing the CharSetElements of A which are not also CharSetElements of S.

[Link].7 UnicodeMatchProperty ( rer, p )

The abstract operation UnicodeMatchProperty takes arguments rer (a RegExp Record) and p (ECMAScript source text)
and returns a Unicode property name. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If rer.⁠[[UnicodeSets]] is true and p is a Unicode property name listed in the “Property name” column of Table 71,
then
a. Return the List of Unicode code points p.
2. Assert: p is a Unicode property name or property alias listed in the “Property name and aliases” column of Table 69
or Table 70.
3. Let c be the canonical property name of p as given in the “Canonical property name” column of the corresponding
row.
4. Return the List of Unicode code points c.

Implementations must support the Unicode property names and aliases listed in Table 69, Table 70, and Table 71. To
ensure interoperability, implementations must not support any other property names or aliases.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 1 For example, Script_Extensions (property name) and scx (property alias) are valid, but
script_extensions or Scx aren't.

NOTE 2 The listed properties form a superset of what UTS18 RL1.2 requires.

NOTE 3 The spellings of entries in these tables (including casing) match the spellings used in the file
[Link] in the Unicode Character Database. The precise spellings in that file are
guaranteed to be stable.

Table 69: Non-binary Unicode property aliases and their canonical property names
Property name and aliases Canonical property name

General_Category General_Category

Script Script

Script_Extensions Script_Extensions

scx

Table 70: Binary Unicode property aliases and their canonical property names
Property name and aliases Canonical property name

ASCII ASCII

ASCII_Hex_Digit ASCII_Hex_Digit

AHex

Alphabetic Alphabetic

Alpha

Any Any

Assigned Assigned

Bidi_Control Bidi_Control

Bidi_C

Bidi_Mirrored Bidi_Mirrored

Bidi_M

Case_Ignorable Case_Ignorable

Cased Cased

Changes_When_Casefolded Changes_When_Casefolded

CWCF

Changes_When_Casemapped Changes_When_Casemapped

CWCM

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Property name and aliases Canonical property name

Changes_When_Lowercased Changes_When_Lowercased

CWL

Changes_When_NFKC_Casefolded Changes_When_NFKC_Casefolded

CWKCF

Changes_When_Titlecased Changes_When_Titlecased

CWT

Changes_When_Uppercased Changes_When_Uppercased

CWU

Dash Dash

Default_Ignorable_Code_Point Default_Ignorable_Code_Point

Deprecated Deprecated

Dep

Diacritic Diacritic

Dia

Emoji Emoji

Emoji_Component Emoji_Component

EComp

Emoji_Modifier Emoji_Modifier

EMod

Emoji_Modifier_Base Emoji_Modifier_Base

EBase

Emoji_Presentation Emoji_Presentation

EPres

Extended_Pictographic Extended_Pictographic

ExtPict

Extender Extender

Ext

Grapheme_Base Grapheme_Base

Gr_Base

Grapheme_Extend Grapheme_Extend

Gr_Ext

Hex_Digit Hex_Digit

Hex

IDS_Binary_Operator IDS_Binary_Operator

IDSB

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Property name and aliases Canonical property name

IDS_Trinary_Operator IDS_Trinary_Operator

IDST

ID_Continue ID_Continue

IDC

ID_Start ID_Start

IDS

Ideographic Ideographic

Ideo

Join_Control Join_Control

Join_C

Logical_Order_Exception Logical_Order_Exception

LOE

Lowercase Lowercase

Lower

Math Math

Noncharacter_Code_Point Noncharacter_Code_Point

NChar

Pattern_Syntax Pattern_Syntax

Pat_Syn

Pattern_White_Space Pattern_White_Space

Pat_WS

Quotation_Mark Quotation_Mark

QMark

Radical Radical

Regional_Indicator Regional_Indicator

Sentence_Terminal Sentence_Terminal

STerm

Soft_Dotted Soft_Dotted

Terminal_Punctuation Terminal_Punctuation

Term

Unified_Ideograph Unified_Ideograph

UIdeo

Uppercase Uppercase

Upper

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Property name and aliases Canonical property name

Variation_Selector Variation_Selector

White_Space White_Space

space

XID_Continue XID_Continue

XIDC

XID_Start XID_Start

XIDS

Table 71: Binary Unicode properties of strings

Property name

Basic_Emoji

Emoji_Keycap_Sequence

RGI_Emoji_Modifier_Sequence

RGI_Emoji_Flag_Sequence

RGI_Emoji_Tag_Sequence

RGI_Emoji_ZWJ_Sequence

RGI_Emoji

[Link].8 UnicodeMatchPropertyValue ( p, v )

The abstract operation UnicodeMatchPropertyValue takes arguments p (ECMAScript source text) and v (ECMAScript
source text) and returns a Unicode property value. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: p is a canonical, unaliased Unicode property name listed in the “Canonical property name” column of Table
69.
2. Assert: v is a property value or property value alias for the Unicode property p listed in
[Link].
3. Let value be the canonical property value of v as given in the “Canonical property value” column of the
corresponding row.
4. Return the List of Unicode code points value.

Implementations must support the Unicode property values and property value aliases listed in
[Link] for the properties listed in Table 69. To ensure interoperability, implementations must
not support any other property values or property value aliases.

NOTE 1 For example, Xpeo and Old_Persian are valid Script_Extensions values, but xpeo and
Old Persian aren't.

NOTE 2 This algorithm differs from the matching rules for symbolic values listed in UAX44: case, white space,
U+002D (HYPHEN-MINUS), and U+005F (LOW LINE) are not ignored, and the Is prefix is not supported.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Runtime Semantics: CompileClassSetString

The syntax-directed operation CompileClassSetString takes argument rer (a RegExp Record) and returns a sequence
of characters. It is defined piecewise over the following productions:
ClassString :: [empty]

1. Return an empty sequence of characters.

ClassString :: NonEmptyClassString

1. Return CompileClassSetString of NonEmptyClassString with argument rer.

NonEmptyClassString :: ClassSetCharacter NonEmptyClassStringopt

1. Let cs be CompileToCharSet of ClassSetCharacter with argument rer.

2. Let s1 be the sequence of characters that is the single CharSetElement of cs.
3. If NonEmptyClassString is present, then
a. Let s2 be CompileClassSetString of NonEmptyClassString with argument rer.
b. Return the concatenation of s1 and s2.
4. Return s1.

22.2.3 Abstract Operations for RegExp Creation

[Link] RegExpCreate ( P, F )

The abstract operation RegExpCreate takes arguments P (an ECMAScript language value) and F (a String or un-
defined) and returns either a normal completion containing an Object or a throw completion. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let obj be ! RegExpAlloc(%RegExp%).

2. Return ? RegExpInitialize(obj, P, F).

[Link] RegExpAlloc ( newTarget )

The abstract operation RegExpAlloc takes argument newTarget (a constructor) and returns either a normal completion
containing an Object or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let obj be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(newTarget, "%[Link]%", « ⁠[[OriginalSource]],

⁠[[OriginalFlags]], ⁠[[RegExpRecord]], ⁠[[RegExpMatcher]] »).
2. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(obj, "lastIndex", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false,
⁠[[Configurable]]: false }).
3. Return obj.

[Link] RegExpInitialize ( obj, pattern, flags )

The abstract operation RegExpInitialize takes arguments obj (an Object), pattern (an ECMAScript language value), and
flags (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing an Object or a throw comple-
tion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If pattern is undefined, let P be the empty String.

2. Else, let P be ? ToString(pattern).
3. If flags is undefined, let F be the empty String.
4. Else, let F be ? ToString(flags).
5. If F contains any code unit other than "d", "g", "i", "m", "s", "u", "v", or "y", or if F contains any code unit more
than once, throw a SyntaxError exception.
6. If F contains "i", let i be true; else let i be false.
7. If F contains "m", let m be true; else let m be false.
8. If F contains "s", let s be true; else let s be false.
9. If F contains "u", let u be true; else let u be false.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

10. If F contains "v", let v be true; else let v be false.

11. If u is true or v is true, then
a. Let patternText be StringToCodePoints(P).
12. Else,
a. Let patternText be the result of interpreting each of P's 16-bit elements as a Unicode BMP code point. UTF-16
decoding is not applied to the elements.
13. Let parseResult be ParsePattern(patternText, u, v).
14. If parseResult is a non-empty List of SyntaxError objects, throw a SyntaxError exception.
15. Assert: parseResult is a Pattern Parse Node.
16. Set obj.⁠[[OriginalSource]] to P.
17. Set obj.⁠[[OriginalFlags]] to F.
18. Let capturingGroupsCount be CountLeftCapturingParensWithin(parseResult).
19. Let rer be the RegExp Record { ⁠[[IgnoreCase]]: i, ⁠[[Multiline]]: m, ⁠[[DotAll]]: s, ⁠[[Unicode]]: u, ⁠[[UnicodeSets]]: v,
⁠[[CapturingGroupsCount]]: capturingGroupsCount }.
20. Set obj.⁠[[RegExpRecord]] to rer.
21. Set obj.⁠[[RegExpMatcher]] to CompilePattern of parseResult with argument rer.
22. Perform ? Set(obj, "lastIndex", +0𝔽, true).
23. Return obj.

[Link] Static Semantics: ParsePattern ( patternText, u, v )

The abstract operation ParsePattern takes arguments patternText (a sequence of Unicode code points), u (a Boolean),
and v (a Boolean) and returns a Parse Node or a non-empty List of SyntaxError objects.

NOTE This section is amended in B.1.2.9.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. If v is true and u is true, then

a. Let parseResult be a List containing one or more SyntaxError objects.
2. Else if v is true, then
a. Let parseResult be ParseText(patternText,
Pattern[+UnicodeMode, +UnicodeSetsMode, +NamedCaptureGroups] ).
3. Else if u is true, then
a. Let parseResult be ParseText(patternText,
Pattern[+UnicodeMode, ~UnicodeSetsMode, +NamedCaptureGroups] ).
4. Else,
a. Let parseResult be ParseText(patternText,
Pattern[~UnicodeMode, ~UnicodeSetsMode, +NamedCaptureGroups] ).
5. Return parseResult.

22.2.4 The RegExp Constructor

The RegExp constructor:

is %RegExp%.
is the initial value of the "RegExp" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new RegExp object when called as a constructor.
when called as a function rather than as a constructor, returns either a new RegExp object, or the argument itself if
the only argument is a RegExp object.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified RegExp behaviour must include a super call to the RegExp constructor to create and initialize subclass
instances with the necessary internal slots.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] RegExp ( pattern, flags )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let patternIsRegExp be ? IsRegExp(pattern).

2. If NewTarget is undefined, then
a. Let newTarget be the active function object.
b. If patternIsRegExp is true and flags is undefined, then
i. Let patternConstructor be ? Get(pattern, "constructor").
ii. If SameValue(newTarget, patternConstructor) is true, return pattern.
3. Else,
a. Let newTarget be NewTarget.
4. If pattern is an Object and pattern has a ⁠[[RegExpMatcher]] internal slot, then
a. Let P be pattern.⁠[[OriginalSource]].
b. If flags is undefined, let F be pattern.⁠[[OriginalFlags]].
c. Else, let F be flags.
5. Else if patternIsRegExp is true, then
a. Let P be ? Get(pattern, "source").
b. If flags is undefined, then
i. Let F be ? Get(pattern, "flags").
c. Else,
i. Let F be flags.
6. Else,
a. Let P be pattern.
b. Let F be flags.
7. Let O be ? RegExpAlloc(newTarget).
8. Return ? RegExpInitialize(O, P, F).

NOTE If pattern is supplied using a StringLiteral, the usual escape sequence substitutions are performed before the
String is processed by this function. If pattern must contain an escape sequence to be recognized by this
function, any U+005C (REVERSE SOLIDUS) code points must be escaped within the StringLiteral to
prevent them being removed when the contents of the StringLiteral are formed.

22.2.5 Properties of the RegExp Constructor

The RegExp constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

[Link] [Link] ( S )

This function returns a copy of S in which characters that are potentially special in a regular expression Pattern have
been replaced by equivalent escape sequences.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. If S is not a String, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let escaped be the empty String.
3. Let cpList be StringToCodePoints(S).
4. For each code point cp of cpList, do
a. If escaped is the empty String and cp is matched by either DecimalDigit or AsciiLetter, then
i. NOTE: Escaping a leading digit ensures that output corresponds with pattern text which may be used after
a \0 character escape or a DecimalEscape such as \1 and still match S rather than be interpreted as an
extension of the preceding escape sequence. Escaping a leading ASCII letter does the same for the
context after \c.
ii. Let numericValue be the numeric value of cp.
iii. Let hex be Number::toString(𝔽(numericValue), 16).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

iv. Assert: The length of hex is 2.

v. Set escaped to the string-concatenation of the code unit 0x005C (REVERSE SOLIDUS), "x", and hex.
b. Else,
i. Set escaped to the string-concatenation of escaped and EncodeForRegExpEscape(cp).
5. Return escaped.

NOTE Despite having similar names, EscapeRegExpPattern and [Link] do not perform similar actions.
The former escapes a pattern for representation as a string, while this function escapes a string for
representation inside a pattern.

[Link].1 EncodeForRegExpEscape ( cp )

The abstract operation EncodeForRegExpEscape takes argument cp (a code point) and returns a String. It returns
a String representing a Pattern for matching cp. If cp is white space or an ASCII punctuator, the returned value is an
escape sequence. Otherwise, the returned value is a String representation of cp itself. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. If cp is matched by SyntaxCharacter or cp is U+002F (SOLIDUS), then

a. Return the string-concatenation of 0x005C (REVERSE SOLIDUS) and UTF16EncodeCodePoint(cp).
2. Else if cp is a code point listed in the “Code Point” column of Table 67, then
a. Return the string-concatenation of 0x005C (REVERSE SOLIDUS) and the string in the “ControlEscape” column
of the row whose “Code Point” column contains cp.
3. Let otherPunctuators be the string-concatenation of ",-=<>#&!%:;@~'`" and the code unit 0x0022 (QUOTATION
MARK).
4. Let toEscape be StringToCodePoints(otherPunctuators).
5. If toEscape contains cp, cp is matched by either WhiteSpace or LineTerminator, or cp has the same numeric value
as a leading surrogate or trailing surrogate, then
a. Let cpNum be the numeric value of cp.
b. If cpNum ≤ 0xFF, then
i. Let hex be Number::toString(𝔽(cpNum), 16).
ii. Return the string-concatenation of the code unit 0x005C (REVERSE SOLIDUS), "x", and StringPad(hex,
2, "0", START).
c. Let escaped be the empty String.
d. Let codeUnits be UTF16EncodeCodePoint(cp).
e. For each code unit cu of codeUnits, do
i. Set escaped to the string-concatenation of escaped and UnicodeEscape(cu).
f. Return escaped.
6. Return UTF16EncodeCodePoint(cp).

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the RegExp prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] get RegExp [ %[Link]% ]

RegExp[%[Link]%] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get accessor
function performs the following steps when called:

1. Return the this value.

The value of the "name" property of this function is "get [[Link]]".

NOTE RegExp prototype methods normally use their this value's constructor to create a derived object. However, a
subclass constructor may over-ride that default behaviour by redefining its %[Link]% property.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

22.2.6 Properties of the RegExp Prototype Object

The RegExp prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
is not a RegExp instance and does not have a ⁠[[RegExpMatcher]] internal slot or any of the other internal slots of
RegExp instance objects.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

NOTE The RegExp prototype object does not have a "valueOf" property of its own; however, it inherits the
"valueOf" property from the Object prototype object.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %RegExp%.

[Link] [Link] ( string )

This method searches string for an occurrence of the regular expression pattern and returns an Array containing the res-
ults of the match, or null if string did not match.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let R be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(R, ⁠[[RegExpMatcher]]).
3. Let S be ? ToString(string).
4. Return ? RegExpBuiltinExec(R, S).

[Link] get [Link]

[Link] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get accessor
function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let R be the this value.

2. Let cu be the code unit 0x0073 (LATIN SMALL LETTER S).
3. Return ? RegExpHasFlag(R, cu).

[Link] get [Link]

[Link] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get accessor func-
tion performs the following steps when called:

1. Let R be the this value.

1. Let R be the this value.

2. Let cu be the code unit 0x0069 (LATIN SMALL LETTER I).
3. Return ? RegExpHasFlag(R, cu).

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ] ( string )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let rx be the this value.

2. If rx is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let S be ? ToString(string).
4. Let flags be ? ToString(? Get(rx, "flags")).
5. If flags does not contain "g", then
a. Return ? RegExpExec(rx, S).
6. Else,

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

a. If flags contains "u" or flags contains "v", let fullUnicode be true; otherwise let fullUnicode be false.
b. Perform ? Set(rx, "lastIndex", +0𝔽, true).
c. Let A be ! ArrayCreate(0).
d. Let n be 0.
e. Repeat,
i. Let result be ? RegExpExec(rx, S).
ii. If result is null, then
1. If n = 0, return null.
2. Return A.
iii. Else,
1. Let matchStr be ? ToString(? Get(result, "0")).
2. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(n)), matchStr).
3. If matchStr is the empty String, then
a. Let thisIndex be ℝ(? ToLength(? Get(rx, "lastIndex"))).
b. Let nextIndex be AdvanceStringIndex(S, thisIndex, fullUnicode).
c. Perform ? Set(rx, "lastIndex", 𝔽(nextIndex), true).
4. Set n to n + 1.

The value of the "name" property of this method is "[[Link]]".

NOTE The %[Link]% property is used by the IsRegExp abstract operation to identify objects that have the
basic behaviour of regular expressions. The absence of a %[Link]% property or the existence of
such a property whose value does not Boolean coerce to true indicates that the object is not intended to be
used as a regular expression object.

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ] ( string )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let R be the this value.

2. If R is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let S be ? ToString(string).
4. Let C be ? SpeciesConstructor(R, %RegExp%).
5. Let flags be ? ToString(? Get(R, "flags")).
6. Let matcher be ? Construct(C, « R, flags »).
7. Let lastIndex be ? ToLength(? Get(R, "lastIndex")).
8. Perform ? Set(matcher, "lastIndex", lastIndex, true).
9. If flags contains "g", let global be true.
10. Else, let global be false.
11. If flags contains "u" or flags contains "v", let fullUnicode be true.
12. Else, let fullUnicode be false.
13. Return CreateRegExpStringIterator(matcher, S, global, fullUnicode).

The value of the "name" property of this method is "[[Link]]".

[Link] get [Link]

[Link] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get accessor
function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let R be the this value.

2. Let cu be the code unit 0x006D (LATIN SMALL LETTER M).
3. Return ? RegExpHasFlag(R, cu).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ] ( string, replaceValue )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let rx be the this value.

2. If rx is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let S be ? ToString(string).
4. Let lengthS be the length of S.
5. Let functionalReplace be IsCallable(replaceValue).
6. If functionalReplace is false, then
a. Set replaceValue to ? ToString(replaceValue).
7. Let flags be ? ToString(? Get(rx, "flags")).
8. If flags contains "g", let global be true; otherwise let global be false.
9. If global is true, then
a. Perform ? Set(rx, "lastIndex", +0𝔽, true).
10. Let results be a new empty List.
11. Let done be false.
12. Repeat, while done is false,
a. Let result be ? RegExpExec(rx, S).
b. If result is null, then
i. Set done to true.
c. Else,
i. Append result to results.
ii. If global is false, then
1. Set done to true.
iii. Else,
1. Let matchStr be ? ToString(? Get(result, "0")).
2. If matchStr is the empty String, then
a. Let thisIndex be ℝ(? ToLength(? Get(rx, "lastIndex"))).
b. If flags contains "u" or flags contains "v", let fullUnicode be true; otherwise let fullUnicode be
false.
c. Let nextIndex be AdvanceStringIndex(S, thisIndex, fullUnicode).
d. Perform ? Set(rx, "lastIndex", 𝔽(nextIndex), true).
13. Let accumulatedResult be the empty String.
14. Let nextSourcePosition be 0.
15. For each element result of results, do
a. Let resultLength be ? LengthOfArrayLike(result).
b. Let nCaptures be max(resultLength - 1, 0).
c. Let matched be ? ToString(? Get(result, "0")).
d. Let matchLength be the length of matched.
e. Let position be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(? Get(result, "index")).
f. Set position to the result of clamping position between 0 and lengthS.
g. Let captures be a new empty List.
h. Let n be 1.
i. Repeat, while n ≤ nCaptures,
i. Let capN be ? Get(result, ! ToString(𝔽(n))).
ii. If capN is not undefined, then
1. Set capN to ? ToString(capN).
iii. Append capN to captures.
iv. NOTE: When n = 1, the preceding step puts the first element into captures (at index 0). More generally, the
nth capture (the characters captured by the nth set of capturing parentheses) is at captures[n - 1].
v. Set n to n + 1.
j. Let namedCaptures be ? Get(result, "groups").
k. If functionalReplace is true, then
i. Let replacerArgs be the list-concatenation of « matched », captures, and « 𝔽(position), S ».
ii. If namedCaptures is not undefined, then
1. Append namedCaptures to replacerArgs.
iii. Let replacementValue be ? Call(replaceValue, undefined, replacerArgs).
iv. Let replacementString be ? ToString(replacementValue).
l. Else,

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

i. If namedCaptures is not undefined, then

1. Set namedCaptures to ? ToObject(namedCaptures).
ii. Let replacementString be ? GetSubstitution(matched, S, position, captures, namedCaptures,
replaceValue).
m. If position ≥ nextSourcePosition, then
i. NOTE: position should not normally move backwards. If it does, it is an indication of an ill-behaving
RegExp subclass or use of an access triggered side-effect to change the global flag or other characteristics
of rx. In such cases, the corresponding substitution is ignored.
ii. Set accumulatedResult to the string-concatenation of accumulatedResult, the substring of S from
nextSourcePosition to position, and replacementString.
iii. Set nextSourcePosition to position + matchLength.
16. If nextSourcePosition ≥ lengthS, return accumulatedResult.
17. Return the string-concatenation of accumulatedResult and the substring of S from nextSourcePosition.

The value of the "name" property of this method is "[[Link]]".

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ] ( string )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let rx be the this value.

2. If rx is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let S be ? ToString(string).
4. Let previousLastIndex be ? Get(rx, "lastIndex").
5. If previousLastIndex is not +0𝔽, then
a. Perform ? Set(rx, "lastIndex", +0𝔽, true).
6. Let result be ? RegExpExec(rx, S).
7. Let currentLastIndex be ? Get(rx, "lastIndex").
8. If SameValue(currentLastIndex, previousLastIndex) is false, then
a. Perform ? Set(rx, "lastIndex", previousLastIndex, true).
9. If result is null, return -1𝔽.
10. Return ? Get(result, "index").

The value of the "name" property of this method is "[[Link]]".

NOTE The "lastIndex" and "global" properties of this RegExp object are ignored when performing the search.
The "lastIndex" property is left unchanged.

[Link] get [Link]

[Link] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get accessor
function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let R be the this value.

2. If R is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. If R does not have an ⁠[[OriginalSource]] internal slot, then
a. If SameValue(R, %[Link]%) is true, return "(?:)".
b. Otherwise, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Assert: R has an ⁠[[OriginalFlags]] internal slot.
5. Let src be R.⁠[[OriginalSource]].
6. Let flags be R.⁠[[OriginalFlags]].
7. Return EscapeRegExpPattern(src, flags).

[Link].1 EscapeRegExpPattern ( P, F )

The abstract operation EscapeRegExpPattern takes arguments P (a String) and F (a String) and returns a String. It per-

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

forms the following steps when called:

1. If F contains "v", then

a. Let patternSymbol be Pattern[+UnicodeMode, +UnicodeSetsMode] .
2. Else if F contains "u", then
a. Let patternSymbol be Pattern[+UnicodeMode, ~UnicodeSetsMode] .
3. Else,
a. Let patternSymbol be Pattern[~UnicodeMode, ~UnicodeSetsMode] .
4. Let S be a String in the form of a patternSymbol equivalent to P interpreted as UTF-16 encoded Unicode code
points (6.1.4), in which certain code points are escaped as described below. S may or may not differ from P;
however, the Abstract Closure that would result from evaluating S as a patternSymbol must behave identically to the
Abstract Closure given by the constructed object's ⁠[[RegExpMatcher]] internal slot. Multiple calls to this abstract
operation using the same values for P and F must produce identical results.
5. The code points / or any LineTerminator occurring in the pattern shall be escaped in S as necessary to ensure that
the string-concatenation of "/", S, "/", and F can be parsed (in an appropriate lexical context) as a
RegularExpressionLiteral that behaves identically to the constructed regular expression. For example, if P is "/",
then S could be "\/" or "\u002F", among other possibilities, but not "/", because /// followed by F would be parsed
as a SingleLineComment rather than a RegularExpressionLiteral. If P is the empty String, this specification can be
met by letting S be "(?:)".
6. Return S.

NOTE Despite having similar names, [Link] and EscapeRegExpPattern do not perform similar actions.
The former escapes a string for representation inside a pattern, while this function escapes a pattern for
representation as a string.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ] ( string, limit )

NOTE 1 This method returns an Array into which substrings of the result of converting string to a String have been
stored. The substrings are determined by searching from left to right for matches of the this value regular
expression; these occurrences are not part of any String in the returned array, but serve to divide up the
String value.

The this value may be an empty regular expression or a regular expression that can match an empty String.
In this case, the regular expression does not match the empty substring at the beginning or end of the input
String, nor does it match the empty substring at the end of the previous separator match. (For example, if
the regular expression matches the empty String, the String is split up into individual code unit elements; the
length of the result array equals the length of the String, and each substring contains one code unit.) Only
the first match at a given index of the String is considered, even if backtracking could yield a non-empty
substring match at that index. (For example, /a*?/[[Link]]("ab") evaluates to the array
["a", "b"], while /a*/[[Link]]("ab") evaluates to the array ["","b"].)

If string is (or converts to) the empty String, the result depends on whether the regular expression can match
the empty String. If it can, the result array contains no elements. Otherwise, the result array contains one
element, which is the empty String.

If the regular expression contains capturing parentheses, then each time separator is matched the
results (including any undefined results) of the capturing parentheses are spliced into the output array.
For example,

/<(\/)?([^<>]+)>/[[Link]]("A<B>bold</B>and<CODE>coded</CODE>")

evaluates to the array

["A", undefined, "B", "bold", "/", "B", "and", undefined, "CODE", "coded", "/"

If limit is not undefined, then the output array is truncated so that it contains no more than limit elements.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let rx be the this value.

2. If rx is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let S be ? ToString(string).
4. Let C be ? SpeciesConstructor(rx, %RegExp%).
5. Let flags be ? ToString(? Get(rx, "flags")).
6. If flags contains "u" or flags contains "v", let unicodeMatching be true.
7. Else, let unicodeMatching be false.
8. If flags contains "y", let newFlags be flags.
9. Else, let newFlags be the string-concatenation of flags and "y".
10. Let splitter be ? Construct(C, « rx, newFlags »).
11. Let A be ! ArrayCreate(0).
12. Let lengthA be 0.
13. If limit is undefined, let lim be 232 - 1; else let lim be ℝ(? ToUint32(limit)).
14. If lim = 0, return A.
15. If S is the empty String, then
a. Let z be ? RegExpExec(splitter, S).
b. If z is not null, return A.
c. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, "0", S).
d. Return A.
16. Let size be the length of S.
17. Let p be 0.
18. Let q be p.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

19. Repeat, while q < size,

a. Perform ? Set(splitter, "lastIndex", 𝔽(q), true).
b. Let z be ? RegExpExec(splitter, S).
c. If z is null, then
i. Set q to AdvanceStringIndex(S, q, unicodeMatching).
d. Else,
i. Let e be ℝ(? ToLength(? Get(splitter, "lastIndex"))).
ii. Set e to min(e, size).
iii. If e = p, then
1. Set q to AdvanceStringIndex(S, q, unicodeMatching).
iv. Else,
1. Let T be the substring of S from p to q.
2. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(lengthA)), T).
3. Set lengthA to lengthA + 1.
4. If lengthA = lim, return A.
5. Set p to e.
6. Let numberOfCaptures be ? LengthOfArrayLike(z).
7. Set numberOfCaptures to max(numberOfCaptures - 1, 0).
8. Let i be 1.
9. Repeat, while i ≤ numberOfCaptures,
a. Let nextCapture be ? Get(z, ! ToString(𝔽(i))).
b. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(lengthA)), nextCapture).
c. Set i to i + 1.
d. Set lengthA to lengthA + 1.
e. If lengthA = lim, return A.
10. Set q to p.
20. Let T be the substring of S from p to size.
21. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(lengthA)), T).
22. Return A.

The value of the "name" property of this method is "[[Link]]".

NOTE 2 This method ignores the value of the "global" and "sticky" properties of this RegExp object.

[Link] get [Link]

[Link] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get accessor
function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let R be the this value.

2. Let cu be the code unit 0x0079 (LATIN SMALL LETTER Y).
3. Return ? RegExpHasFlag(R, cu).

[Link] [Link] ( S )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let R be the this value.

2. If R is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let string be ? ToString(S).
4. Let match be ? RegExpExec(R, string).
5. If match is not null, return true; else return false.

[Link] [Link] ( )

1. Let R be the this value.

2. If R is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let pattern be ? ToString(? Get(R, "source")).
4. Let flags be ? ToString(? Get(R, "flags")).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

5. Let result be the string-concatenation of "/", pattern, "/", and flags.

6. Return result.

NOTE The returned String has the form of a RegularExpressionLiteral that evaluates to another RegExp object with
the same behaviour as this object.

[Link] get [Link]

[Link] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get accessor
function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let R be the this value.

2. Let cu be the code unit 0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER U).
3. Return ? RegExpHasFlag(R, cu).

[Link] get [Link]

[Link] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get ac-
cessor function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let R be the this value.

2. Let cu be the code unit 0x0076 (LATIN SMALL LETTER V).
3. Return ? RegExpHasFlag(R, cu).

22.2.7 Abstract Operations for RegExp Matching

[Link] RegExpExec ( R, S )

The abstract operation RegExpExec takes arguments R (an Object) and S (a String) and returns either a normal com-
pletion containing either an Object or null, or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let exec be ? Get(R, "exec").

2. If IsCallable(exec) is true, then
a. Let result be ? Call(exec, R, « S »).
b. If result is not an Object and result is not null, throw a TypeError exception.
c. Return result.
3. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(R, ⁠[[RegExpMatcher]]).
4. Return ? RegExpBuiltinExec(R, S).

NOTE If a callable "exec" property is not found this algorithm falls back to attempting to use the built-in RegExp
matching algorithm. This provides compatible behaviour for code written for prior editions where most built-in
algorithms that use regular expressions did not perform a dynamic property lookup of "exec".

[Link] RegExpBuiltinExec ( R, S )

The abstract operation RegExpBuiltinExec takes arguments R (an initialized RegExp instance) and S (a String) and re-
turns either a normal completion containing either an Array exotic object or null, or a throw completion. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let length be the length of S.

2. Let lastIndex be ℝ(? ToLength(? Get(R, "lastIndex"))).
3. Let flags be R.⁠[[OriginalFlags]].
4. If flags contains "g", let global be true; else let global be false.
5. If flags contains "y", let sticky be true; else let sticky be false.
6. If flags contains "d", let hasIndices be true; else let hasIndices be false.
7. If global is false and sticky is false, set lastIndex to 0.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

8. Let matcher be R.⁠[[RegExpMatcher]].

9. If flags contains "u" or flags contains "v", let fullUnicode be true; else let fullUnicode be false.
10. Let matchSucceeded be false.
11. If fullUnicode is true, let input be StringToCodePoints(S); otherwise let input be a List whose elements are the code
units that are the elements of S.
12. NOTE: Each element of input is considered to be a character.
13. Repeat, while matchSucceeded is false,
a. If lastIndex > length, then
i. If global is true or sticky is true, then
1. Perform ? Set(R, "lastIndex", +0𝔽, true).
ii. Return null.
b. Let inputIndex be the index into input of the character that was obtained from element lastIndex of S.
c. Let r be matcher(input, inputIndex).
d. If r is FAILURE, then
i. If sticky is true, then
1. Perform ? Set(R, "lastIndex", +0𝔽, true).
2. Return null.
ii. Set lastIndex to AdvanceStringIndex(S, lastIndex, fullUnicode).
e. Else,
i. Assert: r is a MatchState.
ii. Set matchSucceeded to true.
14. Let e be r.⁠[[EndIndex]].
15. If fullUnicode is true, set e to GetStringIndex(S, e).
16. If global is true or sticky is true, then
a. Perform ? Set(R, "lastIndex", 𝔽(e), true).
17. Let n be the number of elements in r.⁠[[Captures]].
18. Assert: n = R.⁠[[RegExpRecord]].⁠[[CapturingGroupsCount]].
19. Assert: n < 232 - 1.
20. Let A be ! ArrayCreate(n + 1).
21. Assert: The mathematical value of A's "length" property is n + 1.
22. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, "index", 𝔽(lastIndex)).
23. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, "input", S).
24. Let match be the Match Record { ⁠[[StartIndex]]: lastIndex, ⁠[[EndIndex]]: e }.
25. Let indices be a new empty List.
26. Let groupNames be a new empty List.
27. Append match to indices.
28. Let matchedSubstr be GetMatchString(S, match).
29. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, "0", matchedSubstr).
30. If R contains any GroupName, then
a. Let groups be OrdinaryObjectCreate(null).
b. Let hasGroups be true.
31. Else,
a. Let groups be undefined.
b. Let hasGroups be false.
32. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, "groups", groups).
33. Let matchedGroupNames be a new empty List.
34. For each integer i such that 1 ≤ i ≤ n, in ascending order, do
a. Let captureI be ith element of r.⁠[[Captures]].
b. If captureI is undefined, then
i. Let capturedValue be undefined.
ii. Append undefined to indices.
c. Else,
i. Let captureStart be captureI.⁠[[StartIndex]].
ii. Let captureEnd be captureI.⁠[[EndIndex]].
iii. If fullUnicode is true, then
1. Set captureStart to GetStringIndex(S, captureStart).
2. Set captureEnd to GetStringIndex(S, captureEnd).
iv. Let capture be the Match Record { ⁠[[StartIndex]]: captureStart, ⁠[[EndIndex]]: captureEnd }.
v. Let capturedValue be GetMatchString(S, capture).
vi. Append capture to indices.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

d. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(i)), capturedValue).

e. If the ith capture of R was defined with a GroupName, then
i. Let s be the CapturingGroupName of that GroupName.
ii. If matchedGroupNames contains s, then
1. Assert: capturedValue is undefined.
2. Append undefined to groupNames.
iii. Else,
1. If capturedValue is not undefined, append s to matchedGroupNames.
2. NOTE: If there are multiple groups named s, groups may already have an s property at this point.
However, because groups is an ordinary object whose properties are all writable data properties, the
call to CreateDataPropertyOrThrow is nevertheless guaranteed to succeed.
3. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(groups, s, capturedValue).
4. Append s to groupNames.
f. Else,
i. Append undefined to groupNames.
35. If hasIndices is true, then
a. Let indicesArray be MakeMatchIndicesIndexPairArray(S, indices, groupNames, hasGroups).
b. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, "indices", indicesArray).
36. Return A.

[Link] AdvanceStringIndex ( S, index, unicode )

The abstract operation AdvanceStringIndex takes arguments S (a String), index (a non-negative integer), and unicode
(a Boolean) and returns an integer. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: index ≤ 253 - 1.

2. If unicode is false, return index + 1.
3. Let length be the length of S.
4. If index + 1 ≥ length, return index + 1.
5. Let cp be CodePointAt(S, index).
6. Return index + cp.⁠[[CodeUnitCount]].

[Link] GetStringIndex ( S, codePointIndex )

The abstract operation GetStringIndex takes arguments S (a String) and codePointIndex (a non-negative integer) and
returns a non-negative integer. It interprets S as a sequence of UTF-16 encoded code points, as described in 6.1.4, and
returns the code unit index corresponding to code point index codePointIndex when such an index exists. Otherwise, it
returns the length of S. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If S is the empty String, return 0.

2. Let len be the length of S.
3. Let codeUnitCount be 0.
4. Let codePointCount be 0.
5. Repeat, while codeUnitCount < len,
a. If codePointCount = codePointIndex, return codeUnitCount.
b. Let cp be CodePointAt(S, codeUnitCount).
c. Set codeUnitCount to codeUnitCount + cp.⁠[[CodeUnitCount]].
d. Set codePointCount to codePointCount + 1.
6. Return len.

[Link] Match Records

A Match Record is a Record value used to encapsulate the start and end indices of a regular expression match
or capture.

Match Records have the fields listed in Table 72.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Table 72: Match Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[StartIndex]] a non-negative integer The number of code units from the start of a string at which the match begins
(inclusive).
⁠[[EndIndex]] an integer ≥ The number of code units from the start of a string at which the match ends
⁠[[StartIndex]] (exclusive).

[Link] GetMatchString ( S, match )

The abstract operation GetMatchString takes arguments S (a String) and match (a Match Record) and returns a String.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: match.⁠[[StartIndex]] ≤ match.⁠[[EndIndex]] ≤ the length of S.

2. Return the substring of S from match.⁠[[StartIndex]] to match.⁠[[EndIndex]].

[Link] GetMatchIndexPair ( S, match )

The abstract operation GetMatchIndexPair takes arguments S (a String) and match (a Match Record) and returns an
Array. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: match.⁠[[StartIndex]] ≤ match.⁠[[EndIndex]] ≤ the length of S.

2. Return CreateArrayFromList(« 𝔽(match.⁠[[StartIndex]]), 𝔽(match.⁠[[EndIndex]]) »).

[Link] MakeMatchIndicesIndexPairArray ( S, indices, groupNames, hasGroups )

The abstract operation MakeMatchIndicesIndexPairArray takes arguments S (a String), indices (a List of either Match
Records or undefined), groupNames (a List of either Strings or undefined), and hasGroups (a Boolean) and returns an
Array. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be the number of elements in indices.

2. Assert: n < 232 - 1.
3. Assert: groupNames has n - 1 elements.
4. NOTE: The groupNames List contains elements aligned with the indices List starting at indices[1].
5. Let A be ! ArrayCreate(n).
6. If hasGroups is true, then
a. Let groups be OrdinaryObjectCreate(null).
7. Else,
a. Let groups be undefined.
8. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, "groups", groups).
9. For each integer i such that 0 ≤ i < n, in ascending order, do
a. Let matchIndices be indices[i].
b. If matchIndices is not undefined, then
i. Let matchIndexPair be GetMatchIndexPair(S, matchIndices).
c. Else,
i. Let matchIndexPair be undefined.
d. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(i)), matchIndexPair).
e. If i > 0, then
i. Let s be groupNames[i - 1].
ii. If s is not undefined, then
1. Assert: groups is not undefined.
2. NOTE: If there are multiple groups named s, groups may already have an s property at this point.
However, because groups is an ordinary object whose properties are all writable data properties, the
call to CreateDataPropertyOrThrow is nevertheless guaranteed to succeed.
3. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(groups, s, matchIndexPair).
10. Return A.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

22.2.8 Properties of RegExp Instances

RegExp instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the RegExp prototype object. RegExp instances have
internal slots ⁠[[OriginalSource]], ⁠[[OriginalFlags]], ⁠[[RegExpRecord]], and ⁠[[RegExpMatcher]]. The value of the
[[RegExpMatcher]] internal slot is an Abstract Closure representation of the Pattern of the RegExp object.

NOTE Prior to ECMAScript 2015, RegExp instances were specified as having the own data properties "source",
"global", "ignoreCase", and "multiline". Those properties are now specified as accessor properties
of [Link].

RegExp instances also have the following property:

[Link] lastIndex

The value of the "lastIndex" property specifies the String index at which to start the next match. It is coerced to an in-
tegral Number when used (see [Link]). This property shall have the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]:
false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

22.2.9 RegExp String Iterator Objects

A RegExp String Iterator is an object that represents a specific iteration over some specific String instance object,
matching against some specific RegExp instance object. There is not a named constructor for RegExp String Iterator
objects. Instead, RegExp String Iterator objects are created by calling certain methods of RegExp instance objects.

[Link] CreateRegExpStringIterator ( R, S, global, fullUnicode )

The abstract operation CreateRegExpStringIterator takes arguments R (an Object), S (a String), global (a Boolean), and
fullUnicode (a Boolean) and returns an Object. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let iterator be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%RegExpStringIteratorPrototype%, « ⁠[[IteratingRegExp]], ⁠[[IteratedString]],

⁠[[Global]], ⁠[[Unicode]], ⁠[[Done]] »).
2. Set iterator.⁠[[IteratingRegExp]] to R.
3. Set iterator.⁠[[IteratedString]] to S.
4. Set iterator.⁠[[Global]] to global.
5. Set iterator.⁠[[Unicode]] to fullUnicode.
6. Set iterator.⁠[[Done]] to false.
7. Return iterator.

[Link] The %RegExpStringIteratorPrototype% Object

The %RegExpStringIteratorPrototype% object:

has properties that are inherited by all RegExp String Iterator objects.
is an ordinary object.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
has the following properties:

[Link].1 %RegExpStringIteratorPrototype%.next ( )

1. Let O be the this value.

2. If O is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. If O does not have all of the internal slots of a RegExp String Iterator Object Instance (see [Link]), throw a
TypeError exception.
4. If O.⁠[[Done]] is true, then
a. Return CreateIteratorResultObject(undefined, true).
5. Let R be O.⁠[[IteratingRegExp]].
6. Let S be O.⁠[[IteratedString]].

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7. Let global be O.⁠[[Global]].

8. Let fullUnicode be O.⁠[[Unicode]].
9. Let match be ? RegExpExec(R, S).
10. If match is null, then
a. Set O.⁠[[Done]] to true.
b. Return CreateIteratorResultObject(undefined, true).
11. If global is false, then
a. Set O.⁠[[Done]] to true.
b. Return CreateIteratorResultObject(match, false).
12. Let matchStr be ? ToString(? Get(match, "0")).
13. If matchStr is the empty String, then
a. Let thisIndex be ℝ(? ToLength(? Get(R, "lastIndex"))).
b. Let nextIndex be AdvanceStringIndex(S, thisIndex, fullUnicode).
c. Perform ? Set(R, "lastIndex", 𝔽(nextIndex), true).
14. Return CreateIteratorResultObject(match, false).

[Link].2 %RegExpStringIteratorPrototype% [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "RegExp String Iterator".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

[Link] Properties of RegExp String Iterator Instances

RegExp String Iterator instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the %RegExpStringIteratorPrototype%
intrinsic object. RegExp String Iterator instances are initially created with the internal slots listed in Table 73.

Table 73: Internal Slots of RegExp String Iterator Instances

Internal Slot Type Description
⁠[[IteratingRegExp]] an Object The regular expression used for iteration. IsRegExp(⁠[[IteratingRegExp]]) is initially
true.
⁠[[IteratedString]] a String The String value being iterated upon.
⁠[[Global]] a Indicates whether the ⁠[[IteratingRegExp]] is global or not.
Boolean
⁠[[Unicode]] a Indicates whether the ⁠[[IteratingRegExp]] is in Unicode mode or not.
Boolean
⁠[[Done]] a Indicates whether the iteration is complete or not.
Boolean

23 Indexed Collections

23.1 Array Objects

Arrays are exotic objects that give special treatment to a certain class of property names. See 10.4.2 for a definition of
this special treatment.

23.1.1 The Array Constructor

The Array constructor:

is %Array%.
is the initial value of the "Array" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new Array when called as a constructor.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

also creates and initializes a new Array when called as a function rather than as a constructor. Thus the function call
Array(…) is equivalent to the object creation expression new Array(…) with the same arguments.
is a function whose behaviour differs based upon the number and types of its arguments.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
exotic Array behaviour must include a super call to the Array constructor to initialize subclass instances that are
Array exotic objects. However, most of the [Link] methods are generic methods that are not
dependent upon their this value being an Array exotic object.

[Link] Array ( ...values )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is undefined, let newTarget be the active function object; else let newTarget be NewTarget.
2. Let proto be ? GetPrototypeFromConstructor(newTarget, "%[Link]%").
3. Let numberOfArgs be the number of elements in values.
4. If numberOfArgs = 0, then
a. Return ! ArrayCreate(0, proto).
5. Else if numberOfArgs = 1, then
a. Let len be values[0].
b. Let array be ! ArrayCreate(0, proto).
c. If len is not a Number, then
i. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(array, "0", len).
ii. Let intLen be 1𝔽.
d. Else,
i. Let intLen be ! ToUint32(len).
ii. If SameValueZero(intLen, len) is false, throw a RangeError exception.
e. Perform ! Set(array, "length", intLen, true).
f. Return array.
6. Else,
a. Assert: numberOfArgs ≥ 2.
b. Let array be ? ArrayCreate(numberOfArgs, proto).
c. Let k be 0.
d. Repeat, while k < numberOfArgs,
i. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
ii. Let itemK be values[k].
iii. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(array, Pk, itemK).
iv. Set k to k + 1.
e. Assert: The mathematical value of array's "length" property is numberOfArgs.
f. Return array.

23.1.2 Properties of the Array Constructor

The Array constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has a "length" property whose value is 1𝔽.
has the following properties:

[Link] [Link] ( items [ , mapper [ , thisArg ] ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let C be the this value.

2. If mapper is undefined, then
a. Let mapping be false.
3. Else,
a. If IsCallable(mapper) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
b. Let mapping be true.
4. Let usingIterator be ? GetMethod(items, %[Link]%).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

5. If usingIterator is not undefined, then

a. If IsConstructor(C) is true, then
i. Let A be ? Construct(C).
b. Else,
i. Let A be ! ArrayCreate(0).
c. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIteratorFromMethod(items, usingIterator).
d. Let k be 0.
e. Repeat,
i. If k ≥ 253 - 1, then
1. Let error be ThrowCompletion(a newly created TypeError object).
2. Return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, error).
ii. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
iii. Let next be ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
iv. If next is DONE, then
1. Perform ? Set(A, "length", 𝔽(k), true).
2. Return A.
v. If mapping is true, then
1. Let mappedValue be Completion(Call(mapper, thisArg, « next, 𝔽(k) »)).
2. IfAbruptCloseIterator(mappedValue, iteratorRecord).
vi. Else,
1. Let mappedValue be next.
vii. Let defineStatus be Completion(CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, Pk, mappedValue)).
viii. IfAbruptCloseIterator(defineStatus, iteratorRecord).
ix. Set k to k + 1.
6. NOTE: items is not iterable so assume it is an array-like object.
7. Let arrayLike be ! ToObject(items).
8. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(arrayLike).
9. If IsConstructor(C) is true, then
a. Let A be ? Construct(C, « 𝔽(len) »).
10. Else,
a. Let A be ? ArrayCreate(len).
11. Let k be 0.
12. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let kValue be ? Get(arrayLike, Pk).
c. If mapping is true, then
i. Let mappedValue be ? Call(mapper, thisArg, « kValue, 𝔽(k) »).
d. Else,
i. Let mappedValue be kValue.
e. Perform ? CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, Pk, mappedValue).
f. Set k to k + 1.
13. Perform ? Set(A, "length", 𝔽(len), true).
14. Return A.

NOTE This method is an intentionally generic factory method; it does not require that its this value be the Array
constructor. Therefore it can be transferred to or inherited by any other constructors that may be called with
a single numeric argument.

[Link] [Link] ( arg )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? IsArray(arg).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( ...items )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let len be the number of elements in items.

2. Let lenNumber be 𝔽(len).
3. Let C be the this value.
4. If IsConstructor(C) is true, then
a. Let A be ? Construct(C, « lenNumber »).
5. Else,
a. Let A be ? ArrayCreate(len).
6. Let k be 0.
7. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let kValue be items[k].
b. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
c. Perform ? CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, Pk, kValue).
d. Set k to k + 1.
8. Perform ? Set(A, "length", lenNumber, true).
9. Return A.

NOTE This method is an intentionally generic factory method; it does not require that its this value be the Array
constructor. Therefore it can be transferred to or inherited by other constructors that may be called with a
single numeric argument.

[Link] [Link]

The value of [Link] is the Array prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] get Array [ %[Link]% ]

Array[%[Link]%] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get accessor
function performs the following steps when called:

1. Return the this value.

The value of the "name" property of this function is "get [[Link]]".

NOTE Array prototype methods normally use their this value's constructor to create a derived object. However, a
subclass constructor may over-ride that default behaviour by redefining its %[Link]% property.

23.1.3 Properties of the Array Prototype Object

The Array prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
is an Array exotic object and has the internal methods specified for such objects.
has a "length" property whose initial value is +0𝔽 and whose attributes are { ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]:
false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

NOTE The Array prototype object is specified to be an Array exotic object to ensure compatibility with ECMAScript
code that was created prior to the ECMAScript 2015 specification.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( index )

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. Let relativeIndex be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(index).
4. If relativeIndex ≥ 0, then
a. Let k be relativeIndex.
5. Else,
a. Let k be len + relativeIndex.
6. If k < 0 or k ≥ len, return undefined.
7. Return ? Get(O, ! ToString(𝔽(k))).

[Link] [Link] ( ...items )

This method returns an array containing the array elements of the object followed by the array elements of
each argument.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let A be ? ArraySpeciesCreate(O, 0).
3. Let n be 0.
4. Prepend O to items.
5. For each element E of items, do
a. Let spreadable be ? IsConcatSpreadable(E).
b. If spreadable is true, then
i. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(E).
ii. If n + len > 253 - 1, throw a TypeError exception.
iii. Let k be 0.
iv. Repeat, while k < len,
1. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
2. Let exists be ? HasProperty(E, Pk).
3. If exists is true, then
a. Let subElement be ? Get(E, Pk).
b. Perform ? CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(n)), subElement).
4. Set n to n + 1.
5. Set k to k + 1.
c. Else,
i. NOTE: E is added as a single item rather than spread.
ii. If n ≥ 253 - 1, throw a TypeError exception.
iii. Perform ? CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(n)), E).
iv. Set n to n + 1.
6. Perform ? Set(A, "length", 𝔽(n), true).
7. Return A.

The "length" property of this method is 1𝔽.

NOTE 1 The explicit setting of the "length" property in step 6 is intended to ensure the length is correct when the
final non-empty element of items has trailing holes or when A is not a built-in Array.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link].1 IsConcatSpreadable ( O )

The abstract operation IsConcatSpreadable takes argument O (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

normal completion containing a Boolean or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If O is not an Object, return false.

2. Let spreadable be ? Get(O, %[Link]%).
3. If spreadable is not undefined, return ToBoolean(spreadable).
4. Return ? IsArray(O).

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %Array%.

[Link] [Link] ( target, start [ , end ] )

NOTE 1 The end argument is optional. If it is not provided, the length of the this value is used.

NOTE 2 If target is negative, it is treated as length + target where length is the length of the array. If start is negative,
it is treated as length + start. If end is negative, it is treated as length + end.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. Let relativeTarget be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(target).
4. If relativeTarget = -∞, let to be 0.
5. Else if relativeTarget < 0, let to be max(len + relativeTarget, 0).
6. Else, let to be min(relativeTarget, len).
7. Let relativeStart be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(start).
8. If relativeStart = -∞, let from be 0.
9. Else if relativeStart < 0, let from be max(len + relativeStart, 0).
10. Else, let from be min(relativeStart, len).
11. If end is undefined, let relativeEnd be len; else let relativeEnd be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(end).
12. If relativeEnd = -∞, let final be 0.
13. Else if relativeEnd < 0, let final be max(len + relativeEnd, 0).
14. Else, let final be min(relativeEnd, len).
15. Let count be min(final - from, len - to).
16. If from < to and to < from + count, then
a. Let direction be -1.
b. Set from to from + count - 1.
c. Set to to to + count - 1.
17. Else,
a. Let direction be 1.
18. Repeat, while count > 0,
a. Let fromKey be ! ToString(𝔽(from)).
b. Let toKey be ! ToString(𝔽(to)).
c. Let fromPresent be ? HasProperty(O, fromKey).
d. If fromPresent is true, then
i. Let fromValue be ? Get(O, fromKey).
ii. Perform ? Set(O, toKey, fromValue, true).
e. Else,
i. Assert: fromPresent is false.
ii. Perform ? DeletePropertyOrThrow(O, toKey).
f. Set from to from + direction.
g. Set to to to + direction.
h. Set count to count - 1.
19. Return O.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 3 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Return CreateArrayIterator(O, KEY+VALUE).

[Link] [Link] ( callback [ , thisArg ] )

NOTE 1 callback should be a function that accepts three arguments and returns a value that is coercible to a
Boolean value. every calls callback once for each element present in the array, in ascending order, until it
finds one where callback returns false. If such an element is found, every immediately returns false.
Otherwise, every returns true. callback is called only for elements of the array which actually exist; it is not
called for missing elements of the array.

If a thisArg parameter is provided, it will be used as the this value for each invocation of callback. If it is not
provided, undefined is used instead.

callback is called with three arguments: the value of the element, the index of the element, and the object
being traversed.

every does not directly mutate the object on which it is called but the object may be mutated by the calls
to callback.

The range of elements processed by every is set before the first call to callback. Elements which are
appended to the array after the call to every begins will not be visited by callback. If existing elements of
the array are changed, their value as passed to callback will be the value at the time every visits them;
elements that are deleted after the call to every begins and before being visited are not visited. every acts
like the "for all" quantifier in mathematics. In particular, for an empty array, it returns true.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. If IsCallable(callback) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Let k be 0.
5. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let kPresent be ? HasProperty(O, Pk).
c. If kPresent is true, then
i. Let kValue be ? Get(O, Pk).
ii. Let testResult be ToBoolean(? Call(callback, thisArg, « kValue, 𝔽(k), O »)).
iii. If testResult is false, return false.
d. Set k to k + 1.
6. Return true.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( value [ , start [ , end ] ] )

NOTE 1 The start argument is optional. If it is not provided, +0𝔽 is used.

The end argument is optional. If it is not provided, the length of the this value is used.

NOTE 2 If start is negative, it is treated as length + start where length is the length of the array. If end is negative, it is
treated as length + end.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

NOTE 3 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( callback [ , thisArg ] )

NOTE 1 callback should be a function that accepts three arguments and returns a value that is coercible to a
Boolean value. filter calls callback once for each element in the array, in ascending order, and constructs
a new array of all the values for which callback returns true. callback is called only for elements of the array
which actually exist; it is not called for missing elements of the array.

If a thisArg parameter is provided, it will be used as the this value for each invocation of callback. If it is not
provided, undefined is used instead.

callback is called with three arguments: the value of the element, the index of the element, and the object
being traversed.

filter does not directly mutate the object on which it is called but the object may be mutated by the calls
to callback.

The range of elements processed by filter is set before the first call to callback. Elements which are
appended to the array after the call to filter begins will not be visited by callback. If existing elements of
the array are changed their value as passed to callback will be the value at the time filter visits them;
elements that are deleted after the call to filter begins and before being visited are not visited.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. If IsCallable(callback) is false, throw a TypeError exception.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4. Let A be ? ArraySpeciesCreate(O, 0).

5. Let k be 0.
6. Let to be 0.
7. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let kPresent be ? HasProperty(O, Pk).
c. If kPresent is true, then
i. Let kValue be ? Get(O, Pk).
ii. Let selected be ToBoolean(? Call(callback, thisArg, « kValue, 𝔽(k), O »)).
iii. If selected is true, then
1. Perform ? CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(to)), kValue).
2. Set to to to + 1.
d. Set k to k + 1.
8. Return A.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( predicate [ , thisArg ] )

NOTE 1 This method calls predicate once for each element of the array, in ascending index order, until it finds one
where predicate returns a value that coerces to true. If such an element is found, find immediately returns
that element value. Otherwise, find returns undefined.

See FindViaPredicate for additional information.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. Let findRec be ? FindViaPredicate(O, len, ASCENDING, predicate, thisArg).
4. Return findRec.⁠[[Value]].

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( predicate [ , thisArg ] )

NOTE 1 This method calls predicate once for each element of the array, in ascending index order, until it finds one
where predicate returns a value that coerces to true. If such an element is found, findIndex immediately
returns the index of that element value. Otherwise, findIndex returns -1.

See FindViaPredicate for additional information.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. Let findRec be ? FindViaPredicate(O, len, ASCENDING, predicate, thisArg).
4. Return findRec.⁠[[Index]].

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( predicate [ , thisArg ] )

NOTE 1 This method calls predicate once for each element of the array, in descending index order, until it finds one
where predicate returns a value that coerces to true. If such an element is found, findLast immediately
returns that element value. Otherwise, findLast returns undefined.

See FindViaPredicate for additional information.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. Let findRec be ? FindViaPredicate(O, len, DESCENDING, predicate, thisArg).
4. Return findRec.⁠[[Value]].

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array object. Therefore it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( predicate [ , thisArg ] )

NOTE 1 This method calls predicate once for each element of the array, in descending index order, until it finds one
where predicate returns a value that coerces to true. If such an element is found, findLastIndex
immediately returns the index of that element value. Otherwise, findLastIndex returns -1.

See FindViaPredicate for additional information.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. Let findRec be ? FindViaPredicate(O, len, DESCENDING, predicate, thisArg).
4. Return findRec.⁠[[Index]].

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array object. Therefore it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link].1 FindViaPredicate ( O, len, direction, predicate, thisArg )

The abstract operation FindViaPredicate takes arguments O (an Object), len (a non-negative integer), direction
(ASCENDING or DESCENDING), predicate (an ECMAScript language value), and thisArg (an ECMAScript language
value) and returns either a normal completion containing a Record with fields ⁠[[Index]] (an integral Number) and ⁠[[Value]]
(an ECMAScript language value) or a throw completion.

O should be an array-like object or a TypedArray. This operation calls predicate once for each element of O, in either as-
cending index order or descending index order (as indicated by direction), until it finds one where predicate returns a
value that coerces to true. At that point, this operation returns a Record that gives the index and value of the element
found. If no such element is found, this operation returns a Record that specifies -1𝔽 for the index and undefined for
the value.

predicate should be a function. When called for an element of the array, it is passed three arguments: the value of the
element, the index of the element, and the object being traversed. Its return value will be coerced to a Boolean value.

thisArg will be used as the this value for each invocation of predicate.

This operation does not directly mutate the object on which it is called, but the object may be mutated by the calls
to predicate.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

The range of elements processed is set before the first call to predicate, just before the traversal begins. Elements that
are appended to the array after this will not be visited by predicate. If existing elements of the array are changed, their
value as passed to predicate will be the value at the time that this operation visits them. Elements that are deleted after
traversal begins and before being visited are still visited and are either looked up from the prototype or are undefined.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. If IsCallable(predicate) is false, throw a TypeError exception.

2. If direction is ASCENDING, then
a. Let indices be a List of the integers in the interval from 0 (inclusive) to len (exclusive), in ascending order.
3. Else,
a. Let indices be a List of the integers in the interval from 0 (inclusive) to len (exclusive), in descending order.
4. For each integer k of indices, do
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. NOTE: If O is a TypedArray, the following invocation of Get will return a normal completion.
c. Let kValue be ? Get(O, Pk).
d. Let testResult be ? Call(predicate, thisArg, « kValue, 𝔽(k), O »).
e. If ToBoolean(testResult) is true, return the Record { ⁠[[Index]]: 𝔽(k), ⁠[[Value]]: kValue }.
5. Return the Record { ⁠[[Index]]: -1𝔽, ⁠[[Value]]: undefined }.

[Link] [Link] ( [ depth ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let sourceLen be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. Let depthNum be 1.
4. If depth is not undefined, then
a. Set depthNum to ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(depth).
b. If depthNum < 0, set depthNum to 0.
5. Let A be ? ArraySpeciesCreate(O, 0).
6. Perform ? FlattenIntoArray(A, O, sourceLen, 0, depthNum).
7. Return A.

[Link].1 FlattenIntoArray ( target, source, sourceLen, start, depth [ , mapperFunction [ , thisArg ] ] )

The abstract operation FlattenIntoArray takes arguments target (an Object), source (an Object), sourceLen (a non-
negative integer), start (a non-negative integer), and depth (a non-negative integer or +∞) and optional arguments
mapperFunction (a function object) and thisArg (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion
containing a non-negative integer or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: If mapperFunction is present, then IsCallable(mapperFunction) is true, thisArg is present, and depth is 1.
2. Let targetIndex be start.
3. Let sourceIndex be +0𝔽.
4. Repeat, while ℝ(sourceIndex) < sourceLen,
a. Let P be ! ToString(sourceIndex).
b. Let exists be ? HasProperty(source, P).
c. If exists is true, then
i. Let element be ? Get(source, P).
ii. If mapperFunction is present, then
1. Set element to ? Call(mapperFunction, thisArg, « element, sourceIndex, source »).
iii. Let shouldFlatten be false.
iv. If depth > 0, then
1. Set shouldFlatten to ? IsArray(element).
v. If shouldFlatten is true, then
1. If depth = +∞, let newDepth be +∞.
2. Else, let newDepth be depth - 1.
3. Let elementLen be ? LengthOfArrayLike(element).
4. Set targetIndex to ? FlattenIntoArray(target, element, elementLen, targetIndex, newDepth).
vi. Else,

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

1. If targetIndex ≥ 253 - 1, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Perform ? CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(target, ! ToString(𝔽(targetIndex)), element).
3. Set targetIndex to targetIndex + 1.
d. Set sourceIndex to sourceIndex + 1𝔽.
5. Return targetIndex.

[Link] [Link] ( mapperFunction [ , thisArg ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let sourceLen be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. If IsCallable(mapperFunction) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Let A be ? ArraySpeciesCreate(O, 0).
5. Perform ? FlattenIntoArray(A, O, sourceLen, 0, 1, mapperFunction, thisArg).
6. Return A.

[Link] [Link] ( callback [ , thisArg ] )

NOTE 1 callback should be a function that accepts three arguments. forEach calls callback once for each element
present in the array, in ascending order. callback is called only for elements of the array which actually exist;
it is not called for missing elements of the array.

If a thisArg parameter is provided, it will be used as the this value for each invocation of callback. If it is not
provided, undefined is used instead.

callback is called with three arguments: the value of the element, the index of the element, and the object
being traversed.

forEach does not directly mutate the object on which it is called but the object may be mutated by the calls
to callback.

The range of elements processed by forEach is set before the first call to callback. Elements which are
appended to the array after the call to forEach begins will not be visited by callback. If existing elements of
the array are changed, their value as passed to callback will be the value at the time forEach visits them;
elements that are deleted after the call to forEach begins and before being visited are not visited.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. If IsCallable(callback) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Let k be 0.
5. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let kPresent be ? HasProperty(O, Pk).
c. If kPresent is true, then
i. Let kValue be ? Get(O, Pk).
ii. Perform ? Call(callback, thisArg, « kValue, 𝔽(k), O »).
d. Set k to k + 1.
6. Return undefined.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( searchElement [ , fromIndex ] )

NOTE 1 This method compares searchElement to the elements of the array, in ascending order, using the
SameValueZero algorithm, and if found at any position, returns true; otherwise, it returns false.

The optional second argument fromIndex defaults to +0𝔽 (i.e. the whole array is searched). If it is greater
than or equal to the length of the array, false is returned, i.e. the array will not be searched. If it is less than
-0𝔽, it is used as the offset from the end of the array to compute fromIndex. If the computed index is less
than or equal to +0𝔽, the whole array will be searched.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. If len = 0, return false.
4. Let n be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(fromIndex).
5. Assert: If fromIndex is undefined, then n is 0.
6. If n = +∞, return false.
7. Else if n = -∞, set n to 0.
8. If n ≥ 0, then
a. Let k be n.
9. Else,
a. Let k be len + n.
b. If k < 0, set k to 0.
10. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let elementK be ? Get(O, ! ToString(𝔽(k))).
b. If SameValueZero(searchElement, elementK) is true, return true.
c. Set k to k + 1.
11. Return false.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

NOTE 3 This method intentionally differs from the similar indexOf method in two ways. First, it uses the
SameValueZero algorithm, instead of IsStrictlyEqual, allowing it to detect NaN array elements. Second, it
does not skip missing array elements, instead treating them as undefined.

[Link] [Link] ( searchElement [ , fromIndex ] )

This method compares searchElement to the elements of the array, in ascending order, using the IsStrictlyEqual al-
gorithm, and if found at one or more indices, returns the smallest such index; otherwise, it returns -1𝔽.

NOTE 1 The optional second argument fromIndex defaults to +0𝔽 (i.e. the whole array is searched). If it is greater
than or equal to the length of the array, -1𝔽 is returned, i.e. the array will not be searched. If it is less than
-0𝔽, it is used as the offset from the end of the array to compute fromIndex. If the computed index is less
than or equal to +0𝔽, the whole array will be searched.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. If len = 0, return -1𝔽.
4. Let n be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(fromIndex).
5. Assert: If fromIndex is undefined, then n is 0.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

6. If n = +∞, return -1𝔽.

7. Else if n = -∞, set n to 0.
8. If n ≥ 0, then
a. Let k be n.
9. Else,
a. Let k be len + n.
b. If k < 0, set k to 0.
10. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let kPresent be ? HasProperty(O, Pk).
c. If kPresent is true, then
i. Let elementK be ? Get(O, Pk).
ii. If IsStrictlyEqual(searchElement, elementK) is true, return 𝔽(k).
d. Set k to k + 1.
11. Return -1𝔽.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( separator )

This method converts the elements of the array to Strings, and then concatenates these Strings, separated by occur-
rences of the separator. If no separator is provided, a single comma is used as the separator.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. If separator is undefined, let sep be ",".
4. Else, let sep be ? ToString(separator).
5. Let R be the empty String.
6. Let k be 0.
7. Repeat, while k < len,
a. If k > 0, set R to the string-concatenation of R and sep.
b. Let element be ? Get(O, ! ToString(𝔽(k))).
c. If element is neither undefined nor null, then
i. Let S be ? ToString(element).
ii. Set R to the string-concatenation of R and S.
d. Set k to k + 1.
8. Return R.

NOTE This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore, it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Return CreateArrayIterator(O, KEY).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( searchElement [ , fromIndex ] )

NOTE 1 This method compares searchElement to the elements of the array in descending order using the
IsStrictlyEqual algorithm, and if found at one or more indices, returns the largest such index; otherwise, it
returns -1𝔽.

The optional second argument fromIndex defaults to the array's length minus one (i.e. the whole array is
searched). If it is greater than or equal to the length of the array, the whole array will be searched. If it is less
than -0𝔽, it is used as the offset from the end of the array to compute fromIndex. If the computed index is
less than or equal to +0𝔽, -1𝔽 is returned.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. If len = 0, return -1𝔽.
4. If fromIndex is present, let n be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(fromIndex); else let n be len - 1.
5. If n = -∞, return -1𝔽.
6. If n ≥ 0, then
a. Let k be min(n, len - 1).
7. Else,
a. Let k be len + n.
8. Repeat, while k ≥ 0,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let kPresent be ? HasProperty(O, Pk).
c. If kPresent is true, then
i. Let elementK be ? Get(O, Pk).
ii. If IsStrictlyEqual(searchElement, elementK) is true, return 𝔽(k).
d. Set k to k - 1.
9. Return -1𝔽.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( callback [ , thisArg ] )

NOTE 1 callback should be a function that accepts three arguments. map calls callback once for each element in the
array, in ascending order, and constructs a new Array from the results. callback is called only for elements of
the array which actually exist; it is not called for missing elements of the array.

If a thisArg parameter is provided, it will be used as the this value for each invocation of callback. If it is not
provided, undefined is used instead.

callback is called with three arguments: the value of the element, the index of the element, and the object
being traversed.

map does not directly mutate the object on which it is called but the object may be mutated by the calls
to callback.

The range of elements processed by map is set before the first call to callback. Elements which are
appended to the array after the call to map begins will not be visited by callback. If existing elements of the
array are changed, their value as passed to callback will be the value at the time map visits them; elements
that are deleted after the call to map begins and before being visited are not visited.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. If IsCallable(callback) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Let A be ? ArraySpeciesCreate(O, len).
5. Let k be 0.
6. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let kPresent be ? HasProperty(O, Pk).
c. If kPresent is true, then
i. Let kValue be ? Get(O, Pk).
ii. Let mappedValue be ? Call(callback, thisArg, « kValue, 𝔽(k), O »).
iii. Perform ? CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, Pk, mappedValue).
d. Set k to k + 1.
7. Return A.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( )

NOTE 1 This method removes the last element of the array and returns it.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. If len = 0, then
a. Perform ? Set(O, "length", +0𝔽, true).
b. Return undefined.
4. Else,
a. Assert: len > 0.
b. Let newLen be 𝔽(len - 1).
c. Let index be ! ToString(newLen).
d. Let element be ? Get(O, index).
e. Perform ? DeletePropertyOrThrow(O, index).
f. Perform ? Set(O, "length", newLen, true).
g. Return element.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( ...items )

NOTE 1 This method appends the arguments to the end of the array, in the order in which they appear. It returns the
new length of the array.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. Let argCount be the number of elements in items.
4. If len + argCount > 253 - 1, throw a TypeError exception.
5. For each element E of items, do

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

a. Perform ? Set(O, ! ToString(𝔽(len)), E, true).

b. Set len to len + 1.
6. Perform ? Set(O, "length", 𝔽(len), true).
7. Return 𝔽(len).

The "length" property of this method is 1𝔽.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( callback [ , initialValue ] )

NOTE 1 callback should be a function that takes four arguments. reduce calls the callback, as a function, once for
each element after the first element present in the array, in ascending order.

callback is called with four arguments: the previousValue (value from the previous call to callback), the
currentValue (value of the current element), the currentIndex, and the object being traversed. The first time
that callback is called, the previousValue and currentValue can be one of two values. If an initialValue was
supplied in the call to reduce, then previousValue will be initialValue and currentValue will be the first
value in the array. If no initialValue was supplied, then previousValue will be the first value in the array
and currentValue will be the second. It is a TypeError if the array contains no elements and initialValue is
not provided.

reduce does not directly mutate the object on which it is called but the object may be mutated by the calls
to callback.

The range of elements processed by reduce is set before the first call to callback. Elements that are
appended to the array after the call to reduce begins will not be visited by callback. If existing elements of
the array are changed, their value as passed to callback will be the value at the time reduce visits them;
elements that are deleted after the call to reduce begins and before being visited are not visited.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. If IsCallable(callback) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. If len = 0 and initialValue is not present, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Let k be 0.
6. Let accumulator be undefined.
7. If initialValue is present, then
a. Set accumulator to initialValue.
8. Else,
a. Let kPresent be false.
b. Repeat, while kPresent is false and k < len,
i. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
ii. Set kPresent to ? HasProperty(O, Pk).
iii. If kPresent is true, then
1. Set accumulator to ? Get(O, Pk).
iv. Set k to k + 1.
c. If kPresent is false, throw a TypeError exception.
9. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let kPresent be ? HasProperty(O, Pk).
c. If kPresent is true, then
i. Let kValue be ? Get(O, Pk).
ii. Set accumulator to ? Call(callback, undefined, « accumulator, kValue, 𝔽(k), O »).
d. Set k to k + 1.
10. Return accumulator.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( callback [ , initialValue ] )

NOTE 1 callback should be a function that takes four arguments. reduceRight calls the callback, as a function,
once for each element after the first element present in the array, in descending order.

callback is called with four arguments: the previousValue (value from the previous call to callback), the
currentValue (value of the current element), the currentIndex, and the object being traversed. The first time
the function is called, the previousValue and currentValue can be one of two values. If an initialValue was
supplied in the call to reduceRight, then previousValue will be initialValue and currentValue will be the last
value in the array. If no initialValue was supplied, then previousValue will be the last value in the array and
currentValue will be the second-to-last value. It is a TypeError if the array contains no elements and
initialValue is not provided.

reduceRight does not directly mutate the object on which it is called but the object may be mutated by the
calls to callback.

The range of elements processed by reduceRight is set before the first call to callback. Elements that are
appended to the array after the call to reduceRight begins will not be visited by callback. If existing
elements of the array are changed by callback, their value as passed to callback will be the value at the time
reduceRight visits them; elements that are deleted after the call to reduceRight begins and before
being visited are not visited.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. If IsCallable(callback) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. If len = 0 and initialValue is not present, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Let k be len - 1.
6. Let accumulator be undefined.
7. If initialValue is present, then
a. Set accumulator to initialValue.
8. Else,
a. Let kPresent be false.
b. Repeat, while kPresent is false and k ≥ 0,
i. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
ii. Set kPresent to ? HasProperty(O, Pk).
iii. If kPresent is true, then
1. Set accumulator to ? Get(O, Pk).
iv. Set k to k - 1.
c. If kPresent is false, throw a TypeError exception.
9. Repeat, while k ≥ 0,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let kPresent be ? HasProperty(O, Pk).
c. If kPresent is true, then
i. Let kValue be ? Get(O, Pk).
ii. Set accumulator to ? Call(callback, undefined, « accumulator, kValue, 𝔽(k), O »).
d. Set k to k - 1.
10. Return accumulator.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( )

NOTE 1 This method rearranges the elements of the array so as to reverse their order. It returns the reversed array.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. Let middle be floor(len / 2).
4. Let lower be 0.
5. Repeat, while lower ≠ middle,
a. Let upper be len - lower - 1.
b. Let upperP be ! ToString(𝔽(upper)).
c. Let lowerP be ! ToString(𝔽(lower)).
d. Let lowerExists be ? HasProperty(O, lowerP).
e. If lowerExists is true, then
i. Let lowerValue be ? Get(O, lowerP).
f. Let upperExists be ? HasProperty(O, upperP).
g. If upperExists is true, then
i. Let upperValue be ? Get(O, upperP).
h. If lowerExists is true and upperExists is true, then
i. Perform ? Set(O, lowerP, upperValue, true).
ii. Perform ? Set(O, upperP, lowerValue, true).
i. Else if lowerExists is false and upperExists is true, then
i. Perform ? Set(O, lowerP, upperValue, true).
ii. Perform ? DeletePropertyOrThrow(O, upperP).
j. Else if lowerExists is true and upperExists is false, then
i. Perform ? DeletePropertyOrThrow(O, lowerP).
ii. Perform ? Set(O, upperP, lowerValue, true).
k. Else,
i. Assert: lowerExists and upperExists are both false.
ii. NOTE: No action is required.
l. Set lower to lower + 1.
6. Return O.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore, it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method removes the first element of the array and returns it.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. If len = 0, then
a. Perform ? Set(O, "length", +0𝔽, true).
b. Return undefined.
4. Let first be ? Get(O, "0").
5. Let k be 1.
6. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let from be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let to be ! ToString(𝔽(k - 1)).
c. Let fromPresent be ? HasProperty(O, from).
d. If fromPresent is true, then
i. Let fromValue be ? Get(O, from).
ii. Perform ? Set(O, to, fromValue, true).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

e. Else,
i. Assert: fromPresent is false.
ii. Perform ? DeletePropertyOrThrow(O, to).
f. Set k to k + 1.
7. Perform ? DeletePropertyOrThrow(O, ! ToString(𝔽(len - 1))).
8. Perform ? Set(O, "length", 𝔽(len - 1), true).
9. Return first.

NOTE This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( start, end )

This method returns an array containing the elements of the array from element start up to, but not including, element
end (or through the end of the array if end is undefined). If start is negative, it is treated as length + start where length is
the length of the array. If end is negative, it is treated as length + end where length is the length of the array.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. Let relativeStart be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(start).
4. If relativeStart = -∞, let k be 0.
5. Else if relativeStart < 0, let k be max(len + relativeStart, 0).
6. Else, let k be min(relativeStart, len).
7. If end is undefined, let relativeEnd be len; else let relativeEnd be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(end).
8. If relativeEnd = -∞, let final be 0.
9. Else if relativeEnd < 0, let final be max(len + relativeEnd, 0).
10. Else, let final be min(relativeEnd, len).
11. Let count be max(final - k, 0).
12. Let A be ? ArraySpeciesCreate(O, count).
13. Let n be 0.
14. Repeat, while k < final,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let kPresent be ? HasProperty(O, Pk).
c. If kPresent is true, then
i. Let kValue be ? Get(O, Pk).
ii. Perform ? CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(n)), kValue).
d. Set k to k + 1.
e. Set n to n + 1.
15. Perform ? Set(A, "length", 𝔽(n), true).
16. Return A.

NOTE 1 The explicit setting of the "length" property in step 15 is intended to ensure the length is correct even when
A is not a built-in Array.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( callback [ , thisArg ] )

NOTE 1 callback should be a function that accepts three arguments and returns a value that is coercible to a
Boolean value. some calls callback once for each element present in the array, in ascending order, until it
finds one where callback returns true. If such an element is found, some immediately returns true.
Otherwise, some returns false. callback is called only for elements of the array which actually exist; it is not
called for missing elements of the array.

If a thisArg parameter is provided, it will be used as the this value for each invocation of callback. If it is not
provided, undefined is used instead.

callback is called with three arguments: the value of the element, the index of the element, and the object
being traversed.

some does not directly mutate the object on which it is called but the object may be mutated by the calls
to callback.

The range of elements processed by some is set before the first call to callback. Elements that are
appended to the array after the call to some begins will not be visited by callback. If existing elements of the
array are changed, their value as passed to callback will be the value at the time that some visits them;
elements that are deleted after the call to some begins and before being visited are not visited. some acts
like the "exists" quantifier in mathematics. In particular, for an empty array, it returns false.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. If IsCallable(callback) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Let k be 0.
5. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let kPresent be ? HasProperty(O, Pk).
c. If kPresent is true, then
i. Let kValue be ? Get(O, Pk).
ii. Let testResult be ToBoolean(? Call(callback, thisArg, « kValue, 𝔽(k), O »)).
iii. If testResult is true, return true.
d. Set k to k + 1.
6. Return false.

NOTE 2 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( comparator )

This method sorts the elements of this array. If comparator is not undefined, it should be a function that accepts two ar-
guments x and y and returns a negative Number if x < y, a positive Number if x > y, or a zero otherwise.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. If comparator is not undefined and IsCallable(comparator) is false, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let obj be ? ToObject(this value).
3. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(obj).
4. Let SortCompare be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (x, y) that captures comparator and performs the
following steps when called:
a. Return ? CompareArrayElements(x, y, comparator).
5. Let sortedList be ? SortIndexedProperties(obj, len, SortCompare, SKIP-HOLES).
6. Let itemCount be the number of elements in sortedList.
7. Let j be 0.
8. Repeat, while j < itemCount,

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

a. Perform ? Set(obj, ! ToString(𝔽(j)), sortedList[j], true).

b. Set j to j + 1.
9. NOTE: The call to SortIndexedProperties in step 5 uses SKIP-HOLES. The remaining indices are deleted to
preserve the number of holes that were detected and excluded from the sort.
10. Repeat, while j < len,
a. Perform ? DeletePropertyOrThrow(obj, ! ToString(𝔽(j))).
b. Set j to j + 1.
11. Return obj.

NOTE 1 Because non-existent property values always compare greater than undefined property values, and
undefined always compares greater than any other value (see CompareArrayElements), undefined
property values always sort to the end of the result, followed by non-existent property values.

NOTE 2 Method calls performed by the ToString abstract operations in steps 5 and 6 have the potential to cause
SortCompare to not behave as a consistent comparator.

NOTE 3 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore, it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link].1 SortIndexedProperties ( obj, len, SortCompare, holes )

The abstract operation SortIndexedProperties takes arguments obj (an Object), len (a non-negative integer),
SortCompare (an Abstract Closure with two parameters), and holes (SKIP-HOLES or READ-THROUGH-HOLES) and re-
turns either a normal completion containing a List of ECMAScript language values or a throw completion. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let items be a new empty List.

2. Let k be 0.
3. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. If holes is SKIP-HOLES, then
i. Let kRead be ? HasProperty(obj, Pk).
c. Else,
i. Assert: holes is READ-THROUGH-HOLES.
ii. Let kRead be true.
d. If kRead is true, then
i. Let kValue be ? Get(obj, Pk).
ii. Append kValue to items.
e. Set k to k + 1.
4. Sort items using an implementation-defined sequence of calls to SortCompare. If any such call returns an abrupt
completion, stop before performing any further calls to SortCompare and return that Completion Record.
5. Return items.

The sort order is the ordering of items after completion of step 4 of the algorithm above. The sort order is implementa-
tion-defined if SortCompare is not a consistent comparator for the elements of items. When SortIndexedProperties is in-
voked by [Link] or [Link], the sort order is also implementation-defined if comparator is
undefined, and all applications of ToString, to any specific value passed as an argument to SortCompare, do not pro-
duce the same result.

Unless the sort order is specified to be implementation-defined, it must satisfy all of the following conditions:

There must be some mathematical permutation π of the non-negative integers less than itemCount, such that for
every non-negative integer j less than itemCount, the element old[j] is exactly the same as new[π(j)].
Then for all non-negative integers j and k, each less than itemCount, if ℝ(SortCompare(old[j], old[k])) < 0, then π(j) <
π(k).
And for all non-negative integers j and k such that j < k < itemCount, if ℝ(SortCompare(old[j], old[k])) = 0, then π(j) <
π(k); i.e., the sort is stable.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Here the notation old[j] is used to refer to items[j] before step 4 is executed, and the notation new[j] to refer to items[j]
after step 4 has been executed.

An abstract closure or function comparator is a consistent comparator for a set of values S if all of the requirements be-
low are met for all values a, b, and c (possibly the same value) in the set S: The notation a <C b means ℝ(comparator(a,
b)) < 0; a =C b means ℝ(comparator(a, b)) = 0; and a >C b means ℝ(comparator(a, b)) > 0.

Calling comparator(a, b) always returns the same value v when given a specific pair of values a and b as its two
arguments. Furthermore, v is a Number, and v is not NaN. Note that this implies that exactly one of a <C b, a =C b,
and a >C b will be true for a given pair of a and b.
Calling comparator(a, b) does not modify obj or any object on obj's prototype chain.
a =C a (reflexivity)
If a =C b, then b =C a (symmetry)
If a =C b and b =C c, then a =C c (transitivity of =C)
If a <C b and b <C c, then a <C c (transitivity of <C)
If a >C b and b >C c, then a >C c (transitivity of >C)

NOTE The above conditions are necessary and sufficient to ensure that comparator divides the set S into
equivalence classes and that these equivalence classes are totally ordered.

[Link].2 CompareArrayElements ( x, y, comparator )

The abstract operation CompareArrayElements takes arguments x (an ECMAScript language value), y (an ECMAScript
language value), and comparator (a function object or undefined) and returns either a normal completion containing a
Number or an abrupt completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If x and y are both undefined, return +0𝔽.

2. If x is undefined, return 1𝔽.
3. If y is undefined, return -1𝔽.
4. If comparator is not undefined, then
a. Let v be ? ToNumber(? Call(comparator, undefined, « x, y »)).
b. If v is NaN, return +0𝔽.
c. Return v.
5. Let xString be ? ToString(x).
6. Let yString be ? ToString(y).
7. Let xSmaller be ! IsLessThan(xString, yString, true).
8. If xSmaller is true, return -1𝔽.
9. Let ySmaller be ! IsLessThan(yString, xString, true).
10. If ySmaller is true, return 1𝔽.
11. Return +0𝔽.

[Link] [Link] ( start, deleteCount, ...items )

NOTE 1 This method deletes the deleteCount elements of the array starting at integer index start and replaces them
with the elements of items. It returns an Array containing the deleted elements (if any).

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

8. If start is not present, then

a. Let actualDeleteCount be 0.
9. Else if deleteCount is not present, then
a. Let actualDeleteCount be len - actualStart.
10. Else,
a. Let dc be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(deleteCount).
b. Let actualDeleteCount be the result of clamping dc between 0 and len - actualStart.
11. If len + itemCount - actualDeleteCount > 253 - 1, throw a TypeError exception.
12. Let A be ? ArraySpeciesCreate(O, actualDeleteCount).
13. Let k be 0.
14. Repeat, while k < actualDeleteCount,
a. Let from be ! ToString(𝔽(actualStart + k)).
b. If ? HasProperty(O, from) is true, then
i. Let fromValue be ? Get(O, from).
ii. Perform ? CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(k)), fromValue).
c. Set k to k + 1.
15. Perform ? Set(A, "length", 𝔽(actualDeleteCount), true).
16. If itemCount < actualDeleteCount, then
a. Set k to actualStart.
b. Repeat, while k < (len - actualDeleteCount),
i. Let from be ! ToString(𝔽(k + actualDeleteCount)).
ii. Let to be ! ToString(𝔽(k + itemCount)).
iii. If ? HasProperty(O, from) is true, then
1. Let fromValue be ? Get(O, from).
2. Perform ? Set(O, to, fromValue, true).
iv. Else,
1. Perform ? DeletePropertyOrThrow(O, to).
v. Set k to k + 1.
c. Set k to len.
d. Repeat, while k > (len - actualDeleteCount + itemCount),
i. Perform ? DeletePropertyOrThrow(O, ! ToString(𝔽(k - 1))).
ii. Set k to k - 1.
17. Else if itemCount > actualDeleteCount, then
a. Set k to (len - actualDeleteCount).
b. Repeat, while k > actualStart,
i. Let from be ! ToString(𝔽(k + actualDeleteCount - 1)).
ii. Let to be ! ToString(𝔽(k + itemCount - 1)).
iii. If ? HasProperty(O, from) is true, then
1. Let fromValue be ? Get(O, from).
2. Perform ? Set(O, to, fromValue, true).
iv. Else,
1. Perform ? DeletePropertyOrThrow(O, to).
v. Set k to k - 1.
18. Set k to actualStart.
19. For each element E of items, do
a. Perform ? Set(O, ! ToString(𝔽(k)), E, true).
b. Set k to k + 1.
20. Perform ? Set(O, "length", 𝔽(len - actualDeleteCount + itemCount), true).
21. Return A.

NOTE 2 The explicit setting of the "length" property in steps 15 and 20 is intended to ensure the lengths are correct
even when the objects are not built-in Arrays.

NOTE 3 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( [ reserved1 [ , reserved2 ] ] )

NOTE 1 The first edition of ECMA-402 did not include a replacement specification for this method.

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let array be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(array).
3. Let separator be the implementation-defined list-separator String value appropriate for the host environment's
current locale (such as ", ").
4. Let R be the empty String.
5. Let k be 0.
6. Repeat, while k < len,
a. If k > 0, set R to the string-concatenation of R and separator.
b. Let element be ? Get(array, ! ToString(𝔽(k))).
c. If element is neither undefined nor null, then
i. Let S be ? ToString(? Invoke(element, "toLocaleString")).
ii. Set R to the string-concatenation of R and S.
d. Set k to k + 1.
7. Return R.

NOTE 2 This method converts the elements of the array to Strings using their toLocaleString methods, and then
concatenates these Strings, separated by occurrences of an implementation-defined locale-sensitive
separator String. This method is analogous to toString except that it is intended to yield a locale-sensitive
result corresponding with conventions of the host environment's current locale.

NOTE 3 This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. Let A be ? ArrayCreate(len).
4. Let k be 0.
5. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let from be ! ToString(𝔽(len - k - 1)).
b. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
c. Let fromValue be ? Get(O, from).
d. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, Pk, fromValue).
e. Set k to k + 1.
6. Return A.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( comparator )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. If comparator is not undefined and IsCallable(comparator) is false, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).
3. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
4. Let A be ? ArrayCreate(len).
5. Let SortCompare be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (x, y) that captures comparator and performs the
following steps when called:
a. Return ? CompareArrayElements(x, y, comparator).
6. Let sortedList be ? SortIndexedProperties(O, len, SortCompare, READ-THROUGH-HOLES).
7. Let j be 0.
8. Repeat, while j < len,
a. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(j)), sortedList[j]).
b. Set j to j + 1.
9. Return A.

[Link] [Link] ( start, skipCount, ...items )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. Let relativeStart be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(start).
4. If relativeStart = -∞, let actualStart be 0.
5. Else if relativeStart < 0, let actualStart be max(len + relativeStart, 0).
6. Else, let actualStart be min(relativeStart, len).
7. Let insertCount be the number of elements in items.
8. If start is not present, then
a. Let actualSkipCount be 0.
9. Else if skipCount is not present, then
a. Let actualSkipCount be len - actualStart.
10. Else,
a. Let sc be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(skipCount).
b. Let actualSkipCount be the result of clamping sc between 0 and len - actualStart.
11. Let newLen be len + insertCount - actualSkipCount.
12. If newLen > 253 - 1, throw a TypeError exception.
13. Let A be ? ArrayCreate(newLen).
14. Let i be 0.
15. Let r be actualStart + actualSkipCount.
16. Repeat, while i < actualStart,
a. Let Pi be ! ToString(𝔽(i)).
b. Let iValue be ? Get(O, Pi).
c. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, Pi, iValue).
d. Set i to i + 1.
17. For each element E of items, do
a. Let Pi be ! ToString(𝔽(i)).
b. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, Pi, E).
c. Set i to i + 1.
18. Repeat, while i < newLen,
a. Let Pi be ! ToString(𝔽(i)).
b. Let from be ! ToString(𝔽(r)).
c. Let fromValue be ? Get(O, from).
d. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, Pi, fromValue).
e. Set i to i + 1.
f. Set r to r + 1.
19. Return A.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let array be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let func be ? Get(array, "join").
3. If IsCallable(func) is false, set func to the intrinsic function %[Link]%.
4. Return ? Call(func, array).

NOTE This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( ...items )

This method prepends the arguments to the start of the array, such that their order within the array is the same as the
order in which they appear in the argument list.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. Let argCount be the number of elements in items.
4. If argCount > 0, then
a. If len + argCount > 253 - 1, throw a TypeError exception.
b. Let k be len.
c. Repeat, while k > 0,
i. Let from be ! ToString(𝔽(k - 1)).
ii. Let to be ! ToString(𝔽(k + argCount - 1)).
iii. Let fromPresent be ? HasProperty(O, from).
iv. If fromPresent is true, then
1. Let fromValue be ? Get(O, from).
2. Perform ? Set(O, to, fromValue, true).
v. Else,
1. Assert: fromPresent is false.
2. Perform ? DeletePropertyOrThrow(O, to).
vi. Set k to k - 1.
d. Let j be +0𝔽.
e. For each element E of items, do
i. Perform ? Set(O, ! ToString(j), E, true).
ii. Set j to j + 1𝔽.
5. Perform ? Set(O, "length", 𝔽(len + argCount), true).
6. Return 𝔽(len + argCount).

The "length" property of this method is 1𝔽.

NOTE This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be an Array. Therefore it can be
transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Return CreateArrayIterator(O, VALUE).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( index, value )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? ToObject(this value).

2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(O).
3. Let relativeIndex be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(index).
4. If relativeIndex ≥ 0, let actualIndex be relativeIndex.
5. Else, let actualIndex be len + relativeIndex.
6. If actualIndex ≥ len or actualIndex < 0, throw a RangeError exception.
7. Let A be ? ArrayCreate(len).
8. Let k be 0.
9. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. If k = actualIndex, let fromValue be value.
c. Else, let fromValue be ? Get(O, Pk).
d. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, Pk, fromValue).
e. Set k to k + 1.
10. Return A.

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ] ( )

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is %[Link]%, defined in [Link].

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% data property is an object created by the following steps:

1. Let unscopableList be OrdinaryObjectCreate(null).

2. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(unscopableList, "at", true).
3. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(unscopableList, "copyWithin", true).
4. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(unscopableList, "entries", true).
5. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(unscopableList, "fill", true).
6. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(unscopableList, "find", true).
7. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(unscopableList, "findIndex", true).
8. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(unscopableList, "findLast", true).
9. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(unscopableList, "findLastIndex", true).
10. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(unscopableList, "flat", true).
11. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(unscopableList, "flatMap", true).
12. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(unscopableList, "includes", true).
13. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(unscopableList, "keys", true).
14. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(unscopableList, "toReversed", true).
15. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(unscopableList, "toSorted", true).
16. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(unscopableList, "toSpliced", true).
17. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(unscopableList, "values", true).
18. Return unscopableList.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

NOTE The own property names of this object are property names that were not included as standard properties of
[Link] prior to the ECMAScript 2015 specification. These names are ignored for with
statement binding purposes in order to preserve the behaviour of existing code that might use one of these
names as a binding in an outer scope that is shadowed by a with statement whose binding object is
an Array.

The reason that "with" is not included in the unscopableList is because it is already a reserved word.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

23.1.4 Properties of Array Instances

Array instances are Array exotic objects and have the internal methods specified for such objects. Array instances in-
herit properties from the Array prototype object.

Array instances have a "length" property, and a set of enumerable properties with array index names.

[Link] length

The "length" property of an Array instance is a data property whose value is always numerically greater than the name
of every configurable own property whose name is an array index.

The "length" property initially has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

NOTE Reducing the value of the "length" property has the side-effect of deleting own array elements whose array
index is between the old and new length values. However, non-configurable properties can not be deleted.
Attempting to set the "length" property of an Array to a value that is numerically less than or equal to the
largest numeric own property name of an existing non-configurable array-indexed property of the array will
result in the length being set to a numeric value that is one greater than that non-configurable numeric own
property name. See [Link].

23.1.5 Array Iterator Objects

An Array Iterator is an object that represents a specific iteration over some specific Array instance object. There is not a
named constructor for Array Iterator objects. Instead, Array Iterator objects are created by calling certain methods of
Array instance objects.

[Link] CreateArrayIterator ( array, kind )

The abstract operation CreateArrayIterator takes arguments array (an Object) and kind (KEY+VALUE, KEY, or VALUE)
and returns an Object. It is used to create iterator objects for Array methods that return such iterators. It performs the fol-
lowing steps when called:

1. Let iterator be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%ArrayIteratorPrototype%, « ⁠[[IteratedArrayLike]], ⁠[[ArrayLikeNextIndex]],

⁠[[ArrayLikeIterationKind]] »).
2. Set iterator.⁠[[IteratedArrayLike]] to array.
3. Set iterator.⁠[[ArrayLikeNextIndex]] to 0.
4. Set iterator.⁠[[ArrayLikeIterationKind]] to kind.
5. Return iterator.

[Link] The %ArrayIteratorPrototype% Object

The %ArrayIteratorPrototype% object:

has properties that are inherited by all Array Iterator objects.

is an ordinary object.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
has the following properties:

[Link].1 %ArrayIteratorPrototype%.next ( )

1. Let O be the this value.

2. If O is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. If O does not have all of the internal slots of an Array Iterator Instance ([Link]), throw a TypeError exception.
4. Let array be O.⁠[[IteratedArrayLike]].
5. If array is undefined, return CreateIteratorResultObject(undefined, true).
6. Let index be O.⁠[[ArrayLikeNextIndex]].
7. Let kind be O.⁠[[ArrayLikeIterationKind]].

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

8. If array has a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] internal slot, then

a. Let taRecord be MakeTypedArrayWithBufferWitnessRecord(array, SEQ-CST).
b. If IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds(taRecord) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
c. Let len be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
9. Else,
a. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(array).
10. If index ≥ len, then
a. Set O.⁠[[IteratedArrayLike]] to undefined.
b. Return CreateIteratorResultObject(undefined, true).
11. Set O.⁠[[ArrayLikeNextIndex]] to index + 1.
12. Let indexNumber be 𝔽(index).
13. If kind is KEY, then
a. Let result be indexNumber.
14. Else,
a. Let elementKey be ! ToString(indexNumber).
b. Let elementValue be ? Get(array, elementKey).
c. If kind is VALUE, then
i. Let result be elementValue.
d. Else,
i. Assert: kind is KEY+VALUE.
ii. Let result be CreateArrayFromList(« indexNumber, elementValue »).
15. Return CreateIteratorResultObject(result, false).

[Link].2 %ArrayIteratorPrototype% [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "Array Iterator".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

[Link] Properties of Array Iterator Instances

Array Iterator instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the %ArrayIteratorPrototype% intrinsic object.
Array Iterator instances are initially created with the internal slots listed in Table 74.

Table 74: Internal Slots of Array Iterator Instances

Internal Slot Type Description
⁠[[IteratedArrayLike]] an Object or undefined The array-like object that is being iterated.
⁠[[ArrayLikeNextIndex]] a non-negative integer The integer index of the next element to be examined by this
iterator.
⁠[[ArrayLikeIterationKind]] KEY+VALUE, KEY, or A value that identifies what is returned for each element of the
VALUE iteration.

23.2 TypedArray Objects

A TypedArray presents an array-like view of an underlying binary data buffer (25.1). A TypedArray element type is the
underlying binary scalar data type that all elements of a TypedArray instance have. There is a distinct TypedArray con-
structor, listed in Table 75, for each of the supported element types. Each constructor in Table 75 has a corresponding
distinct prototype object.

Table 75: The TypedArray Constructors

Constructor Name and Element Type Element Conversion Description
Intrinsic Size Operation
Int8Array INT8 1 ToInt8 8-bit two's complement signed
%Int8Array% integer

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Constructor Name and Element Type Element Conversion Description

Intrinsic Size Operation
Uint8Array UINT8 1 ToUint8 8-bit unsigned integer
%Uint8Array%
Uint8ClampedArray UINT8CLAMPED 1 ToUint8Clamp 8-bit unsigned integer (clamped
%Uint8ClampedArray% conversion)
Int16Array INT16 2 ToInt16 16-bit two's complement signed
%Int16Array% integer
Uint16Array UINT16 2 ToUint16 16-bit unsigned integer
%Uint16Array%
Int32Array INT32 4 ToInt32 32-bit two's complement signed
%Int32Array% integer
Uint32Array UINT32 4 ToUint32 32-bit unsigned integer
%Uint32Array%
BigInt64Array BIGINT64 8 ToBigInt64 64-bit two's complement signed
%BigInt64Array% integer
BigUint64Array BIGUINT64 8 ToBigUint64 64-bit unsigned integer
%BigUint64Array%
Float16Array FLOAT16 2 16-bit IEEE floating point
%Float16Array%
Float32Array FLOAT32 4 32-bit IEEE floating point
%Float32Array%
Float64Array FLOAT64 8 64-bit IEEE floating point
%Float64Array%

In the definitions below, references to TypedArray should be replaced with the appropriate constructor name from the
above table.

23.2.1 The %TypedArray% Intrinsic Object

The %TypedArray% intrinsic object:

is a constructor function object that all of the TypedArray constructor objects inherit from.
along with its corresponding prototype object, provides common properties that are inherited by all TypedArray
constructors and their instances.
does not have a global name or appear as a property of the global object.
acts as the abstract superclass of the various TypedArray constructors.
will throw an error when invoked, because it is an abstract class constructor. The TypedArray constructors do not
perform a super call to it.

[Link] %TypedArray% ( )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Throw a TypeError exception.

The "length" property of this function is +0𝔽.

23.2.2 Properties of the %TypedArray% Intrinsic Object

The %TypedArray% intrinsic object:

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has a "name" property whose value is "TypedArray".
has the following properties:

[Link] %TypedArray%.from ( source [ , mapper [ , thisArg ] ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let C be the this value.

2. If IsConstructor(C) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. If mapper is undefined, then
a. Let mapping be false.
4. Else,
a. If IsCallable(mapper) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
b. Let mapping be true.
5. Let usingIterator be ? GetMethod(source, %[Link]%).
6. If usingIterator is not undefined, then
a. Let values be ? IteratorToList(? GetIteratorFromMethod(source, usingIterator)).
b. Let len be the number of elements in values.
c. Let targetObj be ? TypedArrayCreateFromConstructor(C, « 𝔽(len) »).
d. Let k be 0.
e. Repeat, while k < len,
i. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
ii. Let kValue be the first element of values.
iii. Remove the first element from values.
iv. If mapping is true, then
1. Let mappedValue be ? Call(mapper, thisArg, « kValue, 𝔽(k) »).
v. Else,
1. Let mappedValue be kValue.
vi. Perform ? Set(targetObj, Pk, mappedValue, true).
vii. Set k to k + 1.
f. Assert: values is now an empty List.
g. Return targetObj.
7. NOTE: source is not an iterable object, so assume it is already an array-like object.
8. Let arrayLike be ! ToObject(source).
9. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(arrayLike).
10. Let targetObj be ? TypedArrayCreateFromConstructor(C, « 𝔽(len) »).
11. Let k be 0.
12. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let kValue be ? Get(arrayLike, Pk).
c. If mapping is true, then
i. Let mappedValue be ? Call(mapper, thisArg, « kValue, 𝔽(k) »).
d. Else,
i. Let mappedValue be kValue.
e. Perform ? Set(targetObj, Pk, mappedValue, true).
f. Set k to k + 1.
13. Return targetObj.

[Link] %TypedArray%.of ( ...items )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let len be the number of elements in items.

2. Let C be the this value.
3. If IsConstructor(C) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Let newObj be ? TypedArrayCreateFromConstructor(C, « 𝔽(len) »).
5. Let k be 0.
6. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let kValue be items[k].

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

b. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
c. Perform ? Set(newObj, Pk, kValue, true).
d. Set k to k + 1.
7. Return newObj.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link]

The initial value of %TypedArray%.[Link] is %TypedArray%.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( target, start [ , end ] )

The interpretation and use of the arguments of this method are the same as for [Link] as
defined in [Link].

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Let taRecord be ? ValidateTypedArray(O, SEQ-CST).
3. Let len be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
4. Let relativeTarget be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(target).
5. If relativeTarget = -∞, let targetIndex be 0.
6. Else if relativeTarget < 0, let targetIndex be max(len + relativeTarget, 0).
7. Else, let targetIndex be min(relativeTarget, len).
8. Let relativeStart be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(start).
9. If relativeStart = -∞, let startIndex be 0.
10. Else if relativeStart < 0, let startIndex be max(len + relativeStart, 0).
11. Else, let startIndex be min(relativeStart, len).
12. If end is undefined, let relativeEnd be len; else let relativeEnd be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(end).
13. If relativeEnd = -∞, let endIndex be 0.
14. Else if relativeEnd < 0, let endIndex be max(len + relativeEnd, 0).
15. Else, let endIndex be min(relativeEnd, len).
16. Let count be min(endIndex - startIndex, len - targetIndex).
17. If count > 0, then
a. NOTE: The copying must be performed in a manner that preserves the bit-level encoding of the source data.
b. Let buffer be O.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]].
c. Set taRecord to MakeTypedArrayWithBufferWitnessRecord(O, SEQ-CST).
d. If IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds(taRecord) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
e. Set len to TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
f. Let elementSize be TypedArrayElementSize(O).
g. Let byteOffset be O.⁠[[ByteOffset]].

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

h. Let bufferByteLimit be (len × elementSize) + byteOffset.

i. Let toByteIndex be (targetIndex × elementSize) + byteOffset.
j. Let fromByteIndex be (startIndex × elementSize) + byteOffset.
k. Let countBytes be count × elementSize.
l. If fromByteIndex < toByteIndex and toByteIndex < fromByteIndex + countBytes, then
i. Let direction be -1.
ii. Set fromByteIndex to fromByteIndex + countBytes - 1.
iii. Set toByteIndex to toByteIndex + countBytes - 1.
m. Else,
i. Let direction be 1.
n. Repeat, while countBytes > 0,
i. If fromByteIndex < bufferByteLimit and toByteIndex < bufferByteLimit, then
1. Let value be GetValueFromBuffer(buffer, fromByteIndex, UINT8, true, UNORDERED).
2. Perform SetValueInBuffer(buffer, toByteIndex, UINT8, value, true, UNORDERED).
3. Set fromByteIndex to fromByteIndex + direction.
4. Set toByteIndex to toByteIndex + direction.
5. Set countBytes to countBytes - 1.
ii. Else,
1. Set countBytes to 0.
18. Return O.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( )

The interpretation and use of the arguments of this method are the same as for [Link] as
defined in [Link].

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Let taRecord be ? ValidateTypedArray(O, SEQ-CST).
3. Let len be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
4. If IsCallable(callback) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Let kept be a new empty List.
6. Let captured be 0.
7. Let k be 0.
8. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let kValue be ! Get(O, Pk).
c. Let selected be ToBoolean(? Call(callback, thisArg, « kValue, 𝔽(k), O »)).
d. If selected is true, then
i. Append kValue to kept.
ii. Set captured to captured + 1.
e. Set k to k + 1.
9. Let A be ? TypedArraySpeciesCreate(O, « 𝔽(captured) »).
10. Let n be 0.
11. For each element e of kept, do
a. Perform ! Set(A, ! ToString(𝔽(n)), e, true).
b. Set n to n + 1.
12. Return A.

This method is not generic. The this value must be an object with a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] internal slot.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( predicate [ , thisArg ] )

The interpretation and use of the arguments of this method are the same as for [Link] as defined
in [Link].

This method performs the following steps when called:

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Let taRecord be ? ValidateTypedArray(O, SEQ-CST).
3. Let len be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
4. Let findRec be ? FindViaPredicate(O, len, ASCENDING, predicate, thisArg).
5. Return findRec.⁠[[Value]].

This method is not generic. The this value must be an object with a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] internal slot.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( predicate [ , thisArg ] )

The interpretation and use of the arguments of this method are the same as for [Link] as
defined in [Link].

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

This method is not generic. The this value must be an object with a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] internal slot.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( predicate [ , thisArg ] )

The interpretation and use of the arguments of this method are the same as for [Link] as
defined in [Link].

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Let taRecord be ? ValidateTypedArray(O, SEQ-CST).
3. Let len be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
4. Let findRec be ? FindViaPredicate(O, len, DESCENDING, predicate, thisArg).
5. Return findRec.⁠[[Value]].

This method is not generic. The this value must be an object with a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] internal slot.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( predicate [ , thisArg ] )

The interpretation and use of the arguments of this method are the same as for [Link]
as defined in [Link].

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

This method is not generic. The this value must be an object with a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] internal slot.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( callback [ , thisArg ] )

The interpretation and use of the arguments of this method are the same as for [Link] as
defined in [Link].

This method performs the following steps when called:

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

2. Let taRecord be ? ValidateTypedArray(O, SEQ-CST).
3. Let len be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
4. If len = 0, return -1𝔽.
5. If fromIndex is present, let n be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(fromIndex); else let n be len - 1.
6. If n = -∞, return -1𝔽.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

7. If n ≥ 0, then
a. Let k be min(n, len - 1).
8. Else,
a. Let k be len + n.
9. Repeat, while k ≥ 0,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let kPresent be ! HasProperty(O, Pk).
c. If kPresent is true, then
i. Let elementK be ! Get(O, Pk).
ii. If IsStrictlyEqual(searchElement, elementK) is true, return 𝔽(k).
d. Set k to k - 1.
10. Return -1𝔽.

This method is not generic. The this value must be an object with a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] internal slot.

[Link] get %TypedArray%.[Link]

%TypedArray%.[Link] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get ac-
cessor function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[TypedArrayName]]).
3. Assert: O has ⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]] and ⁠[[ArrayLength]] internal slots.
4. Let taRecord be MakeTypedArrayWithBufferWitnessRecord(O, SEQ-CST).
5. If IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds(taRecord) is true, return +0𝔽.
6. Let length be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
7. Return 𝔽(length).

This function is not generic. The this value must be an object with a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] internal slot.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( callback [ , thisArg ] )

The interpretation and use of the arguments of this method are the same as for [Link] as defined
in [Link].

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Let taRecord be ? ValidateTypedArray(O, SEQ-CST).
3. Let len be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
4. If IsCallable(callback) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Let A be ? TypedArraySpeciesCreate(O, « 𝔽(len) »).
6. Let k be 0.
7. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let kValue be ! Get(O, Pk).
c. Let mappedValue be ? Call(callback, thisArg, « kValue, 𝔽(k), O »).
d. Perform ? Set(A, Pk, mappedValue, true).
e. Set k to k + 1.
8. Return A.

This method is not generic. The this value must be an object with a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] internal slot.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( callback [ , initialValue ] )

The interpretation and use of the arguments of this method are the same as for [Link] as
defined in [Link].

This method performs the following steps when called:

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( source [ , offset ] )

This method sets multiple values in this TypedArray, reading the values from source. The details differ based upon the
type of source. The optional offset value indicates the first element index in this TypedArray where values are written. If
omitted, it is assumed to be 0.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let target be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(target, ⁠[[TypedArrayName]]).
3. Assert: target has a ⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]] internal slot.
4. Let targetOffset be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(offset).
5. If targetOffset < 0, throw a RangeError exception.
6. If source is an Object that has a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] internal slot, then
a. Perform ? SetTypedArrayFromTypedArray(target, targetOffset, source).
7. Else,
a. Perform ? SetTypedArrayFromArrayLike(target, targetOffset, source).
8. Return undefined.

This method is not generic. The this value must be an object with a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] internal slot.

[Link].1 SetTypedArrayFromArrayLike ( target, targetOffset, source )

The abstract operation SetTypedArrayFromArrayLike takes arguments target (a TypedArray), targetOffset (a non-negat-
ive integer or +∞), and source (an ECMAScript language value, but not a TypedArray) and returns either a normal com-
pletion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It sets multiple values in target, starting at index targetOffset, reading
the values from source. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let targetRecord be MakeTypedArrayWithBufferWitnessRecord(target, SEQ-CST).

2. If IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds(targetRecord) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let targetLength be TypedArrayLength(targetRecord).
4. Let src be ? ToObject(source).
5. Let srcLength be ? LengthOfArrayLike(src).
6. If targetOffset = +∞, throw a RangeError exception.
7. If srcLength + targetOffset > targetLength, throw a RangeError exception.
8. Let k be 0.
9. Repeat, while k < srcLength,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let value be ? Get(src, Pk).
c. Let targetIndex be 𝔽(targetOffset + k).
d. Perform ? TypedArraySetElement(target, targetIndex, value).
e. Set k to k + 1.
10. Return UNUSED.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].2 SetTypedArrayFromTypedArray ( target, targetOffset, source )

The abstract operation SetTypedArrayFromTypedArray takes arguments target (a TypedArray), targetOffset (a non-neg-
ative integer or +∞), and source (a TypedArray) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw
completion. It sets multiple values in target, starting at index targetOffset, reading the values from source. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Let targetBuffer be target.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]].

2. Let targetRecord be MakeTypedArrayWithBufferWitnessRecord(target, SEQ-CST).
3. If IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds(targetRecord) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Let targetLength be TypedArrayLength(targetRecord).
5. Let srcBuffer be source.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]].
6. Let srcRecord be MakeTypedArrayWithBufferWitnessRecord(source, SEQ-CST).
7. If IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds(srcRecord) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
8. Let srcLength be TypedArrayLength(srcRecord).
9. Let targetType be TypedArrayElementType(target).
10. Let targetElementSize be TypedArrayElementSize(target).
11. Let targetByteOffset be target.⁠[[ByteOffset]].
12. Let srcType be TypedArrayElementType(source).
13. Let srcElementSize be TypedArrayElementSize(source).
14. Let srcByteOffset be source.⁠[[ByteOffset]].
15. If targetOffset = +∞, throw a RangeError exception.
16. If srcLength + targetOffset > targetLength, throw a RangeError exception.
17. If target.⁠[[ContentType]] is not source.⁠[[ContentType]], throw a TypeError exception.
18. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(srcBuffer) is true, IsSharedArrayBuffer(targetBuffer) is true, and srcBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]]
is targetBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]], let sameSharedArrayBuffer be true; otherwise let sameSharedArrayBuffer be
false.
19. If SameValue(srcBuffer, targetBuffer) is true or sameSharedArrayBuffer is true, then
a. Let srcByteLength be TypedArrayByteLength(srcRecord).
b. Set srcBuffer to ? CloneArrayBuffer(srcBuffer, srcByteOffset, srcByteLength).
c. Let srcByteIndex be 0.
20. Else,
a. Let srcByteIndex be srcByteOffset.
21. Let targetByteIndex be (targetOffset × targetElementSize) + targetByteOffset.
22. Let limit be targetByteIndex + (targetElementSize × srcLength).
23. If srcType is targetType, then
a. NOTE: The transfer must be performed in a manner that preserves the bit-level encoding of the source data.
b. Repeat, while targetByteIndex < limit,
i. Let value be GetValueFromBuffer(srcBuffer, srcByteIndex, UINT8, true, UNORDERED).
ii. Perform SetValueInBuffer(targetBuffer, targetByteIndex, UINT8, value, true, UNORDERED).
iii. Set srcByteIndex to srcByteIndex + 1.
iv. Set targetByteIndex to targetByteIndex + 1.
24. Else,
a. Repeat, while targetByteIndex < limit,
i. Let value be GetValueFromBuffer(srcBuffer, srcByteIndex, srcType, true, UNORDERED).
ii. Perform SetValueInBuffer(targetBuffer, targetByteIndex, targetType, value, true, UNORDERED).
iii. Set srcByteIndex to srcByteIndex + srcElementSize.
iv. Set targetByteIndex to targetByteIndex + targetElementSize.
25. Return UNUSED.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( start, end )

The interpretation and use of the arguments of this method are the same as for [Link] as defined
in [Link].

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Let taRecord be ? ValidateTypedArray(O, SEQ-CST).
3. Let srcArrayLength be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
4. Let relativeStart be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(start).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

5. If relativeStart = -∞, let startIndex be 0.

6. Else if relativeStart < 0, let startIndex be max(srcArrayLength + relativeStart, 0).
7. Else, let startIndex be min(relativeStart, srcArrayLength).
8. If end is undefined, let relativeEnd be srcArrayLength; else let relativeEnd be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(end).
9. If relativeEnd = -∞, let endIndex be 0.
10. Else if relativeEnd < 0, let endIndex be max(srcArrayLength + relativeEnd, 0).
11. Else, let endIndex be min(relativeEnd, srcArrayLength).
12. Let countBytes be max(endIndex - startIndex, 0).
13. Let A be ? TypedArraySpeciesCreate(O, « 𝔽(countBytes) »).
14. If countBytes > 0, then
a. Set taRecord to MakeTypedArrayWithBufferWitnessRecord(O, SEQ-CST).
b. If IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds(taRecord) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
c. Set endIndex to min(endIndex, TypedArrayLength(taRecord)).
d. Set countBytes to max(endIndex - startIndex, 0).
e. Let srcType be TypedArrayElementType(O).
f. Let targetType be TypedArrayElementType(A).
g. If srcType is targetType, then
i. NOTE: The transfer must be performed in a manner that preserves the bit-level encoding of the source
data.
ii. Let srcBuffer be O.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]].
iii. Let targetBuffer be A.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]].
iv. Let elementSize be TypedArrayElementSize(O).
v. Let srcByteOffset be O.⁠[[ByteOffset]].
vi. Let srcByteIndex be (startIndex × elementSize) + srcByteOffset.
vii. Let targetByteIndex be A.⁠[[ByteOffset]].
viii. Let endByteIndex be targetByteIndex + (countBytes × elementSize).
ix. Repeat, while targetByteIndex < endByteIndex,
1. Let value be GetValueFromBuffer(srcBuffer, srcByteIndex, UINT8, true, UNORDERED).
2. Perform SetValueInBuffer(targetBuffer, targetByteIndex, UINT8, value, true, UNORDERED).
3. Set srcByteIndex to srcByteIndex + 1.
4. Set targetByteIndex to targetByteIndex + 1.
h. Else,
i. Let n be 0.
ii. Let k be startIndex.
iii. Repeat, while k < endIndex,
1. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
2. Let kValue be ! Get(O, Pk).
3. Perform ! Set(A, ! ToString(𝔽(n)), kValue, true).
4. Set k to k + 1.
5. Set n to n + 1.
15. Return A.

This method is not generic. The this value must be an object with a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] internal slot.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( callback [ , thisArg ] )

The interpretation and use of the arguments of this method are the same as for [Link] as defined
in [Link].

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

d. If testResult is true, return true.

e. Set k to k + 1.
7. Return false.

This method is not generic. The this value must be an object with a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] internal slot.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( comparator )

This is a distinct method that, except as described below, implements the same requirements as those of
[Link] as defined in [Link]. The implementation of this method may be optimized with the know-
ledge that the this value is an object that has a fixed length and whose integer-indexed properties are not sparse.

This method is not generic. The this value must be an object with a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] internal slot.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. If comparator is not undefined and IsCallable(comparator) is false, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let obj be the this value.
3. Let taRecord be ? ValidateTypedArray(obj, SEQ-CST).
4. Let len be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
5. NOTE: The following closure performs a numeric comparison rather than the string comparison used in [Link].
6. Let SortCompare be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (x, y) that captures comparator and performs the
following steps when called:
a. Return ? CompareTypedArrayElements(x, y, comparator).
7. Let sortedList be ? SortIndexedProperties(obj, len, SortCompare, READ-THROUGH-HOLES).
8. Let j be 0.
9. Repeat, while j < len,
a. Perform ! Set(obj, ! ToString(𝔽(j)), sortedList[j], true).
b. Set j to j + 1.
10. Return obj.

NOTE Because NaN always compares greater than any other value (see CompareTypedArrayElements), NaN
property values always sort to the end of the result when comparator is not provided.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( start, end )

This method returns a new TypedArray whose element type is the element type of this TypedArray and whose
ArrayBuffer is the ArrayBuffer of this TypedArray, referencing the elements in the interval from start (inclusive) to
end (exclusive). If either start or end is negative, it refers to an index from the end of the array, as opposed to from
the beginning.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[TypedArrayName]]).
3. Assert: O has a ⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]] internal slot.
4. Let buffer be O.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]].
5. Let srcRecord be MakeTypedArrayWithBufferWitnessRecord(O, SEQ-CST).
6. If IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds(srcRecord) is true, then
a. Let srcLength be 0.
7. Else,
a. Let srcLength be TypedArrayLength(srcRecord).
8. Let relativeStart be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(start).
9. If relativeStart = -∞, let startIndex be 0.
10. Else if relativeStart < 0, let startIndex be max(srcLength + relativeStart, 0).
11. Else, let startIndex be min(relativeStart, srcLength).
12. Let elementSize be TypedArrayElementSize(O).
13. Let srcByteOffset be O.⁠[[ByteOffset]].
14. Let beginByteOffset be srcByteOffset + (startIndex × elementSize).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

15. If O.⁠[[ArrayLength]] is AUTO and end is undefined, then

a. Let argumentsList be « buffer, 𝔽(beginByteOffset) ».
16. Else,
a. If end is undefined, let relativeEnd be srcLength; else let relativeEnd be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(end).
b. If relativeEnd = -∞, let endIndex be 0.
c. Else if relativeEnd < 0, let endIndex be max(srcLength + relativeEnd, 0).
d. Else, let endIndex be min(relativeEnd, srcLength).
e. Let newLength be max(endIndex - startIndex, 0).
f. Let argumentsList be « buffer, 𝔽(beginByteOffset), 𝔽(newLength) ».
17. Return ? TypedArraySpeciesCreate(O, argumentsList).

This method is not generic. The this value must be an object with a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] internal slot.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( [ reserved1 [ , reserved2 ] ] )

This is a distinct method that implements the same algorithm as [Link] as defined in
[Link] except that TypedArrayLength is called in place of performing a ⁠[[Get]] of "length". The implementation of the
algorithm may be optimized with the knowledge that the this value has a fixed length when the underlying buffer is not
resizable and whose integer-indexed properties are not sparse. However, such optimization must not introduce any ob-
servable changes in the specified behaviour of the algorithm.

This method is not generic. ValidateTypedArray is called with the this value and SEQ-CST as arguments prior to evaluat-
ing the algorithm. If its result is an abrupt completion that exception is thrown instead of evaluating the algorithm.

NOTE If the ECMAScript implementation includes the ECMA-402 Internationalization API this method is based
upon the algorithm for [Link] that is in the ECMA-402 specification.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Let taRecord be ? ValidateTypedArray(O, SEQ-CST).
3. Let length be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
4. Let A be ? TypedArrayCreateSameType(O, « 𝔽(length) »).
5. Let k be 0.
6. Repeat, while k < length,
a. Let from be ! ToString(𝔽(length - k - 1)).
b. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
c. Let fromValue be ! Get(O, from).
d. Perform ! Set(A, Pk, fromValue, true).
e. Set k to k + 1.
7. Return A.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( comparator )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. If comparator is not undefined and IsCallable(comparator) is false, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let O be the this value.
3. Let taRecord be ? ValidateTypedArray(O, SEQ-CST).
4. Let len be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
5. Let A be ? TypedArrayCreateSameType(O, « 𝔽(len) »).
6. NOTE: The following closure performs a numeric comparison rather than the string comparison used in [Link].
7. Let SortCompare be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (x, y) that captures comparator and performs the
following steps when called:
a. Return ? CompareTypedArrayElements(x, y, comparator).
8. Let sortedList be ? SortIndexedProperties(O, len, SortCompare, READ-THROUGH-HOLES).
9. Let j be 0.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

10. Repeat, while j < len,

a. Perform ! Set(A, ! ToString(𝔽(j)), sortedList[j], true).
b. Set j to j + 1.
11. Return A.

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( )

The initial value of the "toString" property is %[Link]%, defined in [Link].

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? ValidateTypedArray(O, SEQ-CST).
3. Return CreateArrayIterator(O, VALUE).

[Link] %TypedArray%.[Link] ( index, value )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Let taRecord be ? ValidateTypedArray(O, SEQ-CST).
3. Let len be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
4. Let relativeIndex be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(index).
5. If relativeIndex ≥ 0, let actualIndex be relativeIndex.
6. Else, let actualIndex be len + relativeIndex.
7. If O.⁠[[ContentType]] is BIGINT, let numericValue be ? ToBigInt(value).
8. Else, let numericValue be ? ToNumber(value).
9. If IsValidIntegerIndex(O, 𝔽(actualIndex)) is false, throw a RangeError exception.
10. Let A be ? TypedArrayCreateSameType(O, « 𝔽(len) »).
11. Let k be 0.
12. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. If k = actualIndex, let fromValue be numericValue.
c. Else, let fromValue be ! Get(O, Pk).
d. Perform ! Set(A, Pk, fromValue, true).
e. Set k to k + 1.
13. Return A.

[Link] %TypedArray%.prototype [ %[Link]% ] ( )

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is %[Link]%, defined in [Link].

[Link] get %TypedArray%.prototype [ %[Link]% ]

%TypedArray%.prototype[%[Link]%] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is un-

defined. Its get accessor function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. If O is not an Object, return undefined.
3. If O does not have a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] internal slot, return undefined.
4. Let name be O.⁠[[TypedArrayName]].
5. Assert: name is a String.
6. Return name.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

The initial value of the "name" property of this function is "get [[Link]]".

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

23.2.4 Abstract Operations for TypedArray Objects

[Link] TypedArrayCreateFromConstructor ( constructor, argumentList )

The abstract operation TypedArrayCreateFromConstructor takes arguments constructor (a constructor) and argumentL-
ist (a List of ECMAScript language values) and returns either a normal completion containing a TypedArray or a throw
completion. It is used to specify the creation of a new TypedArray using a constructor function. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let newTypedArray be ? Construct(constructor, argumentList).

2. Let taRecord be ? ValidateTypedArray(newTypedArray, SEQ-CST).
3. Assert: newTypedArray has all the internal slots mentioned in Properties of TypedArray Instances.
4. If the number of elements in argumentList is 1 and argumentList[0] is a Number, then
a. If IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds(taRecord) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
b. Let length be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).
c. If length < ℝ(argumentList[0]), throw a TypeError exception.
5. Return newTypedArray.

[Link] TypedArrayCreateSameType ( exemplar, argumentList )

The abstract operation TypedArrayCreateSameType takes arguments exemplar (a TypedArray) and argumentList (a List
of ECMAScript language values) and returns either a normal completion containing a TypedArray or a throw completion.
It is used to specify the creation of a new TypedArray using a constructor function that is derived from exemplar. Unlike
TypedArraySpeciesCreate, which can construct custom TypedArray subclasses through the use of %[Link]%,
this operation always uses one of the built-in TypedArray constructors. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let constructor be the intrinsic object associated with the constructor name exemplar.⁠[[TypedArrayName]] in Table
75.
2. Let result be ? TypedArrayCreateFromConstructor(constructor, argumentList).
3. Assert: result.⁠[[ContentType]] is exemplar.⁠[[ContentType]].
4. Return result.

[Link] TypedArraySpeciesCreate ( exemplar, argumentList )

The abstract operation TypedArraySpeciesCreate takes arguments exemplar (a TypedArray) and argumentList (a List of
ECMAScript language values) and returns either a normal completion containing a TypedArray or a throw completion. It
is used to specify the creation of a new TypedArray using a constructor function that is derived from exemplar. Unlike
ArraySpeciesCreate, which can create non-Array objects through the use of %[Link]%, this operation en-
forces that the constructor function creates an actual TypedArray. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let defaultConstructor be the intrinsic object associated with the constructor name exemplar.⁠[[TypedArrayName]] in
Table 75.
2. Let constructor be ? SpeciesConstructor(exemplar, defaultConstructor).
3. Let result be ? TypedArrayCreateFromConstructor(constructor, argumentList).
4. If result.⁠[[ContentType]] is not exemplar.⁠[[ContentType]], throw a TypeError exception.
5. Return result.

[Link] ValidateTypedArray ( O, order )

The abstract operation ValidateTypedArray takes arguments O (an ECMAScript language value) and order (SEQ-CST or
UNORDERED) and returns either a normal completion containing a TypedArray With Buffer Witness Record or a throw
completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[TypedArrayName]]).

2. Assert: O has a ⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]] internal slot.
3. Let taRecord be MakeTypedArrayWithBufferWitnessRecord(O, order).
4. If IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds(taRecord) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Return taRecord.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] TypedArrayElementSize ( O )

The abstract operation TypedArrayElementSize takes argument O (a TypedArray) and returns a non-negative integer. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Return the Element Size value specified in Table 75 for O.⁠[[TypedArrayName]].

[Link] TypedArrayElementType ( O )

The abstract operation TypedArrayElementType takes argument O (a TypedArray) and returns a TypedArray element
type. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return the Element Type value specified in Table 75 for O.⁠[[TypedArrayName]].

[Link] CompareTypedArrayElements ( x, y, comparator )

The abstract operation CompareTypedArrayElements takes arguments x (a Number or a BigInt), y (a Number or a

BigInt), and comparator (a function object or undefined) and returns either a normal completion containing a Number or
an abrupt completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: x is a Number and y is a Number, or x is a BigInt and y is a BigInt.

2. If comparator is not undefined, then
a. Let v be ? ToNumber(? Call(comparator, undefined, « x, y »)).
b. If v is NaN, return +0𝔽.
c. Return v.
3. If x and y are both NaN, return +0𝔽.
4. If x is NaN, return 1𝔽.
5. If y is NaN, return -1𝔽.
6. If x < y, return -1𝔽.
7. If x > y, return 1𝔽.
8. If x is -0𝔽 and y is +0𝔽, return -1𝔽.
9. If x is +0𝔽 and y is -0𝔽, return 1𝔽.
10. Return +0𝔽.

NOTE This performs a numeric comparison rather than the string comparison used in [Link].2.

23.2.5 The TypedArray Constructors

Each TypedArray constructor:

is an intrinsic object that has the structure described below, differing only in the name used as the constructor name
instead of TypedArray, in Table 75.
is a function whose behaviour differs based upon the number and types of its arguments. The actual behaviour of a
call of TypedArray depends upon the number and kind of arguments that are passed to it.
is not intended to be called as a function and will throw an exception when called in that manner.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified TypedArray behaviour must include a super call to the TypedArray constructor to create and initialize the
subclass instance with the internal state necessary to support the %TypedArray%.prototype built-in methods.

[Link] TypedArray ( ...args )

Each TypedArray constructor performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is undefined, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let constructorName be the String value of the Constructor Name value specified in Table 75 for this TypedArray
constructor.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Let proto be "%[Link]%".

4. Let numberOfArgs be the number of elements in args.
5. If numberOfArgs = 0, then
a. Return ? AllocateTypedArray(constructorName, NewTarget, proto, 0).
6. Else,
a. Let firstArgument be args[0].
b. If firstArgument is an Object, then
i. Let O be ? AllocateTypedArray(constructorName, NewTarget, proto).
ii. If firstArgument has a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] internal slot, then
1. Perform ? InitializeTypedArrayFromTypedArray(O, firstArgument).
iii. Else if firstArgument has an ⁠[[ArrayBufferData]] internal slot, then
1. If numberOfArgs > 1, let byteOffset be args[1]; else let byteOffset be undefined.
2. If numberOfArgs > 2, let length be args[2]; else let length be undefined.
3. Perform ? InitializeTypedArrayFromArrayBuffer(O, firstArgument, byteOffset, length).
iv. Else,
1. Assert: firstArgument is an Object and firstArgument does not have either a ⁠[[TypedArrayName]] or an
⁠[[ArrayBufferData]] internal slot.
2. Let usingIterator be ? GetMethod(firstArgument, %[Link]%).
3. If usingIterator is not undefined, then
a. Let values be ? IteratorToList(? GetIteratorFromMethod(firstArgument, usingIterator)).
b. Perform ? InitializeTypedArrayFromList(O, values).
4. Else,
a. NOTE: firstArgument is not an iterable object, so assume it is already an array-like object.
b. Perform ? InitializeTypedArrayFromArrayLike(O, firstArgument).
v. Return O.
c. Else,
i. Assert: firstArgument is not an Object.
ii. Let elementLength be ? ToIndex(firstArgument).
iii. Return ? AllocateTypedArray(constructorName, NewTarget, proto, elementLength).

[Link].1 AllocateTypedArray ( constructorName, newTarget, defaultProto [ , length ] )

The abstract operation AllocateTypedArray takes arguments constructorName (a String which is the name of a
TypedArray constructor in Table 75), newTarget (a constructor), and defaultProto (a String) and optional argument
length (a non-negative integer) and returns either a normal completion containing a TypedArray or a throw completion. It
is used to validate and create an instance of a TypedArray constructor. If the length argument is passed, an ArrayBuffer
of that length is also allocated and associated with the new TypedArray instance. AllocateTypedArray provides common
semantics that is used by TypedArray. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let proto be ? GetPrototypeFromConstructor(newTarget, defaultProto).

2. Let obj be TypedArrayCreate(proto).
3. Assert: obj.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]] is undefined.
4. Set obj.⁠[[TypedArrayName]] to constructorName.
5. If constructorName is either "BigInt64Array" or "BigUint64Array", set obj.⁠[[ContentType]] to BIGINT.
6. Otherwise, set obj.⁠[[ContentType]] to NUMBER.
7. If length is not present, then
a. Set obj.⁠[[ByteLength]] to 0.
b. Set obj.⁠[[ByteOffset]] to 0.
c. Set obj.⁠[[ArrayLength]] to 0.
8. Else,
a. Perform ? AllocateTypedArrayBuffer(obj, length).
9. Return obj.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].2 InitializeTypedArrayFromTypedArray ( O, srcArray )

The abstract operation InitializeTypedArrayFromTypedArray takes arguments O (a TypedArray) and srcArray (a

TypedArray) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let srcData be srcArray.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]].

2. Let elementType be TypedArrayElementType(O).
3. Let elementSize be TypedArrayElementSize(O).
4. Let srcType be TypedArrayElementType(srcArray).
5. Let srcElementSize be TypedArrayElementSize(srcArray).
6. Let srcByteOffset be srcArray.⁠[[ByteOffset]].
7. Let srcRecord be MakeTypedArrayWithBufferWitnessRecord(srcArray, SEQ-CST).
8. If IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds(srcRecord) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
9. Let elementLength be TypedArrayLength(srcRecord).
10. Let byteLength be elementSize × elementLength.
11. If elementType is srcType, then
a. Let data be ? CloneArrayBuffer(srcData, srcByteOffset, byteLength).
12. Else,
a. Let data be ? AllocateArrayBuffer(%ArrayBuffer%, byteLength).
b. If srcArray.⁠[[ContentType]] is not O.⁠[[ContentType]], throw a TypeError exception.
c. Let srcByteIndex be srcByteOffset.
d. Let targetByteIndex be 0.
e. Let count be elementLength.
f. Repeat, while count > 0,
i. Let value be GetValueFromBuffer(srcData, srcByteIndex, srcType, true, UNORDERED).
ii. Perform SetValueInBuffer(data, targetByteIndex, elementType, value, true, UNORDERED).
iii. Set srcByteIndex to srcByteIndex + srcElementSize.
iv. Set targetByteIndex to targetByteIndex + elementSize.
v. Set count to count - 1.
13. Set O.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]] to data.
14. Set O.⁠[[ByteLength]] to byteLength.
15. Set O.⁠[[ByteOffset]] to 0.
16. Set O.⁠[[ArrayLength]] to elementLength.
17. Return UNUSED.

[Link].3 InitializeTypedArrayFromArrayBuffer ( O, buffer, byteOffset, length )

The abstract operation InitializeTypedArrayFromArrayBuffer takes arguments O (a TypedArray), buffer (an ArrayBuffer
or a SharedArrayBuffer), byteOffset (an ECMAScript language value), and length (an ECMAScript language value)
and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let elementSize be TypedArrayElementSize(O).

2. Let offset be ? ToIndex(byteOffset).
3. If offset modulo elementSize ≠ 0, throw a RangeError exception.
4. Let bufferIsFixedLength be IsFixedLengthArrayBuffer(buffer).
5. If length is not undefined, then
a. Let newLength be ? ToIndex(length).
6. If IsDetachedBuffer(buffer) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
7. Let bufferByteLength be ArrayBufferByteLength(buffer, SEQ-CST).
8. If length is undefined and bufferIsFixedLength is false, then
a. If offset > bufferByteLength, throw a RangeError exception.
b. Set O.⁠[[ByteLength]] to AUTO.
c. Set O.⁠[[ArrayLength]] to AUTO.
9. Else,
a. If length is undefined, then
i. If bufferByteLength modulo elementSize ≠ 0, throw a RangeError exception.
ii. Let newByteLength be bufferByteLength - offset.
iii. If newByteLength < 0, throw a RangeError exception.
b. Else,

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

i. Let newByteLength be newLength × elementSize.

ii. If offset + newByteLength > bufferByteLength, throw a RangeError exception.
c. Set O.⁠[[ByteLength]] to newByteLength.
d. Set O.⁠[[ArrayLength]] to newByteLength / elementSize.
10. Set O.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]] to buffer.
11. Set O.⁠[[ByteOffset]] to offset.
12. Return UNUSED.

[Link].4 InitializeTypedArrayFromList ( O, values )

The abstract operation InitializeTypedArrayFromList takes arguments O (a TypedArray) and values (a List of
ECMAScript language values) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Let len be the number of elements in values.

2. Perform ? AllocateTypedArrayBuffer(O, len).
3. Let k be 0.
4. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let kValue be the first element of values.
c. Remove the first element from values.
d. Perform ? Set(O, Pk, kValue, true).
e. Set k to k + 1.
5. Assert: values is now an empty List.
6. Return UNUSED.

[Link].5 InitializeTypedArrayFromArrayLike ( O, arrayLike )

The abstract operation InitializeTypedArrayFromArrayLike takes arguments O (a TypedArray) and arrayLike (an Object,
but not a TypedArray or an ArrayBuffer) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw comple-
tion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(arrayLike).

2. Perform ? AllocateTypedArrayBuffer(O, len).
3. Let k be 0.
4. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let Pk be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let kValue be ? Get(arrayLike, Pk).
c. Perform ? Set(O, Pk, kValue, true).
d. Set k to k + 1.
5. Return UNUSED.

[Link].6 AllocateTypedArrayBuffer ( O, length )

The abstract operation AllocateTypedArrayBuffer takes arguments O (a TypedArray) and length (a non-negative integer)
and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It allocates and associates an
ArrayBuffer with O. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: O.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]] is undefined.

2. Let elementSize be TypedArrayElementSize(O).
3. Let byteLength be elementSize × length.
4. Let data be ? AllocateArrayBuffer(%ArrayBuffer%, byteLength).
5. Set O.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]] to data.
6. Set O.⁠[[ByteLength]] to byteLength.
7. Set O.⁠[[ByteOffset]] to 0.
8. Set O.⁠[[ArrayLength]] to length.
9. Return UNUSED.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

23.2.6 Properties of the TypedArray Constructors

Each TypedArray constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %TypedArray%.

has a "length" property whose value is 3𝔽.
has a "name" property whose value is the String value of the constructor name specified for it in Table 75.
has the following properties:

[Link] TypedArray.BYTES_PER_ELEMENT

The value of TypedArray.BYTES_PER_ELEMENT is the Element Size value specified in Table 75 for TypedArray.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the corresponding TypedArray prototype intrinsic object (23.2.7).

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

23.2.7 Properties of the TypedArray Prototype Objects

Each TypedArray prototype object:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

is an ordinary object.
does not have a ⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]] or any other of the internal slots that are specific to TypedArray instance
objects.

[Link] [Link].BYTES_PER_ELEMENT

The value of [Link].BYTES_PER_ELEMENT is the Element Size value specified in Table 75

for TypedArray.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of the "constructor" property of the prototype for a given TypedArray constructor is the
constructor itself.

23.2.8 Properties of TypedArray Instances

TypedArray instances are TypedArrays. Each TypedArray instance inherits properties from the corresponding
TypedArray prototype object. Each TypedArray instance has the following internal slots: ⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]],
[[TypedArrayName]], ⁠[[ContentType]], ⁠[[ByteLength]], ⁠[[ByteOffset]], and ⁠[[ArrayLength]].

24 Keyed Collections

24.1 Map Objects

Maps are collections of key/value pairs where both the keys and values may be arbitrary ECMAScript language values.
A distinct key value may only occur in one key/value pair within the Map's collection. Distinct key values are discrimin-

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ated using the semantics of the SameValueZero comparison algorithm.

Maps must be implemented using either hash tables or other mechanisms that, on average, provide access times that
are sublinear on the number of elements in the collection. The data structure used in this specification is only intended
to describe the required observable semantics of Maps. It is not intended to be a viable implementation model.

24.1.1 The Map Constructor

The Map constructor:

is %Map%.
is the initial value of the "Map" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new Map when called as a constructor.
is not intended to be called as a function and will throw an exception when called in that manner.
may be used as the value in an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified Map behaviour must include a super call to the Map constructor to create and initialize the subclass
instance with the internal state necessary to support the [Link] built-in methods.

[Link] Map ( [ iterable ] )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is undefined, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let map be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(NewTarget, "%[Link]%", « ⁠[[MapData]] »).
3. Set map.⁠[[MapData]] to a new empty List.
4. If iterable is either undefined or null, return map.
5. Let adder be ? Get(map, "set").
6. If IsCallable(adder) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
7. Return ? AddEntriesFromIterable(map, iterable, adder).

NOTE If the parameter iterable is present, it is expected to be an object that implements a %[Link]%
method that returns an iterator object that produces a two element array-like object whose first element is a
value that will be used as a Map key and whose second element is the value to associate with that key.

[Link] AddEntriesFromIterable ( target, iterable, adder )

The abstract operation AddEntriesFromIterable takes arguments target (an Object), iterable (an ECMAScript language
value, but not undefined or null), and adder (a function object) and returns either a normal completion containing an
ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. adder will be invoked, with target as the receiver. It performs the fol-
lowing steps when called:

1. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(iterable, SYNC).

2. Repeat,
a. Let next be ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is DONE, return target.
c. If next is not an Object, then
i. Let error be ThrowCompletion(a newly created TypeError object).
ii. Return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, error).
d. Let k be Completion(Get(next, "0")).
e. IfAbruptCloseIterator(k, iteratorRecord).
f. Let v be Completion(Get(next, "1")).
g. IfAbruptCloseIterator(v, iteratorRecord).
h. Let status be Completion(Call(adder, target, « k, v »)).
i. IfAbruptCloseIterator(status, iteratorRecord).

NOTE The parameter iterable is expected to be an object that implements a %[Link]% method that
returns an iterator object that produces a two element array-like object whose first element is a value that
will be used as a Map key and whose second element is the value to associate with that key.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

24.1.2 Properties of the Map Constructor

The Map constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

[Link] [Link] ( items, callback )

NOTE callback should be a function that accepts two arguments. groupBy calls callback once for each element in
items, in ascending order, and constructs a new Map. Each value returned by callback is used as a key in
the Map. For each such key, the result Map has an entry whose key is that key and whose value is an array
containing all the elements for which callback returned that key.

callback is called with two arguments: the value of the element and the index of the element.

The return value of groupBy is a Map.

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let groups be ? GroupBy(items, callback, COLLECTION).

2. Let map be ! Construct(%Map%).
3. For each Record { ⁠[[Key]], ⁠[[Elements]] } g of groups, do
a. Let elements be CreateArrayFromList(g.⁠[[Elements]]).
b. Let entry be the Record { ⁠[[Key]]: g.⁠[[Key]], ⁠[[Value]]: elements }.
c. Append entry to map.⁠[[MapData]].
4. Return map.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the Map prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] get Map [ %[Link]% ]

Map[%[Link]%] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get accessor func-
tion performs the following steps when called:

1. Return the this value.

The value of the "name" property of this function is "get [[Link]]".

NOTE Methods that create derived collection objects should call %[Link]% to determine the constructor
to use to create the derived objects. Subclass constructor may over-ride %[Link]% to change the
default constructor assignment.

24.1.3 Properties of the Map Prototype Object

The Map prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
does not have a ⁠[[MapData]] internal slot.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let M be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(M, ⁠[[MapData]]).
3. For each Record { ⁠[[Key]], ⁠[[Value]] } p of M.⁠[[MapData]], do
a. Set p.⁠[[Key]] to EMPTY.
b. Set p.⁠[[Value]] to EMPTY.
4. Return undefined.

NOTE The existing ⁠[[MapData]] List is preserved because there may be existing Map Iterator objects that are
suspended midway through iterating over that List.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %Map%.

[Link] [Link] ( key )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let M be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(M, ⁠[[MapData]]).
3. Set key to CanonicalizeKeyedCollectionKey(key).
4. For each Record { ⁠[[Key]], ⁠[[Value]] } p of M.⁠[[MapData]], do
a. If p.⁠[[Key]] is not EMPTY and SameValue(p.⁠[[Key]], key) is true, then
i. Set p.⁠[[Key]] to EMPTY.
ii. Set p.⁠[[Value]] to EMPTY.
iii. Return true.
5. Return false.

NOTE The value EMPTY is used as a specification device to indicate that an entry has been deleted. Actual
implementations may take other actions such as physically removing the entry from internal data structures.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let M be the this value.

2. Return ? CreateMapIterator(M, KEY+VALUE).

[Link] [Link] ( callback [ , thisArg ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let M be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(M, ⁠[[MapData]]).
3. If IsCallable(callback) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Let entries be M.⁠[[MapData]].
5. Let numEntries be the number of elements in entries.
6. Let index be 0.
7. Repeat, while index < numEntries,
a. Let e be entries[index].
b. Set index to index + 1.
c. If e.⁠[[Key]] is not EMPTY, then
i. Perform ? Call(callback, thisArg, « e.⁠[[Value]], e.⁠[[Key]], M »).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ii. NOTE: The number of elements in entries may have increased during execution of callback.
iii. Set numEntries to the number of elements in entries.
8. Return undefined.

NOTE callback should be a function that accepts three arguments. forEach calls callback once for each key/value
pair present in the Map, in key insertion order. callback is called only for keys of the Map which actually
exist; it is not called for keys that have been deleted from the Map.

If a thisArg parameter is provided, it will be used as the this value for each invocation of callback. If it is not
provided, undefined is used instead.

callback is called with three arguments: the value of the item, the key of the item, and the Map
being traversed.

forEach does not directly mutate the object on which it is called but the object may be mutated by the calls
to callback. Each entry of a map's ⁠[[MapData]] is only visited once. New keys added after the call to
forEach begins are visited. A key will be revisited if it is deleted after it has been visited and then re-added
before the forEach call completes. Keys that are deleted after the call to forEach begins and before being
visited are not visited unless the key is added again before the forEach call completes.

[Link] [Link] ( key )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let M be the this value.

[Link] [Link] ( key )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let M be the this value.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let M be the this value.

2. Return ? CreateMapIterator(M, KEY).

[Link] [Link] ( key, value )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let M be the this value.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

i. Set p.⁠[[Value]] to value.

ii. Return M.
5. Let p be the Record { ⁠[[Key]]: key, ⁠[[Value]]: value }.
6. Append p to M.⁠[[MapData]].
7. Return M.

[Link] get [Link]

[Link] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get accessor function
performs the following steps when called:

1. Let M be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(M, ⁠[[MapData]]).
3. Let count be 0.
4. For each Record { ⁠[[Key]], ⁠[[Value]] } p of M.⁠[[MapData]], do
a. If p.⁠[[Key]] is not EMPTY, set count to count + 1.
5. Return 𝔽(count).

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let M be the this value.

2. Return ? CreateMapIterator(M, VALUE).

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ] ( )

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is %[Link]%, defined in [Link].

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "Map".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

24.1.4 Properties of Map Instances

Map instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the Map prototype object. Map instances also have a
[[MapData]] internal slot.

24.1.5 Map Iterator Objects

A Map Iterator is an object that represents a specific iteration over some specific Map instance object. There is not a
named constructor for Map Iterator objects. Instead, Map Iterator objects are created by calling certain methods of Map
instance objects.

[Link] CreateMapIterator ( map, kind )

The abstract operation CreateMapIterator takes arguments map (an ECMAScript language value) and kind
(KEY+VALUE, KEY, or VALUE) and returns either a normal completion containing a Generator or a throw completion. It is
used to create iterator objects for Map methods that return such iterators. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(map, ⁠[[MapData]]).

2. Let closure be a new Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures map and kind and performs the following
steps when called:
a. Let entries be map.⁠[[MapData]].
b. Let index be 0.
c. Let numEntries be the number of elements in entries.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

d. Repeat, while index < numEntries,

i. Let e be entries[index].
ii. Set index to index + 1.
iii. If e.⁠[[Key]] is not EMPTY, then
1. If kind is KEY, then
a. Let result be e.⁠[[Key]].
2. Else if kind is VALUE, then
a. Let result be e.⁠[[Value]].
3. Else,
a. Assert: kind is KEY+VALUE.
b. Let result be CreateArrayFromList(« e.⁠[[Key]], e.⁠[[Value]] »).
4. Perform ? GeneratorYield(CreateIteratorResultObject(result, false)).
5. NOTE: The number of elements in entries may have increased while execution of this abstract
operation was paused by GeneratorYield.
6. Set numEntries to the number of elements in entries.
e. Return NormalCompletion(UNUSED).
3. Return CreateIteratorFromClosure(closure, "%MapIteratorPrototype%", %MapIteratorPrototype%).

[Link] The %MapIteratorPrototype% Object

The %MapIteratorPrototype% object:

has properties that are inherited by all Map Iterator objects.

is an ordinary object.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
has the following properties:

[Link].1 %MapIteratorPrototype%.next ( )

1. Return ? GeneratorResume(this value, EMPTY, "%MapIteratorPrototype%").

[Link].2 %MapIteratorPrototype% [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "Map Iterator".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

24.2 Set Objects

Set objects are collections of ECMAScript language values. A distinct value may only occur once as an element of a
Set's collection. Distinct values are discriminated using the semantics of the SameValueZero comparison algorithm.

Set objects must be implemented using either hash tables or other mechanisms that, on average, provide access
times that are sublinear on the number of elements in the collection. The data structure used in this specification
is only intended to describe the required observable semantics of Set objects. It is not intended to be a viable
implementation model.

24.2.1 Abstract Operations For Set Objects

[Link] Set Records

A Set Record is a Record value used to encapsulate the interface of a Set or similar object.

Set Records have the fields listed in Table 76.

Table 76: Set Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

⁠[[SetObject]] an Object the Set or similar object.

⁠[[Size]] a non-negative integer or +∞ The reported size of the object.
⁠[[Has]] a function object The has method of the object.
⁠[[Keys]] a function object The keys method of the object.

[Link] GetSetRecord ( obj )

The abstract operation GetSetRecord takes argument obj (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal
completion containing a Set Record or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If obj is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let rawSize be ? Get(obj, "size").
3. Let numSize be ? ToNumber(rawSize).
4. NOTE: If rawSize is undefined, then numSize will be NaN.
5. If numSize is NaN, throw a TypeError exception.
6. Let intSize be ! ToIntegerOrInfinity(numSize).
7. If intSize < 0, throw a RangeError exception.
8. Let has be ? Get(obj, "has").
9. If IsCallable(has) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
10. Let keys be ? Get(obj, "keys").
11. If IsCallable(keys) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
12. Return a new Set Record { ⁠[[SetObject]]: obj, ⁠[[Size]]: intSize, ⁠[[Has]]: has, ⁠[[Keys]]: keys }.

[Link] SetDataHas ( setData, value )

The abstract operation SetDataHas takes arguments setData (a List of either ECMAScript language values or EMPTY)
and value (an ECMAScript language value) and returns a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If SetDataIndex(setData, value) is NOT-FOUND, return false.

2. Return true.

[Link] SetDataIndex ( setData, value )

The abstract operation SetDataIndex takes arguments setData (a List of either ECMAScript language values or EMPTY)
and value (an ECMAScript language value) and returns a non-negative integer or NOT-FOUND. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Set value to CanonicalizeKeyedCollectionKey(value).

2. Let size be the number of elements in setData.
3. Let index be 0.
4. Repeat, while index < size,
a. Let e be setData[index].
b. If e is not EMPTY and e is value, then
i. Return index.
c. Set index to index + 1.
5. Return NOT-FOUND.

[Link] SetDataSize ( setData )

The abstract operation SetDataSize takes argument setData (a List of either ECMAScript language values or EMPTY)
and returns a non-negative integer. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let count be 0.
2. For each element e of setData, do
a. If e is not EMPTY, set count to count + 1.
3. Return count.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

24.2.2 The Set Constructor

The Set constructor:

is %Set%.
is the initial value of the "Set" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new Set object when called as a constructor.
is not intended to be called as a function and will throw an exception when called in that manner.
may be used as the value in an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified Set behaviour must include a super call to the Set constructor to create and initialize the subclass
instance with the internal state necessary to support the [Link] built-in methods.

[Link] Set ( [ iterable ] )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is undefined, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let set be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(NewTarget, "%[Link]%", « ⁠[[SetData]] »).
3. Set set.⁠[[SetData]] to a new empty List.
4. If iterable is either undefined or null, return set.
5. Let adder be ? Get(set, "add").
6. If IsCallable(adder) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
7. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(iterable, SYNC).
8. Repeat,
a. Let next be ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is DONE, return set.
c. Let status be Completion(Call(adder, set, « next »)).
d. IfAbruptCloseIterator(status, iteratorRecord).

24.2.3 Properties of the Set Constructor

The Set constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the Set prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] get Set [ %[Link]% ]

Set[%[Link]%] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get accessor func-
tion performs the following steps when called:

1. Return the this value.

The value of the "name" property of this function is "get [[Link]]".

24.2.4 Properties of the Set Prototype Object

The Set prototype object:

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

is %[Link]%.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
does not have a ⁠[[SetData]] internal slot.

[Link] [Link] ( value )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(S, ⁠[[SetData]]).
3. Set value to CanonicalizeKeyedCollectionKey(value).
4. For each element e of S.⁠[[SetData]], do
a. If e is not EMPTY and SameValue(e, value) is true, then
i. Return S.
5. Append value to S.⁠[[SetData]].
6. Return S.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(S, ⁠[[SetData]]).
3. For each element e of S.⁠[[SetData]], do
a. Replace the element of S.⁠[[SetData]] whose value is e with an element whose value is EMPTY.
4. Return undefined.

NOTE The existing ⁠[[SetData]] List is preserved because there may be existing Set Iterator objects that are
suspended midway through iterating over that List.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %Set%.

[Link] [Link] ( value )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(S, ⁠[[SetData]]).
3. Set value to CanonicalizeKeyedCollectionKey(value).
4. For each element e of S.⁠[[SetData]], do
a. If e is not EMPTY and SameValue(e, value) is true, then
i. Replace the element of S.⁠[[SetData]] whose value is e with an element whose value is EMPTY.
ii. Return true.
5. Return false.

[Link] [Link] ( other )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[SetData]]).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Let otherRec be ? GetSetRecord(other).

4. Let resultSetData be a copy of O.⁠[[SetData]].
5. If SetDataSize(O.⁠[[SetData]]) ≤ otherRec.⁠[[Size]], then
a. Let thisSize be the number of elements in O.⁠[[SetData]].
b. Let index be 0.
c. Repeat, while index < thisSize,
i. Let e be resultSetData[index].
ii. If e is not EMPTY, then
1. Let inOther be ToBoolean(? Call(otherRec.⁠[[Has]], otherRec.⁠[[SetObject]], « e »)).
2. If inOther is true, then
a. Set resultSetData[index] to EMPTY.
iii. Set index to index + 1.
6. Else,
a. Let keysIter be ? GetIteratorFromMethod(otherRec.⁠[[SetObject]], otherRec.⁠[[Keys]]).
b. Let next be NOT-STARTED.
c. Repeat, while next is not DONE,
i. Set next to ? IteratorStepValue(keysIter).
ii. If next is not DONE, then
1. Set next to CanonicalizeKeyedCollectionKey(next).
2. Let valueIndex be SetDataIndex(resultSetData, next).
3. If valueIndex is not NOT-FOUND, then
a. Set resultSetData[valueIndex] to EMPTY.
7. Let result be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%, « ⁠[[SetData]] »).
8. Set result.⁠[[SetData]] to resultSetData.
9. Return result.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be the this value.

2. Return ? CreateSetIterator(S, KEY+VALUE).

NOTE For iteration purposes, a Set appears similar to a Map where each entry has the same value for its key
and value.

[Link] [Link] ( callback [ , thisArg ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(S, ⁠[[SetData]]).
3. If IsCallable(callback) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Let entries be S.⁠[[SetData]].
5. Let numEntries be the number of elements in entries.
6. Let index be 0.
7. Repeat, while index < numEntries,
a. Let e be entries[index].
b. Set index to index + 1.
c. If e is not EMPTY, then
i. Perform ? Call(callback, thisArg, « e, e, S »).
ii. NOTE: The number of elements in entries may have increased during execution of callback.
iii. Set numEntries to the number of elements in entries.
8. Return undefined.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE callback should be a function that accepts three arguments. forEach calls callback once for each value
present in the Set object, in value insertion order. callback is called only for values of the Set which actually
exist; it is not called for keys that have been deleted from the set.

If a thisArg parameter is provided, it will be used as the this value for each invocation of callback. If it is not
provided, undefined is used instead.

callback is called with three arguments: the first two arguments are a value contained in the Set. The same
value is passed for both arguments. The Set object being traversed is passed as the third argument.

The callback is called with three arguments to be consistent with the call back functions used by forEach
methods for Map and Array. For Sets, each item value is considered to be both the key and the value.

forEach does not directly mutate the object on which it is called but the object may be mutated by the calls
to callback.

Each value is normally visited only once. However, a value will be revisited if it is deleted after it has been
visited and then re-added before the forEach call completes. Values that are deleted after the call to
forEach begins and before being visited are not visited unless the value is added again before the
forEach call completes. New values added after the call to forEach begins are visited.

[Link] [Link] ( value )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be the this value.

[Link] [Link] ( other )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[SetData]]).
3. Let otherRec be ? GetSetRecord(other).
4. Let resultSetData be a new empty List.
5. If SetDataSize(O.⁠[[SetData]]) ≤ otherRec.⁠[[Size]], then
a. Let thisSize be the number of elements in O.⁠[[SetData]].
b. Let index be 0.
c. Repeat, while index < thisSize,
i. Let e be O.⁠[[SetData]][index].
ii. Set index to index + 1.
iii. If e is not EMPTY, then
1. Let inOther be ToBoolean(? Call(otherRec.⁠[[Has]], otherRec.⁠[[SetObject]], « e »)).
2. If inOther is true, then
a. NOTE: It is possible for earlier calls to otherRec.⁠[[Has]] to remove and re-add an element of
O.⁠[[SetData]], which can cause the same element to be visited twice during this iteration.
b. If SetDataHas(resultSetData, e) is false, then
i. Append e to resultSetData.
3. NOTE: The number of elements in O.⁠[[SetData]] may have increased during execution of
otherRec.⁠[[Has]].
4. Set thisSize to the number of elements in O.⁠[[SetData]].
6. Else,
a. Let keysIter be ? GetIteratorFromMethod(otherRec.⁠[[SetObject]], otherRec.⁠[[Keys]]).
b. Let next be NOT-STARTED.
c. Repeat, while next is not DONE,

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

i. Set next to ? IteratorStepValue(keysIter).

ii. If next is not DONE, then
1. Set next to CanonicalizeKeyedCollectionKey(next).
2. Let inThis be SetDataHas(O.⁠[[SetData]], next).
3. If inThis is true, then
a. NOTE: Because other is an arbitrary object, it is possible for its "keys" iterator to produce the
same value more than once.
b. If SetDataHas(resultSetData, next) is false, then
i. Append next to resultSetData.
7. Let result be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%, « ⁠[[SetData]] »).
8. Set result.⁠[[SetData]] to resultSetData.
9. Return result.

[Link] [Link] ( other )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[SetData]]).
3. Let otherRec be ? GetSetRecord(other).
4. If SetDataSize(O.⁠[[SetData]]) ≤ otherRec.⁠[[Size]], then
a. Let thisSize be the number of elements in O.⁠[[SetData]].
b. Let index be 0.
c. Repeat, while index < thisSize,
i. Let e be O.⁠[[SetData]][index].
ii. Set index to index + 1.
iii. If e is not EMPTY, then
1. Let inOther be ToBoolean(? Call(otherRec.⁠[[Has]], otherRec.⁠[[SetObject]], « e »)).
2. If inOther is true, return false.
3. NOTE: The number of elements in O.⁠[[SetData]] may have increased during execution of
otherRec.⁠[[Has]].
4. Set thisSize to the number of elements in O.⁠[[SetData]].
5. Else,
a. Let keysIter be ? GetIteratorFromMethod(otherRec.⁠[[SetObject]], otherRec.⁠[[Keys]]).
b. Let next be NOT-STARTED.
c. Repeat, while next is not DONE,
i. Set next to ? IteratorStepValue(keysIter).
ii. If next is not DONE, then
1. If SetDataHas(O.⁠[[SetData]], next) is true, then
a. Perform ? IteratorClose(keysIter, NormalCompletion(UNUSED)).
b. Return false.
6. Return true.

[Link] [Link] ( other )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[SetData]]).
3. Let otherRec be ? GetSetRecord(other).
4. If SetDataSize(O.⁠[[SetData]]) > otherRec.⁠[[Size]], return false.
5. Let thisSize be the number of elements in O.⁠[[SetData]].
6. Let index be 0.
7. Repeat, while index < thisSize,
a. Let e be O.⁠[[SetData]][index].
b. Set index to index + 1.
c. If e is not EMPTY, then
i. Let inOther be ToBoolean(? Call(otherRec.⁠[[Has]], otherRec.⁠[[SetObject]], « e »)).
ii. If inOther is false, return false.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

iii. NOTE: The number of elements in O.⁠[[SetData]] may have increased during execution of otherRec.⁠[[Has]].
iv. Set thisSize to the number of elements in O.⁠[[SetData]].
8. Return true.

[Link] [Link] ( other )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[SetData]]).
3. Let otherRec be ? GetSetRecord(other).
4. If SetDataSize(O.⁠[[SetData]]) < otherRec.⁠[[Size]], return false.
5. Let keysIter be ? GetIteratorFromMethod(otherRec.⁠[[SetObject]], otherRec.⁠[[Keys]]).
6. Let next be NOT-STARTED.
7. Repeat, while next is not DONE,
a. Set next to ? IteratorStepValue(keysIter).
b. If next is not DONE, then
i. If SetDataHas(O.⁠[[SetData]], next) is false, then
1. Perform ? IteratorClose(keysIter, NormalCompletion(UNUSED)).
2. Return false.
8. Return true.

[Link] [Link] ( )

The initial value of the "keys" property is %[Link]%, defined in [Link].

NOTE For iteration purposes, a Set appears similar to a Map where each entry has the same value for its key
and value.

[Link] get [Link]

[Link] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get accessor function
performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(S, ⁠[[SetData]]).
3. Let size be SetDataSize(S.⁠[[SetData]]).
4. Return 𝔽(size).

[Link] [Link] ( other )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[SetData]]).
3. Let otherRec be ? GetSetRecord(other).
4. Let keysIter be ? GetIteratorFromMethod(otherRec.⁠[[SetObject]], otherRec.⁠[[Keys]]).
5. Let resultSetData be a copy of O.⁠[[SetData]].
6. Let next be NOT-STARTED.
7. Repeat, while next is not DONE,
a. Set next to ? IteratorStepValue(keysIter).
b. If next is not DONE, then
i. Set next to CanonicalizeKeyedCollectionKey(next).
ii. Let resultIndex be SetDataIndex(resultSetData, next).
iii. If resultIndex is NOT-FOUND, let alreadyInResult be false; otherwise let alreadyInResult be true.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

iv. If SetDataHas(O.⁠[[SetData]], next) is true, then

1. If alreadyInResult is true, set resultSetData[resultIndex] to EMPTY.
v. Else,
1. If alreadyInResult is false, append next to resultSetData.
8. Let result be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%, « ⁠[[SetData]] »).
9. Set result.⁠[[SetData]] to resultSetData.
10. Return result.

[Link] [Link] ( other )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[SetData]]).
3. Let otherRec be ? GetSetRecord(other).
4. Let keysIter be ? GetIteratorFromMethod(otherRec.⁠[[SetObject]], otherRec.⁠[[Keys]]).
5. Let resultSetData be a copy of O.⁠[[SetData]].
6. Let next be NOT-STARTED.
7. Repeat, while next is not DONE,
a. Set next to ? IteratorStepValue(keysIter).
b. If next is not DONE, then
i. Set next to CanonicalizeKeyedCollectionKey(next).
ii. If SetDataHas(resultSetData, next) is false, then
1. Append next to resultSetData.
8. Let result be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%, « ⁠[[SetData]] »).
9. Set result.⁠[[SetData]] to resultSetData.
10. Return result.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be the this value.

2. Return ? CreateSetIterator(S, VALUE).

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ] ( )

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is %[Link]%, defined in [Link].

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "Set".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

24.2.5 Properties of Set Instances

Set instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the Set prototype object. Set instances also have a
[[SetData]] internal slot.

24.2.6 Set Iterator Objects

A Set Iterator is an ordinary object, with the structure defined below, that represents a specific iteration over some
specific Set instance object. There is not a named constructor for Set Iterator objects. Instead, Set Iterator objects are
created by calling certain methods of Set instance objects.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] CreateSetIterator ( set, kind )

The abstract operation CreateSetIterator takes arguments set (an ECMAScript language value) and kind (KEY+VALUE
or VALUE) and returns either a normal completion containing a Generator or a throw completion. It is used to create iter-
ator objects for Set methods that return such iterators. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(set, ⁠[[SetData]]).

2. Let closure be a new Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures set and kind and performs the following
steps when called:
a. Let index be 0.
b. Let entries be set.⁠[[SetData]].
c. Let numEntries be the number of elements in entries.
d. Repeat, while index < numEntries,
i. Let e be entries[index].
ii. Set index to index + 1.
iii. If e is not EMPTY, then
1. If kind is KEY+VALUE, then
a. Let result be CreateArrayFromList(« e, e »).
b. Perform ? GeneratorYield(CreateIteratorResultObject(result, false)).
2. Else,
a. Assert: kind is VALUE.
b. Perform ? GeneratorYield(CreateIteratorResultObject(e, false)).
3. NOTE: The number of elements in entries may have increased while execution of this abstract
operation was paused by GeneratorYield.
4. Set numEntries to the number of elements in entries.
e. Return NormalCompletion(UNUSED).
3. Return CreateIteratorFromClosure(closure, "%SetIteratorPrototype%", %SetIteratorPrototype%).

[Link] The %SetIteratorPrototype% Object

The %SetIteratorPrototype% object:

has properties that are inherited by all Set Iterator objects.

is an ordinary object.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
has the following properties:

[Link].1 %SetIteratorPrototype%.next ( )

1. Return ? GeneratorResume(this value, EMPTY, "%SetIteratorPrototype%").

[Link].2 %SetIteratorPrototype% [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "Set Iterator".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

24.3 WeakMap Objects

WeakMaps are collections of key/value pairs where the keys are objects and/or symbols and values may be arbitrary
ECMAScript language values. A WeakMap may be queried to see if it contains a key/value pair with a specific key, but
no mechanism is provided for enumerating the values it holds as keys. In certain conditions, values which are not live
are removed as WeakMap keys, as described in 9.9.3.

An implementation may impose an arbitrarily determined latency between the time a key/value pair of a WeakMap be-
comes inaccessible and the time when the key/value pair is removed from the WeakMap. If this latency was observable
to ECMAScript program, it would be a source of indeterminacy that could impact program execution. For that reason, an
ECMAScript implementation must not provide any means to observe a key of a WeakMap that does not require the ob-
server to present the observed key.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

WeakMaps must be implemented using either hash tables or other mechanisms that, on average, provide access
times that are sublinear on the number of key/value pairs in the collection. The data structure used in this specification
is only intended to describe the required observable semantics of WeakMaps. It is not intended to be a viable
implementation model.

NOTE WeakMap and WeakSet are intended to provide mechanisms for dynamically associating state with an
object or symbol in a manner that does not “leak” memory resources if, in the absence of the WeakMap or
WeakSet instance, the object or symbol otherwise became inaccessible and subject to resource reclamation
by the implementation's garbage collection mechanisms. This characteristic can be achieved by using an
inverted per-object/symbol mapping of WeakMap or WeakSet instances to keys. Alternatively, each
WeakMap or WeakSet instance may internally store its key and value data, but this approach requires
coordination between the WeakMap or WeakSet implementation and the garbage collector. The following
references describe mechanism that may be useful to implementations of WeakMap and WeakSet:

Barry Hayes. 1997. Ephemerons: a new finalization mechanism. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGPLAN
conference on Object-oriented programming, systems, languages, and applications (OOPSLA '97), A.
Michael Berman (Ed.). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 176-183, [Link]

Alexandra Barros, Roberto Ierusalimschy, Eliminating Cycles in Weak Tables. Journal of Universal Computer
Science - [Link], vol. 14, no. 21, pp. 3481-3497, 2008,
[Link]

24.3.1 The WeakMap Constructor

The WeakMap constructor:

is %WeakMap%.
is the initial value of the "WeakMap" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new WeakMap when called as a constructor.
is not intended to be called as a function and will throw an exception when called in that manner.
may be used as the value in an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified WeakMap behaviour must include a super call to the WeakMap constructor to create and initialize the
subclass instance with the internal state necessary to support the [Link] built-in methods.

[Link] WeakMap ( [ iterable ] )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is undefined, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let map be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(NewTarget, "%[Link]%", « ⁠[[WeakMapData]] »).
3. Set map.⁠[[WeakMapData]] to a new empty List.
4. If iterable is either undefined or null, return map.
5. Let adder be ? Get(map, "set").
6. If IsCallable(adder) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
7. Return ? AddEntriesFromIterable(map, iterable, adder).

NOTE If the parameter iterable is present, it is expected to be an object that implements a %[Link]%
method that returns an iterator object that produces a two element array-like object whose first element
is a value that will be used as a WeakMap key and whose second element is the value to associate with
that key.

24.3.2 Properties of the WeakMap Constructor

The WeakMap constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the WeakMap prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

1. Let M be the this value.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( key, value )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let M be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(M, ⁠[[WeakMapData]]).
3. If CanBeHeldWeakly(key) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. For each Record { ⁠[[Key]], ⁠[[Value]] } p of M.⁠[[WeakMapData]], do
a. If p.⁠[[Key]] is not EMPTY and SameValue(p.⁠[[Key]], key) is true, then
i. Set p.⁠[[Value]] to value.
ii. Return M.
5. Let p be the Record { ⁠[[Key]]: key, ⁠[[Value]]: value }.
6. Append p to M.⁠[[WeakMapData]].
7. Return M.

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "WeakMap".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

24.3.4 Properties of WeakMap Instances

WeakMap instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the WeakMap prototype object. WeakMap in-
stances also have a ⁠[[WeakMapData]] internal slot.

24.4 WeakSet Objects

WeakSets are collections of objects and/or symbols. A distinct object or symbol may only occur once as an element of a
WeakSet's collection. A WeakSet may be queried to see if it contains a specific value, but no mechanism is provided for
enumerating the values it holds. In certain conditions, values which are not live are removed as WeakSet elements, as
described in 9.9.3.

An implementation may impose an arbitrarily determined latency between the time a value contained in a WeakSet be-
comes inaccessible and the time when the value is removed from the WeakSet. If this latency was observable to
ECMAScript program, it would be a source of indeterminacy that could impact program execution. For that reason, an
ECMAScript implementation must not provide any means to determine if a WeakSet contains a particular value that
does not require the observer to present the observed value.

WeakSets must be implemented using either hash tables or other mechanisms that, on average, provide access times
that are sublinear on the number of elements in the collection. The data structure used in this specification is only inten-
ded to describe the required observable semantics of WeakSets. It is not intended to be a viable implementation model.

NOTE See the NOTE in 24.3.

24.4.1 The WeakSet Constructor

The WeakSet constructor:

is %WeakSet%.
is the initial value of the "WeakSet" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new WeakSet when called as a constructor.
is not intended to be called as a function and will throw an exception when called in that manner.
may be used as the value in an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified WeakSet behaviour must include a super call to the WeakSet constructor to create and initialize the
subclass instance with the internal state necessary to support the [Link] built-in methods.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] WeakSet ( [ iterable ] )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is undefined, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let set be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(NewTarget, "%[Link]%", « ⁠[[WeakSetData]] »).
3. Set set.⁠[[WeakSetData]] to a new empty List.
4. If iterable is either undefined or null, return set.
5. Let adder be ? Get(set, "add").
6. If IsCallable(adder) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
7. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(iterable, SYNC).
8. Repeat,
a. Let next be ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is DONE, return set.
c. Let status be Completion(Call(adder, set, « next »)).
d. IfAbruptCloseIterator(status, iteratorRecord).

24.4.2 Properties of the WeakSet Constructor

The WeakSet constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the WeakSet prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

24.4.3 Properties of the WeakSet Prototype Object

The WeakSet prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
does not have a ⁠[[WeakSetData]] internal slot.

[Link] [Link] ( value )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(S, ⁠[[WeakSetData]]).
3. If CanBeHeldWeakly(value) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. For each element e of S.⁠[[WeakSetData]], do
a. If e is not EMPTY and SameValue(e, value) is true, then
i. Return S.
5. Append value to S.⁠[[WeakSetData]].
6. Return S.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %WeakSet%.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( value )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(S, ⁠[[WeakSetData]]).
3. If CanBeHeldWeakly(value) is false, return false.
4. For each element e of S.⁠[[WeakSetData]], do
a. If e is not EMPTY and SameValue(e, value) is true, then
i. Replace the element of S.⁠[[WeakSetData]] whose value is e with an element whose value is EMPTY.
ii. Return true.
5. Return false.

[Link] [Link] ( value )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be the this value.

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "WeakSet".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

24.4.4 Properties of WeakSet Instances

WeakSet instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the WeakSet prototype object. WeakSet instances
also have a ⁠[[WeakSetData]] internal slot.

24.5 Abstract Operations for Keyed Collections

24.5.1 CanonicalizeKeyedCollectionKey ( key )

The abstract operation CanonicalizeKeyedCollectionKey takes argument key (an ECMAScript language value) and re-
turns an ECMAScript language value. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If key is -0𝔽, return +0𝔽.

2. Return key.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

25 Structured Data

25.1 ArrayBuffer Objects

25.1.1 Notation

The descriptions below in this section, 25.4, and 29 use the read-modify-write modification function internal
data structure.

A read-modify-write modification function is a mathematical function that is represented as an abstract closure that takes
two Lists of byte values as arguments and returns a List of byte values. These abstract closures satisfy all of the follow-
ing properties:

They perform all their algorithm steps atomically.

Their individual algorithm steps are not observable.

NOTE To aid verifying that a read-modify-write modification function's algorithm steps constitute a pure,
mathematical function, the following editorial conventions are recommended:

They do not access, directly or transitively via invoked abstract operations and abstract closures, any
language or specification values except their parameters and captured values.
They do not invoke, directly or transitively, abstract operations and abstract closures that return
Completion Records.
They do not return Completion Records.

25.1.2 Fixed-length and Resizable ArrayBuffer Objects

A fixed-length ArrayBuffer is an ArrayBuffer whose byte length cannot change after creation.

A resizable ArrayBuffer is an ArrayBuffer whose byte length may change after creation via calls to
[Link] ( newLength ).

The kind of ArrayBuffer object that is created depends on the arguments passed to ArrayBuffer ( length [ , options ] ).

25.1.3 Abstract Operations For ArrayBuffer Objects

[Link] AllocateArrayBuffer ( constructor, byteLength [ , maxByteLength ] )

The abstract operation AllocateArrayBuffer takes arguments constructor (a constructor) and byteLength (a non-negative
integer) and optional argument maxByteLength (a non-negative integer or EMPTY) and returns either a normal comple-
tion containing an ArrayBuffer or a throw completion. It is used to create an ArrayBuffer. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let slots be « ⁠[[ArrayBufferData]], ⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLength]], ⁠[[ArrayBufferDetachKey]] ».

2. If maxByteLength is present and maxByteLength is not EMPTY, let allocatingResizableBuffer be true; otherwise let
allocatingResizableBuffer be false.
3. If allocatingResizableBuffer is true, then
a. If byteLength > maxByteLength, throw a RangeError exception.
b. Append ⁠[[ArrayBufferMaxByteLength]] to slots.
4. Let obj be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(constructor, "%[Link]%", slots).
5. Let block be ? CreateByteDataBlock(byteLength).
6. Set obj.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]] to block.
7. Set obj.⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLength]] to byteLength.
8. If allocatingResizableBuffer is true, then
a. If it is not possible to create a Data Block block consisting of maxByteLength bytes, throw a RangeError
exception.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

b. NOTE: Resizable ArrayBuffers are designed to be implementable with in-place growth. Implementations may
throw if, for example, virtual memory cannot be reserved up front.
c. Set obj.⁠[[ArrayBufferMaxByteLength]] to maxByteLength.
9. Return obj.

[Link] ArrayBufferByteLength ( arrayBuffer, order )

The abstract operation ArrayBufferByteLength takes arguments arrayBuffer (an ArrayBuffer or SharedArrayBuffer) and
order (SEQ-CST or UNORDERED) and returns a non-negative integer. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(arrayBuffer) is true and arrayBuffer has an ⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLengthData]] internal slot, then

a. Let bufferByteLengthBlock be arrayBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLengthData]].
b. Let rawLength be GetRawBytesFromSharedBlock(bufferByteLengthBlock, 0, BIGUINT64, true, order).
c. Let isLittleEndian be the value of the ⁠[[LittleEndian]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
d. Return ℝ(RawBytesToNumeric(BIGUINT64, rawLength, isLittleEndian)).
2. Assert: IsDetachedBuffer(arrayBuffer) is false.
3. Return arrayBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLength]].

[Link] ArrayBufferCopyAndDetach ( arrayBuffer, newLength, preserveResizability )

The abstract operation ArrayBufferCopyAndDetach takes arguments arrayBuffer (an ECMAScript language value),
newLength (an ECMAScript language value), and preserveResizability (PRESERVE-RESIZABILITY or FIXED-LENGTH)
and returns either a normal completion containing an ArrayBuffer or a throw completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(arrayBuffer, ⁠[[ArrayBufferData]]).

2. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(arrayBuffer) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
3. If newLength is undefined, then
a. Let newByteLength be arrayBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLength]].
4. Else,
a. Let newByteLength be ? ToIndex(newLength).
5. If IsDetachedBuffer(arrayBuffer) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
6. If preserveResizability is PRESERVE-RESIZABILITY and IsFixedLengthArrayBuffer(arrayBuffer) is false, then
a. Let newMaxByteLength be arrayBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferMaxByteLength]].
7. Else,
a. Let newMaxByteLength be EMPTY.
8. If arrayBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferDetachKey]] is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
9. Let newBuffer be ? AllocateArrayBuffer(%ArrayBuffer%, newByteLength, newMaxByteLength).
10. Let copyLength be min(newByteLength, arrayBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLength]]).
11. Let fromBlock be arrayBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]].
12. Let toBlock be newBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]].
13. Perform CopyDataBlockBytes(toBlock, 0, fromBlock, 0, copyLength).
14. NOTE: Neither creation of the new Data Block nor copying from the old Data Block are observable. Implementations
may implement this method as a zero-copy move or a realloc.
15. Perform ! DetachArrayBuffer(arrayBuffer).
16. Return newBuffer.

[Link] IsDetachedBuffer ( arrayBuffer )

The abstract operation IsDetachedBuffer takes argument arrayBuffer (an ArrayBuffer or a SharedArrayBuffer) and re-
turns a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If arrayBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]] is null, return true.

2. Return false.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] DetachArrayBuffer ( arrayBuffer [ , key ] )

The abstract operation DetachArrayBuffer takes argument arrayBuffer (an ArrayBuffer) and optional argument key (any-
thing) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Assert: IsSharedArrayBuffer(arrayBuffer) is false.

2. If key is not present, set key to undefined.
3. If arrayBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferDetachKey]] is not key, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Set arrayBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]] to null.
5. Set arrayBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLength]] to 0.
6. Return UNUSED.

NOTE Detaching an ArrayBuffer instance disassociates the Data Block used as its backing store from the instance
and sets the byte length of the buffer to 0.

[Link] CloneArrayBuffer ( srcBuffer, srcByteOffset, srcLength )

The abstract operation CloneArrayBuffer takes arguments srcBuffer (an ArrayBuffer or a SharedArrayBuffer), src-
ByteOffset (a non-negative integer), and srcLength (a non-negative integer) and returns either a normal completion con-
taining an ArrayBuffer or a throw completion. It creates a new ArrayBuffer whose data is a copy of srcBuffer's data over
the range starting at srcByteOffset and continuing for srcLength bytes. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsDetachedBuffer(srcBuffer) is false.

2. Let targetBuffer be ? AllocateArrayBuffer(%ArrayBuffer%, srcLength).
3. Let srcBlock be srcBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]].
4. Let targetBlock be targetBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]].
5. Perform CopyDataBlockBytes(targetBlock, 0, srcBlock, srcByteOffset, srcLength).
6. Return targetBuffer.

[Link] GetArrayBufferMaxByteLengthOption ( options )

The abstract operation GetArrayBufferMaxByteLengthOption takes argument options (an ECMAScript language value)
and returns either a normal completion containing either a non-negative integer or EMPTY, or a throw completion. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. If options is not an Object, return EMPTY.

2. Let maxByteLength be ? Get(options, "maxByteLength").
3. If maxByteLength is undefined, return EMPTY.
4. Return ? ToIndex(maxByteLength).

[Link] HostResizeArrayBuffer ( buffer, newByteLength )

The host-defined abstract operation HostResizeArrayBuffer takes arguments buffer (an ArrayBuffer) and newByteLength
(a non-negative integer) and returns either a normal completion containing either HANDLED or UNHANDLED, or a throw
completion. It gives the host an opportunity to perform implementation-defined resizing of buffer. If the host chooses not
to handle resizing of buffer, it may return UNHANDLED for the default behaviour.

The implementation of HostResizeArrayBuffer must conform to the following requirements:

The abstract operation does not detach buffer.

If the abstract operation completes normally with HANDLED, buffer.[[ArrayBufferByteLength]] is newByteLength.

The default implementation of HostResizeArrayBuffer is to return NormalCompletion(UNHANDLED).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] IsFixedLengthArrayBuffer ( arrayBuffer )

The abstract operation IsFixedLengthArrayBuffer takes argument arrayBuffer (an ArrayBuffer or a SharedArrayBuffer)
and returns a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If arrayBuffer has an ⁠[[ArrayBufferMaxByteLength]] internal slot, return false.

2. Return true.

[Link] IsUnsignedElementType ( type )

The abstract operation IsUnsignedElementType takes argument type (a TypedArray element type) and returns a
Boolean. It verifies if the argument type is an unsigned TypedArray element type. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. If type is one of UINT8, UINT8CLAMPED, UINT16, UINT32, or BIGUINT64, return true.

2. Return false.

[Link] IsUnclampedIntegerElementType ( type )

The abstract operation IsUnclampedIntegerElementType takes argument type (a TypedArray element type) and returns
a Boolean. It verifies if the argument type is an Integer TypedArray element type not including UINT8CLAMPED. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. If type is one of INT8, UINT8, INT16, UINT16, INT32, or UINT32, return true.
2. Return false.

[Link] IsBigIntElementType ( type )

The abstract operation IsBigIntElementType takes argument type (a TypedArray element type) and returns a Boolean. It
verifies if the argument type is a BigInt TypedArray element type. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If type is either BIGUINT64 or BIGINT64, return true.

2. Return false.

[Link] IsNoTearConfiguration ( type, order )

The abstract operation IsNoTearConfiguration takes arguments type (a TypedArray element type) and order (SEQ-CST,
UNORDERED, or INIT) and returns a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If IsUnclampedIntegerElementType(type) is true, return true.

2. If IsBigIntElementType(type) is true and order is neither INIT nor UNORDERED, return true.
3. Return false.

[Link] RawBytesToNumeric ( type, rawBytes, isLittleEndian )

The abstract operation RawBytesToNumeric takes arguments type (a TypedArray element type), rawBytes (a List
of byte values), and isLittleEndian (a Boolean) and returns a Number or a BigInt. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let elementSize be the Element Size value specified in Table 75 for Element Type type.
2. If isLittleEndian is false, reverse the order of the elements of rawBytes.
3. If type is FLOAT16, then
a. Let value be the byte elements of rawBytes concatenated and interpreted as a little-endian bit string encoding
of an IEEE 754-2019 binary16 value.
b. If value is a NaN, return NaN.
c. Return the Number value that corresponds to value.
4. If type is FLOAT32, then
a. Let value be the byte elements of rawBytes concatenated and interpreted as a little-endian bit string encoding
of an IEEE 754-2019 binary32 value.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

b. If value is a NaN, return NaN.

c. Return the Number value that corresponds to value.
5. If type is FLOAT64, then
a. Let value be the byte elements of rawBytes concatenated and interpreted as a little-endian bit string encoding
of an IEEE 754-2019 binary64 value.
b. If value is a NaN, return NaN.
c. Return the Number value that corresponds to value.
6. If IsUnsignedElementType(type) is true, then
a. Let intValue be the byte elements of rawBytes concatenated and interpreted as a bit string encoding of an
unsigned little-endian binary number.
7. Else,
a. Let intValue be the byte elements of rawBytes concatenated and interpreted as a bit string encoding of a binary
little-endian two's complement number of bit length elementSize × 8.
8. If IsBigIntElementType(type) is true, return the BigInt value that corresponds to intValue.
9. Otherwise, return the Number value that corresponds to intValue.

[Link] GetRawBytesFromSharedBlock ( block, byteIndex, type, isTypedArray, order )

The abstract operation GetRawBytesFromSharedBlock takes arguments block (a Shared Data Block), byteIndex (a non-
negative integer), type (a TypedArray element type), isTypedArray (a Boolean), and order (SEQ-CST or UNORDERED)
and returns a List of byte values. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let elementSize be the Element Size value specified in Table 75 for Element Type type.
2. Let execution be the ⁠[[CandidateExecution]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
3. Let eventsRecord be the Agent Events Record of execution.⁠[[EventsRecords]] whose ⁠[[AgentSignifier]] is
AgentSignifier().
4. If isTypedArray is true and IsNoTearConfiguration(type, order) is true, let noTear be true; otherwise let noTear be
false.
5. Let rawValue be a List of length elementSize whose elements are nondeterministically chosen byte values.
6. NOTE: In implementations, rawValue is the result of a non-atomic or atomic read instruction on the underlying
hardware. The nondeterminism is a semantic prescription of the memory model to describe observable behaviour of
hardware with weak consistency.
7. Let readEvent be ReadSharedMemory { ⁠[[Order]]: order, ⁠[[NoTear]]: noTear, ⁠[[Block]]: block, ⁠[[ByteIndex]]: byteIndex,
⁠[[ElementSize]]: elementSize }.
8. Append readEvent to eventsRecord.⁠[[EventList]].
9. Append Chosen Value Record { ⁠[[Event]]: readEvent, ⁠[[ChosenValue]]: rawValue } to execution.⁠[[ChosenValues]].
10. Return rawValue.

[Link] GetValueFromBuffer ( arrayBuffer, byteIndex, type, isTypedArray, order [ , isLittleEndian ] )

The abstract operation GetValueFromBuffer takes arguments arrayBuffer (an ArrayBuffer or SharedArrayBuffer), byteIn-
dex (a non-negative integer), type (a TypedArray element type), isTypedArray (a Boolean), and order (SEQ-CST or
UNORDERED) and optional argument isLittleEndian (a Boolean) and returns a Number or a BigInt. It performs the follow-
ing steps when called:

1. Assert: IsDetachedBuffer(arrayBuffer) is false.

2. Assert: There are sufficient bytes in arrayBuffer starting at byteIndex to represent a value of type.
3. Let block be arrayBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]].
4. Let elementSize be the Element Size value specified in Table 75 for Element Type type.
5. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(arrayBuffer) is true, then
a. Assert: block is a Shared Data Block.
b. Let rawValue be GetRawBytesFromSharedBlock(block, byteIndex, type, isTypedArray, order).
6. Else,
a. Let rawValue be a List whose elements are bytes from block at indices in the interval from byteIndex (inclusive)
to byteIndex + elementSize (exclusive).
7. Assert: The number of elements in rawValue is elementSize.
8. If isLittleEndian is not present, set isLittleEndian to the value of the ⁠[[LittleEndian]] field of the surrounding agent's
Agent Record.
9. Return RawBytesToNumeric(type, rawValue, isLittleEndian).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] NumericToRawBytes ( type, value, isLittleEndian )

The abstract operation NumericToRawBytes takes arguments type (a TypedArray element type), value (a Number or a
BigInt), and isLittleEndian (a Boolean) and returns a List of byte values. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If type is FLOAT16, then

a. Let rawBytes be a List whose elements are the 2 bytes that are the result of converting value to IEEE 754-2019
binary16 format using roundTiesToEven mode. The bytes are arranged in little endian order. If value is NaN,
rawBytes may be set to any implementation chosen IEEE 754-2019 binary16 format NaN encoding. An
implementation must always choose the same encoding for each implementation distinguishable NaN value.
2. Else if type is FLOAT32, then
a. Let rawBytes be a List whose elements are the 4 bytes that are the result of converting value to IEEE 754-2019
binary32 format using roundTiesToEven mode. The bytes are arranged in little endian order. If value is NaN,
rawBytes may be set to any implementation chosen IEEE 754-2019 binary32 format NaN encoding. An
implementation must always choose the same encoding for each implementation distinguishable NaN value.
3. Else if type is FLOAT64, then
a. Let rawBytes be a List whose elements are the 8 bytes that are the IEEE 754-2019 binary64 format encoding of
value. The bytes are arranged in little endian order. If value is NaN, rawBytes may be set to any implementation
chosen IEEE 754-2019 binary64 format NaN encoding. An implementation must always choose the same
encoding for each implementation distinguishable NaN value.
4. Else,
a. Let n be the Element Size value specified in Table 75 for Element Type type.
b. Let conversionOperation be the abstract operation named in the Conversion Operation column in Table 75 for
Element Type type.
c. Let intValue be ℝ(! conversionOperation(value)).
d. If intValue ≥ 0, then
i. Let rawBytes be a List whose elements are the n-byte binary encoding of intValue. The bytes are ordered
in little endian order.
e. Else,
i. Let rawBytes be a List whose elements are the n-byte binary two's complement encoding of intValue. The
bytes are ordered in little endian order.
5. If isLittleEndian is false, reverse the order of the elements of rawBytes.
6. Return rawBytes.

[Link] SetValueInBuffer ( arrayBuffer, byteIndex, type, value, isTypedArray, order [ , isLittleEndian ] )

The abstract operation SetValueInBuffer takes arguments arrayBuffer (an ArrayBuffer or SharedArrayBuffer), byteIndex
(a non-negative integer), type (a TypedArray element type), value (a Number or a BigInt), isTypedArray (a Boolean), and
order (SEQ-CST, UNORDERED, or INIT) and optional argument isLittleEndian (a Boolean) and returns UNUSED. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsDetachedBuffer(arrayBuffer) is false.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] GetModifySetValueInBuffer ( arrayBuffer, byteIndex, type, value, op )

The abstract operation GetModifySetValueInBuffer takes arguments arrayBuffer (an ArrayBuffer or a

SharedArrayBuffer), byteIndex (a non-negative integer), type (a TypedArray element type), value (a Number or a BigInt),
and op (a read-modify-write modification function) and returns a Number or a BigInt. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Assert: IsDetachedBuffer(arrayBuffer) is false.

2. Assert: There are sufficient bytes in arrayBuffer starting at byteIndex to represent a value of type.
3. Assert: value is a BigInt if IsBigIntElementType(type) is true; otherwise, value is a Number.
4. Let block be arrayBuffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]].
5. Let elementSize be the Element Size value specified in Table 75 for Element Type type.
6. Let isLittleEndian be the value of the ⁠[[LittleEndian]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
7. Let rawBytes be NumericToRawBytes(type, value, isLittleEndian).
8. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(arrayBuffer) is true, then
a. Let execution be the ⁠[[CandidateExecution]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
b. Let eventsRecord be the Agent Events Record of execution.⁠[[EventsRecords]] whose ⁠[[AgentSignifier]] is
AgentSignifier().
c. Let rawBytesRead be a List of length elementSize whose elements are nondeterministically chosen byte
values.
d. NOTE: In implementations, rawBytesRead is the result of a load-link, of a load-exclusive, or of an operand of a
read-modify-write instruction on the underlying hardware. The nondeterminism is a semantic prescription of the
memory model to describe observable behaviour of hardware with weak consistency.
e. Let rmwEvent be ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory { ⁠[[Order]]: SEQ-CST, ⁠[[NoTear]]: true, ⁠[[Block]]: block,
⁠[[ByteIndex]]: byteIndex, ⁠[[ElementSize]]: elementSize, ⁠[[Payload]]: rawBytes, ⁠[[ModifyOp]]: op }.
f. Append rmwEvent to eventsRecord.⁠[[EventList]].
g. Append Chosen Value Record { ⁠[[Event]]: rmwEvent, ⁠[[ChosenValue]]: rawBytesRead } to
execution.⁠[[ChosenValues]].
9. Else,
a. Let rawBytesRead be a List of length elementSize whose elements are the sequence of elementSize bytes
starting with block[byteIndex].
b. Let rawBytesModified be op(rawBytesRead, rawBytes).
c. Store the individual bytes of rawBytesModified into block, starting at block[byteIndex].
10. Return RawBytesToNumeric(type, rawBytesRead, isLittleEndian).

25.1.4 The ArrayBuffer Constructor

The ArrayBuffer constructor:

is %ArrayBuffer%.
is the initial value of the "ArrayBuffer" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new ArrayBuffer when called as a constructor.
is not intended to be called as a function and will throw an exception when called in that manner.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified ArrayBuffer behaviour must include a super call to the ArrayBuffer constructor to create and initialize
subclass instances with the internal state necessary to support the [Link] built-in methods.

[Link] ArrayBuffer ( length [ , options ] )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is undefined, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let byteLength be ? ToIndex(length).
3. Let requestedMaxByteLength be ? GetArrayBufferMaxByteLengthOption(options).
4. Return ? AllocateArrayBuffer(NewTarget, byteLength, requestedMaxByteLength).

25.1.5 Properties of the ArrayBuffer Constructor

The ArrayBuffer constructor:

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

[Link] [Link] ( arg )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If arg is not an Object, return false.

2. If arg has a ⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]] internal slot, return true.
3. Return false.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the ArrayBuffer prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] get ArrayBuffer [ %[Link]% ]

ArrayBuffer[%[Link]%] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get ac-
cessor function performs the following steps when called:

1. Return the this value.

The value of the "name" property of this function is "get [[Link]]".

NOTE [Link] ( start, end ) normally uses its this value's constructor to create a derived object.
However, a subclass constructor may over-ride that default behaviour for the [Link] (
start, end ) method by redefining its %[Link]% property.

25.1.6 Properties of the ArrayBuffer Prototype Object

The ArrayBuffer prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
does not have an ⁠[[ArrayBufferData]] or ⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLength]] internal slot.

[Link] get [Link]

[Link] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get
accessor function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %ArrayBuffer%.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] get [Link]

[Link] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get ac-
cessor function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[ArrayBufferData]]).
3. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(O) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Return IsDetachedBuffer(O).

[Link] get [Link]

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] ( start, end )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[ArrayBufferData]]).
3. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(O) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
4. If IsDetachedBuffer(O) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Let len be O.⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLength]].
6. Let relativeStart be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(start).
7. If relativeStart = -∞, let first be 0.
8. Else if relativeStart < 0, let first be max(len + relativeStart, 0).
9. Else, let first be min(relativeStart, len).
10. If end is undefined, let relativeEnd be len; else let relativeEnd be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(end).
11. If relativeEnd = -∞, let final be 0.
12. Else if relativeEnd < 0, let final be max(len + relativeEnd, 0).
13. Else, let final be min(relativeEnd, len).
14. Let newLen be max(final - first, 0).
15. Let ctor be ? SpeciesConstructor(O, %ArrayBuffer%).
16. Let new be ? Construct(ctor, « 𝔽(newLen) »).
17. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(new, ⁠[[ArrayBufferData]]).
18. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(new) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
19. If IsDetachedBuffer(new) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
20. If SameValue(new, O) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
21. If new.⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLength]] < newLen, throw a TypeError exception.
22. NOTE: Side-effects of the above steps may have detached or resized O.
23. If IsDetachedBuffer(O) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
24. Let fromBuf be O.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]].
25. Let toBuf be new.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]].
26. Let currentLen be O.⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLength]].
27. If first < currentLen, then
a. Let count be min(newLen, currentLen - first).
b. Perform CopyDataBlockBytes(toBuf, 0, fromBuf, first, count).
28. Return new.

[Link] [Link] ( [ newLength ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Return ? ArrayBufferCopyAndDetach(O, newLength, PRESERVE-RESIZABILITY).

[Link] [Link] ( [ newLength ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Return ? ArrayBufferCopyAndDetach(O, newLength, FIXED-LENGTH).

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "ArrayBuffer".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

25.1.7 Properties of ArrayBuffer Instances

ArrayBuffer instances inherit properties from the ArrayBuffer prototype object. ArrayBuffer instances each have an
[[ArrayBufferData]] internal slot, an ⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLength]] internal slot, and an ⁠[[ArrayBufferDetachKey]] internal slot.
ArrayBuffer instances which are resizable each have an ⁠[[ArrayBufferMaxByteLength]] internal slot.

ArrayBuffer instances whose ⁠[[ArrayBufferData]] is null are considered to be detached and all operators to access or
modify data contained in the ArrayBuffer instance will fail.

ArrayBuffer instances whose ⁠[[ArrayBufferDetachKey]] is set to a value other than undefined need to have all
DetachArrayBuffer calls passing that same "detach key" as an argument, otherwise a TypeError will result. This internal
slot is only ever set by certain embedding environments, not by algorithms in this specification.

25.1.8 Resizable ArrayBuffer Guidelines

NOTE 1 The following are guidelines for ECMAScript programmers working with resizable ArrayBuffer.

We recommend that programs be tested in their deployment environments where possible. The amount of
available physical memory differs greatly between hardware devices. Similarly, virtual memory subsystems
also differ greatly between hardware devices as well as operating systems. An application that runs
without out-of-memory errors on a 64-bit desktop web browser could run out of memory on a 32-bit mobile
web browser.

When choosing a value for the "maxByteLength" option for resizable ArrayBuffer, we recommend that the
smallest possible size for the application be chosen. We recommend that "maxByteLength" does not
exceed 1,073,741,824 (230 bytes or 1GiB).

Please note that successfully constructing a resizable ArrayBuffer for a particular maximum size does not
guarantee that future resizes will succeed.

NOTE 2 The following are guidelines for ECMAScript implementers implementing resizable ArrayBuffer.

Resizable ArrayBuffer can be implemented as copying upon resize, as in-place growth via reserving
virtual memory up front, or as a combination of both for different values of the constructor's
"maxByteLength" option.

If a host is multi-tenanted (i.e. it runs many ECMAScript applications simultaneously), such as a web
browser, and its implementations choose to implement in-place growth by reserving virtual memory, we
recommend that both 32-bit and 64-bit implementations throw for values of "maxByteLength" ≥ 1GiB to
1.5GiB. This is to reduce the likelihood a single application can exhaust the virtual memory address space
and to reduce interoperability risk.

If a host does not have virtual memory, such as those running on embedded devices without an MMU, or if a
host only implements resizing by copying, it may accept any Number value for the "maxByteLength"
option. However, we recommend a RangeError be thrown if a memory block of the requested size can
never be allocated. For example, if the requested size is greater than the maximum amount of usable
memory on the device.

25.2 SharedArrayBuffer Objects

25.2.1 Fixed-length and Growable SharedArrayBuffer Objects

A fixed-length SharedArrayBuffer is a SharedArrayBuffer whose byte length cannot change after creation.

A growable SharedArrayBuffer is a SharedArrayBuffer whose byte length may increase after creation via calls to
[Link] ( newLength ).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

The kind of SharedArrayBuffer object that is created depends on the arguments passed to SharedArrayBuffer ( length [ ,
options ] ).

25.2.2 Abstract Operations for SharedArrayBuffer Objects

[Link] AllocateSharedArrayBuffer ( constructor, byteLength [ , maxByteLength ] )

The abstract operation AllocateSharedArrayBuffer takes arguments constructor (a constructor) and byteLength (a non-
negative integer) and optional argument maxByteLength (a non-negative integer or EMPTY) and returns either a normal
completion containing a SharedArrayBuffer or a throw completion. It is used to create a SharedArrayBuffer. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Let slots be « ⁠[[ArrayBufferData]] ».

2. If maxByteLength is present and maxByteLength is not EMPTY, let allocatingGrowableBuffer be true; otherwise let
allocatingGrowableBuffer be false.
3. If allocatingGrowableBuffer is true, then
a. If byteLength > maxByteLength, throw a RangeError exception.
b. Append ⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLengthData]] and ⁠[[ArrayBufferMaxByteLength]] to slots.
4. Else,
a. Append ⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLength]] to slots.
5. Let obj be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(constructor, "%[Link]%", slots).
6. If allocatingGrowableBuffer is true, let allocLength be maxByteLength; otherwise let allocLength be byteLength.
7. Let block be ? CreateSharedByteDataBlock(allocLength).
8. Set obj.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]] to block.
9. If allocatingGrowableBuffer is true, then
a. Assert: byteLength ≤ maxByteLength.
b. Let byteLengthBlock be ? CreateSharedByteDataBlock(8).
c. Perform SetValueInBuffer(byteLengthBlock, 0, BIGUINT64, ℤ(byteLength), true, SEQ-CST).
d. Set obj.⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLengthData]] to byteLengthBlock.
e. Set obj.⁠[[ArrayBufferMaxByteLength]] to maxByteLength.
10. Else,
a. Set obj.⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLength]] to byteLength.
11. Return obj.

[Link] IsSharedArrayBuffer ( obj )

The abstract operation IsSharedArrayBuffer takes argument obj (an ArrayBuffer or a SharedArrayBuffer) and returns a
Boolean. It tests whether an object is an ArrayBuffer, a SharedArrayBuffer, or a subtype of either. It performs the follow-
ing steps when called:

1. Let bufferData be obj.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]].

2. If bufferData is null, return false.
3. If bufferData is a Data Block, return false.
4. Assert: bufferData is a Shared Data Block.
5. Return true.

[Link] HostGrowSharedArrayBuffer ( buffer, newByteLength )

The host-defined abstract operation HostGrowSharedArrayBuffer takes arguments buffer (a SharedArrayBuffer) and
newByteLength (a non-negative integer) and returns either a normal completion containing either HANDLED or
UNHANDLED, or a throw completion. It gives the host an opportunity to perform implementation-defined growing of buf-
fer. If the host chooses not to handle growing of buffer, it may return UNHANDLED for the default behaviour.

The implementation of HostGrowSharedArrayBuffer must conform to the following requirements:

If the abstract operation does not complete normally with UNHANDLED, and newByteLength < the current byte
length of the buffer or newByteLength > buffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferMaxByteLength]], throw a RangeError exception.
Let isLittleEndian be the value of the ⁠[[LittleEndian]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record. If the abstract
operation completes normally with HANDLED, a WriteSharedMemory or ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory event

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

whose ⁠[[Order]] is SEQ-CST, ⁠[[Payload]] is NumericToRawBytes(BIGUINT64, newByteLength, isLittleEndian),

⁠[[Block]] is buffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLengthData]], ⁠[[ByteIndex]] is 0, and ⁠[[ElementSize]] is 8 is added to the
surrounding agent's candidate execution such that racing calls to [Link] are
not "lost", i.e. silently do nothing.

NOTE The second requirement above is intentionally vague about how or when the current byte length of buffer is
read. Because the byte length must be updated via an atomic read-modify-write operation on the underlying
hardware, architectures that use load-link/store-conditional or load-exclusive/store-exclusive instruction pairs
may wish to keep the paired instructions close in the instruction stream. As such,
[Link] itself does not perform bounds checking on newByteLength before calling
HostGrowSharedArrayBuffer, nor is there a requirement on when the current byte length is read.

This is in contrast with HostResizeArrayBuffer, which is guaranteed that the value of newByteLength is ≥ 0
and ≤ buffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferMaxByteLength]].

The default implementation of HostGrowSharedArrayBuffer is to return NormalCompletion(UNHANDLED).

25.2.3 The SharedArrayBuffer Constructor

The SharedArrayBuffer constructor:

is %SharedArrayBuffer%.
is the initial value of the "SharedArrayBuffer" property of the global object, if that property is present (see below).
creates and initializes a new SharedArrayBuffer when called as a constructor.
is not intended to be called as a function and will throw an exception when called in that manner.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified SharedArrayBuffer behaviour must include a super call to the SharedArrayBuffer constructor to create
and initialize subclass instances with the internal state necessary to support the
[Link] built-in methods.

Whenever a host does not provide concurrent access to SharedArrayBuffers it may omit the "SharedArrayBuffer"
property of the global object.

NOTE Unlike an ArrayBuffer, a SharedArrayBuffer cannot become detached, and its internal
[[ArrayBufferData]] slot is never null.

[Link] SharedArrayBuffer ( length [ , options ] )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is undefined, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let byteLength be ? ToIndex(length).
3. Let requestedMaxByteLength be ? GetArrayBufferMaxByteLengthOption(options).
4. Return ? AllocateSharedArrayBuffer(NewTarget, byteLength, requestedMaxByteLength).

25.2.4 Properties of the SharedArrayBuffer Constructor

The SharedArrayBuffer constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the SharedArrayBuffer prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] get SharedArrayBuffer [ %[Link]% ]

SharedArrayBuffer[%[Link]%] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its

get accessor function performs the following steps when called:

1. Return the this value.

The value of the "name" property of this function is "get [[Link]]".

25.2.5 Properties of the SharedArrayBuffer Prototype Object

The SharedArrayBuffer prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
does not have an ⁠[[ArrayBufferData]] or ⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLength]] internal slot.

[Link] get [Link]

[Link] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined.

Its get accessor function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[ArrayBufferData]]).
3. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(O) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Let length be ArrayBufferByteLength(O, SEQ-CST).
5. Return 𝔽(length).

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %SharedArrayBuffer%.

[Link] [Link] ( newLength )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[ArrayBufferMaxByteLength]]).
3. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(O) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Let newByteLength be ? ToIndex(newLength).
5. Let hostHandled be ? HostGrowSharedArrayBuffer(O, newByteLength).
6. If hostHandled is HANDLED, return undefined.
7. Let isLittleEndian be the value of the ⁠[[LittleEndian]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
8. Let byteLengthBlock be O.⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLengthData]].
9. Let currentByteLengthRawBytes be GetRawBytesFromSharedBlock(byteLengthBlock, 0, BIGUINT64, true, SEQ-
CST).
10. Let newByteLengthRawBytes be NumericToRawBytes(BIGUINT64, ℤ(newByteLength), isLittleEndian).
11. Repeat,
a. NOTE: This is a compare-and-exchange loop to ensure that parallel, racing grows of the same buffer are totally
ordered, are not lost, and do not silently do nothing. The loop exits if it was able to attempt to grow
uncontended.
b. Let currentByteLength be ℝ(RawBytesToNumeric(BIGUINT64, currentByteLengthRawBytes, isLittleEndian)).
c. If newByteLength = currentByteLength, return undefined.
d. If newByteLength < currentByteLength or newByteLength > O.⁠[[ArrayBufferMaxByteLength]], throw a
RangeError exception.
e. Let byteLengthDelta be newByteLength - currentByteLength.
f. If it is impossible to create a new Shared Data Block value consisting of byteLengthDelta bytes, throw a
RangeError exception.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

g. NOTE: No new Shared Data Block is constructed and used here. The observable behaviour of growable
SharedArrayBuffers is specified by allocating a max-sized Shared Data Block at construction time, and this step
captures the requirement that implementations that run out of memory must throw a RangeError.
h. Let readByteLengthRawBytes be AtomicCompareExchangeInSharedBlock(byteLengthBlock, 0, 8,
currentByteLengthRawBytes, newByteLengthRawBytes).
i. If ByteListEqual(readByteLengthRawBytes, currentByteLengthRawBytes) is true, return undefined.
j. Set currentByteLengthRawBytes to readByteLengthRawBytes.

NOTE Spurious failures of the compare-exchange to update the length are prohibited. If the bounds checking for
the new length passes and the implementation is not out of memory, a ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory
event (i.e. a successful compare-exchange) is always added into the candidate execution.

Parallel calls to [Link] are totally ordered. For example, consider two racing
calls: [Link](10) and [Link](20). One of the two calls is guaranteed to win the race. The call to
[Link](10) will never shrink sab even if [Link](20) happened first; in that case it will instead
throw a RangeError.

[Link] get [Link]

[Link] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its

get accessor function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[ArrayBufferData]]).
3. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(O) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. If IsFixedLengthArrayBuffer(O) is false, return true; otherwise return false.

[Link] get [Link]

[Link] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is un-

defined. Its get accessor function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[ArrayBufferData]]).
3. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(O) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. If IsFixedLengthArrayBuffer(O) is true, then
a. Let length be O.⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLength]].
5. Else,
a. Let length be O.⁠[[ArrayBufferMaxByteLength]].
6. Return 𝔽(length).

[Link] [Link] ( start, end )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[ArrayBufferData]]).
3. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(O) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Let len be ArrayBufferByteLength(O, SEQ-CST).
5. Let relativeStart be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(start).
6. If relativeStart = -∞, let first be 0.
7. Else if relativeStart < 0, let first be max(len + relativeStart, 0).
8. Else, let first be min(relativeStart, len).
9. If end is undefined, let relativeEnd be len; else let relativeEnd be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(end).
10. If relativeEnd = -∞, let final be 0.
11. Else if relativeEnd < 0, let final be max(len + relativeEnd, 0).
12. Else, let final be min(relativeEnd, len).
13. Let newLen be max(final - first, 0).
14. Let ctor be ? SpeciesConstructor(O, %SharedArrayBuffer%).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

15. Let new be ? Construct(ctor, « 𝔽(newLen) »).

16. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(new, ⁠[[ArrayBufferData]]).
17. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(new) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
18. If new.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]] is O.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]], throw a TypeError exception.
19. If ArrayBufferByteLength(new, SEQ-CST) < newLen, throw a TypeError exception.
20. Let fromBuf be O.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]].
21. Let toBuf be new.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]].
22. Perform CopyDataBlockBytes(toBuf, 0, fromBuf, first, newLen).
23. Return new.

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "SharedArrayBuffer".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

25.2.6 Properties of SharedArrayBuffer Instances

SharedArrayBuffer instances inherit properties from the SharedArrayBuffer prototype object. SharedArrayBuffer in-
stances each have an ⁠[[ArrayBufferData]] internal slot. SharedArrayBuffer instances which are not growable each have
an ⁠[[ArrayBufferByteLength]] internal slot. SharedArrayBuffer instances which are growable each have an
[[ArrayBufferByteLengthData]] internal slot and an ⁠[[ArrayBufferMaxByteLength]] internal slot.

NOTE SharedArrayBuffer instances, unlike ArrayBuffer instances, are never detached.

25.2.7 Growable SharedArrayBuffer Guidelines

NOTE 1 The following are guidelines for ECMAScript programmers working with growable SharedArrayBuffer.

We recommend that programs be tested in their deployment environments where possible. The amount of
available physical memory differ greatly between hardware devices. Similarly, virtual memory subsystems
also differ greatly between hardware devices as well as operating systems. An application that runs
without out-of-memory errors on a 64-bit desktop web browser could run out of memory on a 32-bit mobile
web browser.

When choosing a value for the "maxByteLength" option for growable SharedArrayBuffer, we recommend
that the smallest possible size for the application be chosen. We recommend that "maxByteLength" does
not exceed 1073741824, or 1GiB.

Please note that successfully constructing a growable SharedArrayBuffer for a particular maximum size
does not guarantee that future grows will succeed.

Not all loads of a growable SharedArrayBuffer's length are synchronizing SEQ-CST loads. Loads of the
length that are for bounds-checking of an integer-indexed property access, e.g. u8[idx], are not
synchronizing. In general, in the absence of explicit synchronization, one property access being in-bound
does not imply a subsequent property access in the same agent is also in-bound. In contrast, explicit loads
of the length via the length and byteLength getters on SharedArrayBuffer, %TypedArray%.prototype,
and [Link] are synchronizing. Loads of the length that are performed by built-in methods to
check if a TypedArray is entirely out-of-bounds are also synchronizing.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE 2 The following are guidelines for ECMAScript implementers implementing growable SharedArrayBuffer.

We recommend growable SharedArrayBuffer be implemented as in-place growth via reserving virtual

memory up front.

Because grow operations can happen in parallel with memory accesses on a growable SharedArrayBuffer,
the constraints of the memory model require that even unordered accesses do not "tear" (bits of their values
will not be mixed). In practice, this means the underlying data block of a growable SharedArrayBuffer cannot
be grown by being copied without stopping the world. We do not recommend stopping the world as an
implementation strategy because it introduces a serialization point and is slow.

Grown memory must appear zeroed from the moment of its creation, including to any racy accesses in
parallel. This can be accomplished via zero-filled-on-demand virtual memory pages, or careful
synchronization if manually zeroing memory.

Integer-indexed property access on TypedArray views of growable SharedArrayBuffers is intended to be

optimizable similarly to access on TypedArray views of non-growable SharedArrayBuffers, because integer-
indexed property loads on are not synchronizing on the underlying buffer's length (see programmer
guidelines above). For example, bounds checks for property accesses may still be hoisted out of loops.

In practice it is difficult to implement growable SharedArrayBuffer by copying on hosts that do not have
virtual memory, such as those running on embedded devices without an MMU. Memory usage behaviour of
growable SharedArrayBuffers on such hosts may significantly differ from that of hosts with virtual memory.
Such hosts should clearly communicate memory usage expectations to users.

25.3 DataView Objects

25.3.1 Abstract Operations For DataView Objects

[Link] DataView With Buffer Witness Records

A DataView With Buffer Witness Record is a Record value used to encapsulate a DataView along with a cached byte
length of the viewed buffer. It is used to help ensure there is a single shared memory read event of the byte length data
block when the viewed buffer is a growable SharedArrayBuffers.

DataView With Buffer Witness Records have the fields listed in Table 77.

Table 77: DataView With Buffer Witness Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[Object]] a DataView The DataView object whose buffer's byte length is loaded.
⁠[[CachedBufferByteLength]] a non-negative integer or The byte length of the object's ⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]] when
DETACHED the Record was created.

[Link] MakeDataViewWithBufferWitnessRecord ( obj, order )

The abstract operation MakeDataViewWithBufferWitnessRecord takes arguments obj (a DataView) and order (SEQ-CST
or UNORDERED) and returns a DataView With Buffer Witness Record. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let buffer be obj.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]].

2. If IsDetachedBuffer(buffer) is true, then
a. Let byteLength be DETACHED.
3. Else,
a. Let byteLength be ArrayBufferByteLength(buffer, order).
4. Return the DataView With Buffer Witness Record { ⁠[[Object]]: obj, ⁠[[CachedBufferByteLength]]: byteLength }.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] GetViewByteLength ( viewRecord )

The abstract operation GetViewByteLength takes argument viewRecord (a DataView With Buffer Witness Record) and
returns a non-negative integer. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsViewOutOfBounds(viewRecord) is false.

2. Let view be viewRecord.⁠[[Object]].
3. If view.⁠[[ByteLength]] is not AUTO, return view.⁠[[ByteLength]].
4. Assert: IsFixedLengthArrayBuffer(view.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]]) is false.
5. Let byteOffset be view.⁠[[ByteOffset]].
6. Let byteLength be viewRecord.⁠[[CachedBufferByteLength]].
7. Assert: byteLength is not DETACHED.
8. Return byteLength - byteOffset.

[Link] IsViewOutOfBounds ( viewRecord )

The abstract operation IsViewOutOfBounds takes argument viewRecord (a DataView With Buffer Witness Record) and
returns a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let view be viewRecord.⁠[[Object]].

2. Let bufferByteLength be viewRecord.⁠[[CachedBufferByteLength]].
3. Assert: IsDetachedBuffer(view.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]]) is true if and only if bufferByteLength is DETACHED.
4. If bufferByteLength is DETACHED, return true.
5. Let byteOffsetStart be view.⁠[[ByteOffset]].
6. If view.⁠[[ByteLength]] is AUTO, then
a. Let byteOffsetEnd be bufferByteLength.
7. Else,
a. Let byteOffsetEnd be byteOffsetStart + view.⁠[[ByteLength]].
8. If byteOffsetStart > bufferByteLength or byteOffsetEnd > bufferByteLength, return true.
9. NOTE: 0-length DataViews are not considered out-of-bounds.
10. Return false.

[Link] GetViewValue ( view, requestIndex, isLittleEndian, type )

The abstract operation GetViewValue takes arguments view (an ECMAScript language value), requestIndex (an
ECMAScript language value), isLittleEndian (an ECMAScript language value), and type (a TypedArray element type)
and returns either a normal completion containing either a Number or a BigInt, or a throw completion. It is used by func-
tions on DataView instances to retrieve values from the view's buffer. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(view, ⁠[[DataView]]).

2. Assert: view has a ⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]] internal slot.
3. Let getIndex be ? ToIndex(requestIndex).
4. Set isLittleEndian to ToBoolean(isLittleEndian).
5. Let viewOffset be view.⁠[[ByteOffset]].
6. Let viewRecord be MakeDataViewWithBufferWitnessRecord(view, UNORDERED).
7. NOTE: Bounds checking is not a synchronizing operation when view's backing buffer is a growable
SharedArrayBuffer.
8. If IsViewOutOfBounds(viewRecord) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
9. Let viewSize be GetViewByteLength(viewRecord).
10. Let elementSize be the Element Size value specified in Table 75 for Element Type type.
11. If getIndex + elementSize > viewSize, throw a RangeError exception.
12. Let bufferIndex be getIndex + viewOffset.
13. Return GetValueFromBuffer(view.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]], bufferIndex, type, false, UNORDERED, isLittleEndian).

[Link] SetViewValue ( view, requestIndex, isLittleEndian, type, value )

The abstract operation SetViewValue takes arguments view (an ECMAScript language value), requestIndex (an
ECMAScript language value), isLittleEndian (an ECMAScript language value), type (a TypedArray element type), and
value (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing undefined or a throw comple-

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

tion. It is used by functions on DataView instances to store values into the view's buffer. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(view, ⁠[[DataView]]).

2. Assert: view has a ⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]] internal slot.
3. Let getIndex be ? ToIndex(requestIndex).
4. If IsBigIntElementType(type) is true, let numberValue be ? ToBigInt(value).
5. Otherwise, let numberValue be ? ToNumber(value).
6. Set isLittleEndian to ToBoolean(isLittleEndian).
7. Let viewOffset be view.⁠[[ByteOffset]].
8. Let viewRecord be MakeDataViewWithBufferWitnessRecord(view, UNORDERED).
9. NOTE: Bounds checking is not a synchronizing operation when view's backing buffer is a growable
SharedArrayBuffer.
10. If IsViewOutOfBounds(viewRecord) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
11. Let viewSize be GetViewByteLength(viewRecord).
12. Let elementSize be the Element Size value specified in Table 75 for Element Type type.
13. If getIndex + elementSize > viewSize, throw a RangeError exception.
14. Let bufferIndex be getIndex + viewOffset.
15. Perform SetValueInBuffer(view.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]], bufferIndex, type, numberValue, false, UNORDERED,
isLittleEndian).
16. Return undefined.

25.3.2 The DataView Constructor

The DataView constructor:

is %DataView%.
is the initial value of the "DataView" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new DataView when called as a constructor.
is not intended to be called as a function and will throw an exception when called in that manner.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified DataView behaviour must include a super call to the DataView constructor to create and initialize
subclass instances with the internal state necessary to support the [Link] built-in methods.

[Link] DataView ( buffer [ , byteOffset [ , byteLength ] ] )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is undefined, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(buffer, ⁠[[ArrayBufferData]]).
3. Let offset be ? ToIndex(byteOffset).
4. If IsDetachedBuffer(buffer) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Let bufferByteLength be ArrayBufferByteLength(buffer, SEQ-CST).
6. If offset > bufferByteLength, throw a RangeError exception.
7. Let bufferIsFixedLength be IsFixedLengthArrayBuffer(buffer).
8. If byteLength is undefined, then
a. If bufferIsFixedLength is true, then
i. Let viewByteLength be bufferByteLength - offset.
b. Else,
i. Let viewByteLength be AUTO.
9. Else,
a. Let viewByteLength be ? ToIndex(byteLength).
b. If offset + viewByteLength > bufferByteLength, throw a RangeError exception.
10. Let O be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(NewTarget, "%[Link]%", « ⁠[[DataView]],
⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]], ⁠[[ByteLength]], ⁠[[ByteOffset]] »).
11. If IsDetachedBuffer(buffer) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
12. Set bufferByteLength to ArrayBufferByteLength(buffer, SEQ-CST).
13. If offset > bufferByteLength, throw a RangeError exception.
14. If byteLength is not undefined, then
a. If offset + viewByteLength > bufferByteLength, throw a RangeError exception.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

15. Set O.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]] to buffer.

16. Set O.⁠[[ByteLength]] to viewByteLength.
17. Set O.⁠[[ByteOffset]] to offset.
18. Return O.

25.3.3 Properties of the DataView Constructor

The DataView constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the DataView prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

25.3.4 Properties of the DataView Prototype Object

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[DataView]]).
3. Assert: O has a ⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]] internal slot.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

2. If littleEndian is not present, set littleEndian to false.
3. Return ? GetViewValue(view, byteOffset, littleEndian, FLOAT16).

[Link] [Link].getFloat32 ( byteOffset [ , littleEndian ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let view be the this value.

2. If littleEndian is not present, set littleEndian to false.
3. Return ? GetViewValue(view, byteOffset, littleEndian, FLOAT32).

[Link] [Link].getFloat64 ( byteOffset [ , littleEndian ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let view be the this value.

2. If littleEndian is not present, set littleEndian to false.
3. Return ? GetViewValue(view, byteOffset, littleEndian, FLOAT64).

[Link] [Link].getInt8 ( byteOffset )

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "DataView".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

25.3.5 Properties of DataView Instances

DataView instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the DataView prototype object. DataView instances
each have ⁠[[DataView]], ⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]], ⁠[[ByteLength]], and ⁠[[ByteOffset]] internal slots.

NOTE The value of the ⁠[[DataView]] internal slot is not used within this specification. The simple presence of that
internal slot is used within the specification to identify objects created using the DataView constructor.

25.4 The Atomics Object

The Atomics object:

is %Atomics%.
is the initial value of the "Atomics" property of the global object.
is an ordinary object.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
does not have a ⁠[[Construct]] internal method; it cannot be used as a constructor with the new operator.
does not have a ⁠[[Call]] internal method; it cannot be invoked as a function.

The Atomics object provides functions that operate indivisibly (atomically) on shared memory array cells as well as func-
tions that let agents wait for and dispatch primitive events. When used with discipline, the Atomics functions allow multi-
agent programs that communicate through shared memory to execute in a well-understood order even on parallel
CPUs. The rules that govern shared-memory communication are provided by the memory model, defined below.

NOTE For informative guidelines for programming and implementing shared memory in ECMAScript, please see
the notes at the end of the memory model section.

25.4.1 Waiter Record

A Waiter Record is a Record value used to denote a particular call to [Link] or [Link].

A Waiter Record has fields listed in Table 78.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Table 78: Waiter Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[AgentSignifier]] an agent signifier The agent that called [Link] or
[Link].
⁠[[PromiseCapability]] a PromiseCapability Record or If denoting a call to [Link], the resulting
BLOCKING promise, otherwise BLOCKING.
⁠[[TimeoutTime]] a non-negative extended The earliest time by which timeout may be triggered;
mathematical value computed using time values.
⁠[[Result]] "ok" or "timed-out" The return value of the call.

25.4.2 WaiterList Records

A WaiterList Record is used to explain waiting and notification of agents via [Link], [Link],
and [Link].

A WaiterList Record has fields listed in Table 79.

Table 79: WaiterList Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[Waiters]] a List of Waiter The calls to [Link] or [Link] that are
Records waiting on the location with which this WaiterList is associated.
⁠[[MostRecentLeaveEvent]] a Synchronize The event of the most recent leaving of its critical section, or
event or EMPTY EMPTY if its critical section has never been entered.

There can be multiple Waiter Records in a WaiterList with the same agent signifier.

The agent cluster has a store of WaiterList Records; the store is indexed by (block, i), where block is a Shared Data
Block and i a byte offset into the memory of block. WaiterList Records are agent-independent: a lookup in the store of
WaiterList Records by (block, i) will result in the same WaiterList Record in any agent in the agent cluster.

Each WaiterList Record has a critical section that controls exclusive access to that WaiterList Record during evaluation.
Only a single agent may enter a WaiterList Record's critical section at one time. Entering and leaving a WaiterList
Record's critical section is controlled by the abstract operations EnterCriticalSection and LeaveCriticalSection.
Operations on a WaiterList Record—adding and removing waiting agents, traversing the list of agents, suspending and
notifying agents on the list, setting and retrieving the Synchronize event—may only be performed by agents that have
entered the WaiterList Record's critical section.

25.4.3 Abstract Operations for Atomics

[Link] ValidateIntegerTypedArray ( typedArray, waitable )

The abstract operation ValidateIntegerTypedArray takes arguments typedArray (an ECMAScript language value) and
waitable (a Boolean) and returns either a normal completion containing a TypedArray With Buffer Witness Record, or a
throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let taRecord be ? ValidateTypedArray(typedArray, UNORDERED).

2. NOTE: Bounds checking is not a synchronizing operation when typedArray's backing buffer is a growable
SharedArrayBuffer.
3. If waitable is true, then
a. If typedArray.⁠[[TypedArrayName]] is neither "Int32Array" nor "BigInt64Array", throw a TypeError exception.
4. Else,

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

a. Let type be TypedArrayElementType(typedArray).

b. If IsUnclampedIntegerElementType(type) is false and IsBigIntElementType(type) is false, throw a TypeError
exception.
5. Return taRecord.

[Link] ValidateAtomicAccess ( taRecord, requestIndex )

The abstract operation ValidateAtomicAccess takes arguments taRecord (a TypedArray With Buffer Witness Record)
and requestIndex (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing an integer or a
throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let length be TypedArrayLength(taRecord).

2. Let accessIndex be ? ToIndex(requestIndex).
3. Assert: accessIndex ≥ 0.
4. If accessIndex ≥ length, throw a RangeError exception.
5. Let typedArray be taRecord.⁠[[Object]].
6. Let elementSize be TypedArrayElementSize(typedArray).
7. Let offset be typedArray.⁠[[ByteOffset]].
8. Return (accessIndex × elementSize) + offset.

[Link] ValidateAtomicAccessOnIntegerTypedArray ( typedArray, requestIndex )

The abstract operation ValidateAtomicAccessOnIntegerTypedArray takes arguments typedArray (an ECMAScript lan-
guage value) and requestIndex (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing an
integer or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let taRecord be ? ValidateIntegerTypedArray(typedArray, false).

2. Return ? ValidateAtomicAccess(taRecord, requestIndex).

[Link] RevalidateAtomicAccess ( typedArray, byteIndexInBuffer )

The abstract operation RevalidateAtomicAccess takes arguments typedArray (a TypedArray) and byteIndexInBuffer (an
integer) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion. This operation revalidates
the index within the backing buffer for atomic operations after all argument coercions are performed in Atomics methods,
as argument coercions can have arbitrary side effects, which could cause the buffer to become out of bounds. This
operation does not throw when typedArray's backing buffer is a SharedArrayBuffer. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let taRecord be MakeTypedArrayWithBufferWitnessRecord(typedArray, UNORDERED).

2. NOTE: Bounds checking is not a synchronizing operation when typedArray's backing buffer is a growable
SharedArrayBuffer.
3. If IsTypedArrayOutOfBounds(taRecord) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Assert: byteIndexInBuffer ≥ typedArray.⁠[[ByteOffset]].
5. If byteIndexInBuffer ≥ taRecord.⁠[[CachedBufferByteLength]], throw a RangeError exception.
6. Return UNUSED.

[Link] GetWaiterList ( block, i )

The abstract operation GetWaiterList takes arguments block (a Shared Data Block) and i (a non-negative integer that is
evenly divisible by 4) and returns a WaiterList Record. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: i and i + 3 are valid byte offsets within the memory of block.
2. Return the WaiterList Record that is referenced by the pair (block, i).

[Link] EnterCriticalSection ( WL )

The abstract operation EnterCriticalSection takes argument WL (a WaiterList Record) and returns UNUSED. It performs

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

the following steps when called:

1. Assert: The surrounding agent is not in the critical section for any WaiterList Record.
2. Wait until no agent is in the critical section for WL, then enter the critical section for WL (without allowing any other
agent to enter).
3. If WL.⁠[[MostRecentLeaveEvent]] is not EMPTY, then
a. NOTE: A WL whose critical section has been entered at least once has a Synchronize event set by
LeaveCriticalSection.
b. Let execution be the ⁠[[CandidateExecution]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
c. Let eventsRecord be the Agent Events Record of execution.⁠[[EventsRecords]] whose ⁠[[AgentSignifier]] is
AgentSignifier().
d. Let enterEvent be a new Synchronize event.
e. Append enterEvent to eventsRecord.⁠[[EventList]].
f. Append (WL.⁠[[MostRecentLeaveEvent]], enterEvent) to eventsRecord.[[AgentSynchronizesWith]].
4. Return UNUSED.

EnterCriticalSection has contention when an agent attempting to enter the critical section must wait for another agent to
leave it. When there is no contention, FIFO order of EnterCriticalSection calls is observable. When there is contention,
an implementation may choose an arbitrary order but may not cause an agent to wait indefinitely.

[Link] LeaveCriticalSection ( WL )

The abstract operation LeaveCriticalSection takes argument WL (a WaiterList Record) and returns UNUSED. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Assert: The surrounding agent is in the critical section for WL.

2. Let execution be the ⁠[[CandidateExecution]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
3. Let eventsRecord be the Agent Events Record of execution.⁠[[EventsRecords]] whose ⁠[[AgentSignifier]] is
AgentSignifier().
4. Let leaveEvent be a new Synchronize event.
5. Append leaveEvent to eventsRecord.⁠[[EventList]].
6. Set WL.⁠[[MostRecentLeaveEvent]] to leaveEvent.
7. Leave the critical section for WL.
8. Return UNUSED.

[Link] AddWaiter ( WL, waiterRecord )

The abstract operation AddWaiter takes arguments WL (a WaiterList Record) and waiterRecord (a Waiter Record) and
returns UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: The surrounding agent is in the critical section for WL.

2. Assert: There is no Waiter Record in WL.⁠[[Waiters]] whose ⁠[[PromiseCapability]] field is
waiterRecord.⁠[[PromiseCapability]] and whose ⁠[[AgentSignifier]] field is waiterRecord.⁠[[AgentSignifier]].
3. Append waiterRecord to WL.⁠[[Waiters]].
4. Return UNUSED.

[Link] RemoveWaiter ( WL, waiterRecord )

The abstract operation RemoveWaiter takes arguments WL (a WaiterList Record) and waiterRecord (a Waiter Record)
and returns UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: The surrounding agent is in the critical section for WL.

2. Assert: WL.⁠[[Waiters]] contains waiterRecord.
3. Remove waiterRecord from WL.[[Waiters]].
4. Return UNUSED.

[Link] RemoveWaiters ( WL, c )

The abstract operation RemoveWaiters takes arguments WL (a WaiterList Record) and c (a non-negative integer or +∞)

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

and returns a List of Waiter Records. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: The surrounding agent is in the critical section for WL.

2. Let len be the number of elements in WL.⁠[[Waiters]].
3. Let n be min(c, len).
4. Let L be a List whose elements are the first n elements of WL.⁠[[Waiters]].
5. Remove the first n elements of WL.⁠[[Waiters]].
6. Return L.

[Link] SuspendThisAgent ( WL, waiterRecord )

The abstract operation SuspendThisAgent takes arguments WL (a WaiterList Record) and waiterRecord (a Waiter
Record) and returns UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: The surrounding agent is in the critical section for WL.

2. Assert: WL.⁠[[Waiters]] contains waiterRecord.
3. Let thisAgent be AgentSignifier().
4. Assert: waiterRecord.⁠[[AgentSignifier]] is thisAgent.
5. Assert: waiterRecord.⁠[[PromiseCapability]] is BLOCKING.
6. Assert: AgentCanSuspend() is true.
7. Perform LeaveCriticalSection(WL) and suspend the surrounding agent until the time is
waiterRecord.⁠[[TimeoutTime]], performing the combined operation in such a way that a notification that arrives after
the critical section is exited but before the suspension takes effect is not lost. The surrounding agent can only wake
from suspension due to a timeout or due to another agent calling NotifyWaiter with arguments WL and thisAgent (i.e.
via a call to [Link]).
8. Perform EnterCriticalSection(WL).
9. Return UNUSED.

[Link] NotifyWaiter ( WL, waiterRecord )

The abstract operation NotifyWaiter takes arguments WL (a WaiterList Record) and waiterRecord (a Waiter Record) and
returns UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: The surrounding agent is in the critical section for WL.

2. If waiterRecord.⁠[[PromiseCapability]] is BLOCKING, then
a. Wake the agent whose signifier is waiterRecord.⁠[[AgentSignifier]] from suspension.
b. NOTE: This causes the agent to resume execution in SuspendThisAgent.
3. Else if AgentSignifier() is waiterRecord.⁠[[AgentSignifier]], then
a. Let promiseCapability be waiterRecord.⁠[[PromiseCapability]].
b. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « waiterRecord.⁠[[Result]] »).
4. Else,
a. Perform EnqueueResolveInAgentJob(waiterRecord.⁠[[AgentSignifier]], waiterRecord.⁠[[PromiseCapability]],
waiterRecord.⁠[[Result]]).
5. Return UNUSED.

NOTE An agent must not access another agent's promise capability in any capacity beyond passing it to the host.

[Link] EnqueueResolveInAgentJob ( agentSignifier, promiseCapability, resolution )

The abstract operation EnqueueResolveInAgentJob takes arguments agentSignifier (an agent signifier), promiseCapab-
ility (a PromiseCapability Record), and resolution ("ok" or "timed-out") and returns UNUSED. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let resolveJob be a new Job Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures agentSignifier, promiseCapability,
and resolution and performs the following steps when called:
a. Assert: AgentSignifier() is agentSignifier.
b. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « resolution »).
c. Return UNUSED.
2. Let realmInTargetAgent be ! GetFunctionRealm(promiseCapability.⁠[[Resolve]]).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Assert: agentSignifier is realmInTargetAgent.⁠[[AgentSignifier]].

4. Perform HostEnqueueGenericJob(resolveJob, realmInTargetAgent).
5. Return UNUSED.

[Link] DoWait ( mode, typedArray, index, value, timeout )

The abstract operation DoWait takes arguments mode (SYNC or ASYNC), typedArray (an ECMAScript language value),
index (an ECMAScript language value), value (an ECMAScript language value), and timeout (an ECMAScript language
value) and returns either a normal completion containing either an Object, "not-equal", "timed-out", or "ok", or a
throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let taRecord be ? ValidateIntegerTypedArray(typedArray, true).

2. Let buffer be taRecord.⁠[[Object]].⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]].
3. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(buffer) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Let i be ? ValidateAtomicAccess(taRecord, index).
5. Let arrayTypeName be typedArray.⁠[[TypedArrayName]].
6. If arrayTypeName is "BigInt64Array", let v be ? ToBigInt64(value).
7. Else, let v be ? ToInt32(value).
8. Let q be ? ToNumber(timeout).
9. If q is either NaN or +∞𝔽, let t be +∞; else if q is -∞𝔽, let t be 0; else let t be max(ℝ(q), 0).
10. If mode is SYNC and AgentCanSuspend() is false, throw a TypeError exception.
11. Let block be buffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]].
12. Let offset be typedArray.⁠[[ByteOffset]].
13. Let byteIndexInBuffer be (i × 4) + offset.
14. Let WL be GetWaiterList(block, byteIndexInBuffer).
15. If mode is SYNC, then
a. Let promiseCapability be BLOCKING.
b. Let resultObject be undefined.
16. Else,
a. Let promiseCapability be ! NewPromiseCapability(%Promise%).
b. Let resultObject be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%).
17. Perform EnterCriticalSection(WL).
18. Let elementType be TypedArrayElementType(typedArray).
19. Let w be GetValueFromBuffer(buffer, byteIndexInBuffer, elementType, true, SEQ-CST).
20. If v ≠ w, then
a. Perform LeaveCriticalSection(WL).
b. If mode is SYNC, return "not-equal".
c. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(resultObject, "async", false).
d. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(resultObject, "value", "not-equal").
e. Return resultObject.
21. If t = 0 and mode is ASYNC, then
a. NOTE: There is no special handling of synchronous immediate timeouts. Asynchronous immediate timeouts
have special handling in order to fail fast and avoid unnecessary Promise jobs.
b. Perform LeaveCriticalSection(WL).
c. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(resultObject, "async", false).
d. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(resultObject, "value", "timed-out").
e. Return resultObject.
22. Let thisAgent be AgentSignifier().
23. Let now be the time value (UTC) identifying the current time.
24. Let additionalTimeout be an implementation-defined non-negative mathematical value.
25. Let timeoutTime be ℝ(now) + t + additionalTimeout.
26. NOTE: When t is +∞, timeoutTime is also +∞.
27. Let waiterRecord be a new Waiter Record { ⁠[[AgentSignifier]]: thisAgent, ⁠[[PromiseCapability]]: promiseCapability,
⁠[[TimeoutTime]]: timeoutTime, [[Result]]: "ok" }.
28. Perform AddWaiter(WL, waiterRecord).
29. If mode is SYNC, then
a. Perform SuspendThisAgent(WL, waiterRecord).
30. Else if timeoutTime is finite, then
a. Perform EnqueueAtomicsWaitAsyncTimeoutJob(WL, waiterRecord).
31. Perform LeaveCriticalSection(WL).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

32. If mode is SYNC, return waiterRecord.⁠[[Result]].

33. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(resultObject, "async", true).
34. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(resultObject, "value", promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]]).
35. Return resultObject.

NOTE additionalTimeout allows implementations to pad timeouts as necessary, such as for reducing power
consumption or coarsening timer resolution to mitigate timing attacks. This value may differ from call to call
of DoWait.

[Link] EnqueueAtomicsWaitAsyncTimeoutJob ( WL, waiterRecord )

The abstract operation EnqueueAtomicsWaitAsyncTimeoutJob takes arguments WL (a WaiterList Record) and waiter-
Record (a Waiter Record) and returns UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let timeoutJob be a new Job Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures WL and waiterRecord and performs
the following steps when called:
a. Perform EnterCriticalSection(WL).
b. If WL.⁠[[Waiters]] contains waiterRecord, then
i. Let timeOfJobExecution be the time value (UTC) identifying the current time.
ii. Assert: ℝ(timeOfJobExecution) ≥ waiterRecord.⁠[[TimeoutTime]] (ignoring potential non-monotonicity of time
values).
iii. Set waiterRecord.⁠[[Result]] to "timed-out".
iv. Perform RemoveWaiter(WL, waiterRecord).
v. Perform NotifyWaiter(WL, waiterRecord).
c. Perform LeaveCriticalSection(WL).
d. Return UNUSED.
2. Let now be the time value (UTC) identifying the current time.
3. Let currentRealm be the current Realm Record.
4. Perform HostEnqueueTimeoutJob(timeoutJob, currentRealm, 𝔽(waiterRecord.⁠[[TimeoutTime]]) - now).
5. Return UNUSED.

[Link] AtomicCompareExchangeInSharedBlock ( block,

byteIndexInBuffer, elementSize, expectedBytes, replacementBytes )

The abstract operation AtomicCompareExchangeInSharedBlock takes arguments block (a Shared Data Block),
byteIndexInBuffer (an integer), elementSize (a non-negative integer), expectedBytes (a List of byte values), and
replacementBytes (a List of byte values) and returns a List of byte values. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let execution be the ⁠[[CandidateExecution]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
2. Let eventsRecord be the Agent Events Record of execution.⁠[[EventsRecords]] whose ⁠[[AgentSignifier]] is
AgentSignifier().
3. Let rawBytesRead be a List of length elementSize whose elements are nondeterministically chosen byte values.
4. NOTE: In implementations, rawBytesRead is the result of a load-link, of a load-exclusive, or of an operand of a read-
modify-write instruction on the underlying hardware. The nondeterminism is a semantic prescription of the memory
model to describe observable behaviour of hardware with weak consistency.
5. NOTE: The comparison of the expected value and the read value is performed outside of the read-modify-write
modification function to avoid needlessly strong synchronization when the expected value is not equal to the read
value.
6. If ByteListEqual(rawBytesRead, expectedBytes) is true, then
a. Let second be a new read-modify-write modification function with parameters (oldBytes, newBytes) that
captures nothing and performs the following steps atomically when called:
i. Return newBytes.
b. Let event be ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory { ⁠[[Order]]: SEQ-CST, ⁠[[NoTear]]: true, ⁠[[Block]]: block,
⁠[[ByteIndex]]: byteIndexInBuffer, ⁠[[ElementSize]]: elementSize, ⁠[[Payload]]: replacementBytes, ⁠[[ModifyOp]]:
second }.
7. Else,
a. Let event be ReadSharedMemory { ⁠[[Order]]: SEQ-CST, ⁠[[NoTear]]: true, ⁠[[Block]]: block, ⁠[[ByteIndex]]:
byteIndexInBuffer, ⁠[[ElementSize]]: elementSize }.
8. Append event to eventsRecord.⁠[[EventList]].

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

9. Append Chosen Value Record { ⁠[[Event]]: event, ⁠[[ChosenValue]]: rawBytesRead } to execution.⁠[[ChosenValues]].

10. Return rawBytesRead.

[Link] AtomicReadModifyWrite ( typedArray, index, value, op )

The abstract operation AtomicReadModifyWrite takes arguments typedArray (an ECMAScript language value), index
(an ECMAScript language value), value (an ECMAScript language value), and op (a read-modify-write modification
function) and returns either a normal completion containing either a Number or a BigInt, or a throw completion. op takes
two List of byte values arguments and returns a List of byte values. This operation atomically loads a value, combines it
with another value, and stores the combination. It returns the loaded value. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let byteIndexInBuffer be ? ValidateAtomicAccessOnIntegerTypedArray(typedArray, index).

2. If typedArray.⁠[[ContentType]] is BIGINT, let v be ? ToBigInt(value).
3. Otherwise, let v be 𝔽(? ToIntegerOrInfinity(value)).
4. Perform ? RevalidateAtomicAccess(typedArray, byteIndexInBuffer).
5. Let buffer be typedArray.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]].
6. Let elementType be TypedArrayElementType(typedArray).
7. Return GetModifySetValueInBuffer(buffer, byteIndexInBuffer, elementType, v, op).

[Link] ByteListBitwiseOp ( op, xBytes, yBytes )

The abstract operation ByteListBitwiseOp takes arguments op (&, ^, or |), xBytes (a List of byte values), and yBytes (a
List of byte values) and returns a List of byte values. The operation atomically performs a bitwise operation on all byte
values of the arguments and returns a List of byte values. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: xBytes and yBytes have the same number of elements.

2. Let result be a new empty List.
3. Let i be 0.
4. For each element xByte of xBytes, do
a. Let yByte be yBytes[i].
b. If op is &, then
i. Let resultByte be the result of applying the bitwise AND operation to xByte and yByte.
c. Else if op is ^, then
i. Let resultByte be the result of applying the bitwise exclusive OR (XOR) operation to xByte and yByte.
d. Else,
i. Assert: op is |.
ii. Let resultByte be the result of applying the bitwise inclusive OR operation to xByte and yByte.
e. Set i to i + 1.
f. Append resultByte to result.
5. Return result.

[Link] ByteListEqual ( xBytes, yBytes )

The abstract operation ByteListEqual takes arguments xBytes (a List of byte values) and yBytes (a List of byte values)
and returns a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If xBytes and yBytes do not have the same number of elements, return false.
2. Let i be 0.
3. For each element xByte of xBytes, do
a. Let yByte be yBytes[i].
b. If xByte ≠ yByte, return false.
c. Set i to i + 1.
4. Return true.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

25.4.4 [Link] ( typedArray, index, value )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let add be a new read-modify-write modification function with parameters (xBytes, yBytes) that captures typedArray
and performs the following steps atomically when called:
a. Let type be TypedArrayElementType(typedArray).
b. Let isLittleEndian be the value of the ⁠[[LittleEndian]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
c. Let x be RawBytesToNumeric(type, xBytes, isLittleEndian).
d. Let y be RawBytesToNumeric(type, yBytes, isLittleEndian).
e. If x is a Number, then
i. Let sum be Number::add(x, y).
f. Else,
i. Assert: x is a BigInt.
ii. Let sum be BigInt::add(x, y).
g. Let sumBytes be NumericToRawBytes(type, sum, isLittleEndian).
h. Assert: sumBytes, xBytes, and yBytes have the same number of elements.
i. Return sumBytes.
2. Return ? AtomicReadModifyWrite(typedArray, index, value, add).

25.4.5 [Link] ( typedArray, index, value )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let and be a new read-modify-write modification function with parameters (xBytes, yBytes) that captures nothing
and performs the following steps atomically when called:
a. Return ByteListBitwiseOp(&, xBytes, yBytes).
2. Return ? AtomicReadModifyWrite(typedArray, index, value, and).

25.4.6 [Link] ( typedArray, index, expectedValue, replacementValue )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let byteIndexInBuffer be ? ValidateAtomicAccessOnIntegerTypedArray(typedArray, index).

2. Let buffer be typedArray.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]].
3. Let block be buffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]].
4. If typedArray.⁠[[ContentType]] is BIGINT, then
a. Let expected be ? ToBigInt(expectedValue).
b. Let replacement be ? ToBigInt(replacementValue).
5. Else,
a. Let expected be 𝔽(? ToIntegerOrInfinity(expectedValue)).
b. Let replacement be 𝔽(? ToIntegerOrInfinity(replacementValue)).
6. Perform ? RevalidateAtomicAccess(typedArray, byteIndexInBuffer).
7. Let elementType be TypedArrayElementType(typedArray).
8. Let elementSize be TypedArrayElementSize(typedArray).
9. Let isLittleEndian be the value of the ⁠[[LittleEndian]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
10. Let expectedBytes be NumericToRawBytes(elementType, expected, isLittleEndian).
11. Let replacementBytes be NumericToRawBytes(elementType, replacement, isLittleEndian).
12. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(buffer) is true, then
a. Let rawBytesRead be AtomicCompareExchangeInSharedBlock(block, byteIndexInBuffer, elementSize,
expectedBytes, replacementBytes).
13. Else,
a. Let rawBytesRead be a List of length elementSize whose elements are the sequence of elementSize bytes
starting with block[byteIndexInBuffer].
b. If ByteListEqual(rawBytesRead, expectedBytes) is true, then
i. Store the individual bytes of replacementBytes into block, starting at block[byteIndexInBuffer].
14. Return RawBytesToNumeric(elementType, rawBytesRead, isLittleEndian).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

25.4.7 [Link] ( typedArray, index, value )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let second be a new read-modify-write modification function with parameters (oldBytes, newBytes) that captures
nothing and performs the following steps atomically when called:
a. Return newBytes.
2. Return ? AtomicReadModifyWrite(typedArray, index, value, second).

25.4.8 [Link] ( size )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(size).
2. Let AR be the Agent Record of the surrounding agent.
3. If n = 1, return AR.⁠[[IsLockFree1]].
4. If n = 2, return AR.⁠[[IsLockFree2]].
5. If n = 4, return true.
6. If n = 8, return AR.⁠[[IsLockFree8]].
7. Return false.

NOTE This function is an optimization primitive. The intuition is that if the atomic step of an atomic primitive
(compareExchange, load, store, add, sub, and, or, xor, or exchange) on a datum of size n bytes will
be performed without the surrounding agent acquiring a lock outside the n bytes comprising the datum, then
[Link](n) will return true. High-performance algorithms will use this function to determine
whether to use locks or atomic operations in critical sections. If an atomic primitive is not lock-free then it is
often more efficient for an algorithm to provide its own locking.

[Link](4) always returns true as that can be supported on all known relevant hardware.
Being able to assume this will generally simplify programs.

Regardless of the value returned by this function, all atomic operations are guaranteed to be atomic. For
example, they will never have a visible operation take place in the middle of the operation (e.g., "tearing").

25.4.9 [Link] ( typedArray, index )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let byteIndexInBuffer be ? ValidateAtomicAccessOnIntegerTypedArray(typedArray, index).

2. Perform ? RevalidateAtomicAccess(typedArray, byteIndexInBuffer).
3. Let buffer be typedArray.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]].
4. Let elementType be TypedArrayElementType(typedArray).
5. Return GetValueFromBuffer(buffer, byteIndexInBuffer, elementType, true, SEQ-CST).

25.4.10 [Link] ( typedArray, index, value )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let or be a new read-modify-write modification function with parameters (xBytes, yBytes) that captures nothing and
performs the following steps atomically when called:
a. Return ByteListBitwiseOp(|, xBytes, yBytes).
2. Return ? AtomicReadModifyWrite(typedArray, index, value, or).

25.4.11 [Link] ( typedArray, index, value )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let byteIndexInBuffer be ? ValidateAtomicAccessOnIntegerTypedArray(typedArray, index).

2. If typedArray.⁠[[ContentType]] is BIGINT, let v be ? ToBigInt(value).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Otherwise, let v be 𝔽(? ToIntegerOrInfinity(value)).

4. Perform ? RevalidateAtomicAccess(typedArray, byteIndexInBuffer).
5. Let buffer be typedArray.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]].
6. Let elementType be TypedArrayElementType(typedArray).
7. Perform SetValueInBuffer(buffer, byteIndexInBuffer, elementType, v, true, SEQ-CST).
8. Return v.

25.4.12 [Link] ( typedArray, index, value )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let subtract be a new read-modify-write modification function with parameters (xBytes, yBytes) that captures
typedArray and performs the following steps atomically when called:
a. Let type be TypedArrayElementType(typedArray).
b. Let isLittleEndian be the value of the ⁠[[LittleEndian]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
c. Let x be RawBytesToNumeric(type, xBytes, isLittleEndian).
d. Let y be RawBytesToNumeric(type, yBytes, isLittleEndian).
e. If x is a Number, then
i. Let difference be Number::subtract(x, y).
f. Else,
i. Assert: x is a BigInt.
ii. Let difference be BigInt::subtract(x, y).
g. Let differenceBytes be NumericToRawBytes(type, difference, isLittleEndian).
h. Assert: differenceBytes, xBytes, and yBytes have the same number of elements.
i. Return differenceBytes.
2. Return ? AtomicReadModifyWrite(typedArray, index, value, subtract).

25.4.13 [Link] ( typedArray, index, value, timeout )

This function puts the surrounding agent in a wait queue and suspends it until notified or until the wait times out, return-
ing a String differentiating those cases.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? DoWait(SYNC, typedArray, index, value, timeout).

25.4.14 [Link] ( typedArray, index, value, timeout )

This function returns a Promise that is resolved when the calling agent is notified or the timeout is reached.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? DoWait(ASYNC, typedArray, index, value, timeout).

25.4.15 [Link] ( typedArray, index, count )

This function notifies some agents that are sleeping in the wait queue.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let taRecord be ? ValidateIntegerTypedArray(typedArray, true).

2. Let byteIndexInBuffer be ? ValidateAtomicAccess(taRecord, index).
3. If count is undefined, then
a. Let c be +∞.
4. Else,
a. Let intCount be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(count).
b. Let c be max(intCount, 0).
5. Let buffer be typedArray.⁠[[ViewedArrayBuffer]].
6. Let block be buffer.⁠[[ArrayBufferData]].
7. If IsSharedArrayBuffer(buffer) is false, return +0𝔽.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

8. Let WL be GetWaiterList(block, byteIndexInBuffer).

9. Perform EnterCriticalSection(WL).
10. Let S be RemoveWaiters(WL, c).
11. For each element W of S, do
a. Perform NotifyWaiter(WL, W).
12. Perform LeaveCriticalSection(WL).
13. Let n be the number of elements in S.
14. Return 𝔽(n).

25.4.16 [Link] ( typedArray, index, value )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let xor be a new read-modify-write modification function with parameters (xBytes, yBytes) that captures nothing and
performs the following steps atomically when called:
a. Return ByteListBitwiseOp(^, xBytes, yBytes).
2. Return ? AtomicReadModifyWrite(typedArray, index, value, xor).

25.4.17 Atomics [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "Atomics".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

25.5 The JSON Object

The JSON object:

is %JSON%.
is the initial value of the "JSON" property of the global object.
is an ordinary object.
contains two functions, parse and stringify, that are used to parse and construct JSON texts.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
does not have a ⁠[[Construct]] internal method; it cannot be used as a constructor with the new operator.
does not have a ⁠[[Call]] internal method; it cannot be invoked as a function.

The JSON Data Interchange Format is defined in ECMA-404. The JSON interchange format used in this specification
is exactly that described by ECMA-404. Conforming implementations of [Link] and [Link] must
support the exact interchange format described in the ECMA-404 specification without any deletions or extensions to
the format.

25.5.1 [Link] ( text [ , reviver ] )

This function parses a JSON text (a JSON-formatted String) and produces an ECMAScript language value. The JSON
format represents literals, arrays, and objects with a syntax similar to the syntax for ECMAScript literals, Array
Initializers, and Object Initializers. After parsing, JSON objects are realized as ECMAScript objects. JSON arrays are
realized as ECMAScript Array instances. JSON strings, numbers, booleans, and null are realized as ECMAScript
Strings, Numbers, Booleans, and null.

The optional reviver parameter is a function that takes two parameters, key and value. It can filter and transform the res-
ults. It is called with each of the key/value pairs produced by the parse, and its return value is used instead of the ori-
ginal value. If it returns what it received, the structure is not modified. If it returns undefined then the property is deleted
from the result.

1. Let jsonString be ? ToString(text).

2. Let unfiltered be ? ParseJSON(jsonString).
3. If IsCallable(reviver) is true, then
a. Let root be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%).
b. Let rootName be the empty String.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

c. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(root, rootName, unfiltered).

d. Return ? InternalizeJSONProperty(root, rootName, reviver).
4. Else,
a. Return unfiltered.

The "length" property of this function is 2𝔽.

[Link] ParseJSON ( text )

The abstract operation ParseJSON takes argument text (a String) and returns either a normal completion containing an
ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If StringToCodePoints(text) is not a valid JSON text as specified in ECMA-404, throw a SyntaxError exception.
2. Let scriptString be the string-concatenation of "(", text, and ");".
3. Let script be ParseText(scriptString, Script).
4. NOTE: The early error rules defined in [Link] have special handling for the above invocation of ParseText.
5. Assert: script is a Parse Node.
6. Let result be ! Evaluation of script.
7. NOTE: The PropertyDefinitionEvaluation semantics defined in [Link] have special handling for the above
evaluation.
8. Assert: result is either a String, a Number, a Boolean, an Object that is defined by either an ArrayLiteral or an
ObjectLiteral, or null.
9. Return result.

It is not permitted for a conforming implementation of [Link] to extend the JSON grammars. If an implementation
wishes to support a modified or extended JSON interchange format it must do so by defining a different parse function.

NOTE 1 Valid JSON text is a subset of the ECMAScript PrimaryExpression syntax. Step 1 verifies that jsonString
conforms to that subset, and step 8 asserts that evaluation returns a value of an appropriate type.

However, because [Link] behaves differently during ParseJSON, the same source text can produce
different results when evaluated as a PrimaryExpression rather than as JSON. Furthermore, the Early Error
for duplicate "__proto__" properties in object literals, which likewise does not apply during ParseJSON,
means that not all texts accepted by ParseJSON are valid as a PrimaryExpression, despite matching
the grammar.

NOTE 2 In the case where there are duplicate name Strings within an object, lexically preceding values for the same
key shall be overwritten.

[Link] InternalizeJSONProperty ( holder, name, reviver )

The abstract operation InternalizeJSONProperty takes arguments holder (an Object), name (a String), and
reviver (a function object) and returns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a
throw completion.

NOTE This algorithm intentionally does not throw an exception if either ⁠[[Delete]] or CreateDataProperty
return false.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let val be ? Get(holder, name).

2. If val is an Object, then
a. Let isArray be ? IsArray(val).
b. If isArray is true, then
i. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(val).
ii. Let I be 0.
iii. Repeat, while I < len,

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

1. Let prop be ! ToString(𝔽(I)).

2. Let newElement be ? InternalizeJSONProperty(val, prop, reviver).
3. If newElement is undefined, then
a. Perform ? val.⁠[[Delete]](prop).
4. Else,
a. Perform ? CreateDataProperty(val, prop, newElement).
5. Set I to I + 1.
c. Else,
i. Let keys be ? EnumerableOwnProperties(val, KEY).
ii. For each String P of keys, do
1. Let newElement be ? InternalizeJSONProperty(val, P, reviver).
2. If newElement is undefined, then
a. Perform ? val.⁠[[Delete]](P).
3. Else,
a. Perform ? CreateDataProperty(val, P, newElement).
3. Return ? Call(reviver, holder, « name, val »).

25.5.2 [Link] ( value [ , replacer [ , space ] ] )

This function returns a String in UTF-16 encoded JSON format representing an ECMAScript language value, or un-
defined. It can take three parameters. The value parameter is an ECMAScript language value, which is usually an ob-
ject or array, although it can also be a String, Boolean, Number or null. The optional replacer parameter is either a func-
tion that alters the way objects and arrays are stringified, or an array of Strings and Numbers that acts as an inclusion
list for selecting the object properties that will be stringified. The optional space parameter is a String or Number that al-
lows the result to have white space injected into it to improve human readability.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let stack be a new empty List.

2. Let indent be the empty String.
3. Let PropertyList be undefined.
4. Let ReplacerFunction be undefined.
5. If replacer is an Object, then
a. If IsCallable(replacer) is true, then
i. Set ReplacerFunction to replacer.
b. Else,
i. Let isArray be ? IsArray(replacer).
ii. If isArray is true, then
1. Set PropertyList to a new empty List.
2. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(replacer).
3. Let k be 0.
4. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let prop be ! ToString(𝔽(k)).
b. Let v be ? Get(replacer, prop).
c. Let item be undefined.
d. If v is a String, then
i. Set item to v.
e. Else if v is a Number, then
i. Set item to ! ToString(v).
f. Else if v is an Object, then
i. If v has a ⁠[[StringData]] or ⁠[[NumberData]] internal slot, set item to ? ToString(v).
g. If item is not undefined and PropertyList does not contain item, then
i. Append item to PropertyList.
h. Set k to k + 1.
6. If space is an Object, then
a. If space has a ⁠[[NumberData]] internal slot, then
i. Set space to ? ToNumber(space).
b. Else if space has a ⁠[[StringData]] internal slot, then
i. Set space to ? ToString(space).
7. If space is a Number, then
a. Let spaceMV be ! ToIntegerOrInfinity(space).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

b. Set spaceMV to min(10, spaceMV).

c. If spaceMV < 1, let gap be the empty String; otherwise let gap be the String value containing spaceMV
occurrences of the code unit 0x0020 (SPACE).
8. Else if space is a String, then
a. If the length of space ≤ 10, let gap be space; otherwise let gap be the substring of space from 0 to 10.
9. Else,
a. Let gap be the empty String.
10. Let wrapper be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%).
11. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(wrapper, the empty String, value).
12. Let state be the JSON Serialization Record { ⁠[[ReplacerFunction]]: ReplacerFunction, ⁠[[Stack]]: stack, ⁠[[Indent]]:
indent, ⁠[[Gap]]: gap, ⁠[[PropertyList]]: PropertyList }.
13. Return ? SerializeJSONProperty(state, the empty String, wrapper).

The "length" property of this function is 3𝔽.

NOTE 1 JSON structures are allowed to be nested to any depth, but they must be acyclic. If value is or contains a
cyclic structure, then this function must throw a TypeError exception. This is an example of a value that
cannot be stringified:

a = [];
a[0] = a;
my_text = [Link](a); // This must throw a TypeError.

NOTE 2 Symbolic primitive values are rendered as follows:

The null value is rendered in JSON text as the String value "null".
The undefined value is not rendered.
The true value is rendered in JSON text as the String value "true".
The false value is rendered in JSON text as the String value "false".

NOTE 3 String values are wrapped in QUOTATION MARK (") code units. The code units " and \ are escaped with \
prefixes. Control characters code units are replaced with escape sequences \uHHHH, or with the shorter
forms, \b (BACKSPACE), \f (FORM FEED), \n (LINE FEED), \r (CARRIAGE RETURN), \t
(CHARACTER TABULATION).

NOTE 4 Finite numbers are stringified as if by calling ToString(number). NaN and Infinity regardless of sign are
represented as the String value "null".

NOTE 5 Values that do not have a JSON representation (such as undefined and functions) do not produce a String.
Instead they produce the undefined value. In arrays these values are represented as the String value
"null". In objects an unrepresentable value causes the property to be excluded from stringification.

NOTE 6 An object is rendered as U+007B (LEFT CURLY BRACKET) followed by zero or more properties, separated
with a U+002C (COMMA), closed with a U+007D (RIGHT CURLY BRACKET). A property is a quoted String
representing the property name, a U+003A (COLON), and then the stringified property value. An array is
rendered as an opening U+005B (LEFT SQUARE BRACKET) followed by zero or more values, separated
with a U+002C (COMMA), closed with a U+005D (RIGHT SQUARE BRACKET).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] JSON Serialization Record

A JSON Serialization Record is a Record value used to enable serialization to the JSON format.

JSON Serialization Records have the fields listed in Table 80.

Table 80: JSON Serialization Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[ReplacerFunction]] a function object or A function that can supply replacement values for object properties
undefined (from [Link]'s replacer parameter).
⁠[[PropertyList]] either a List of Strings or The names of properties to include when serializing a non-array
undefined object (from [Link]'s replacer parameter).
⁠[[Gap]] a String The unit of indentation (from [Link]'s space parameter).
⁠[[Stack]] a List of Objects The set of nested objects that are in the process of being serialized.
Used to detect cyclic structures.
⁠[[Indent]] a String The current indentation.

[Link] SerializeJSONProperty ( state, key, holder )

The abstract operation SerializeJSONProperty takes arguments state (a JSON Serialization Record), key (a String), and
holder (an Object) and returns either a normal completion containing either a String or undefined, or a throw comple-
tion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let value be ? Get(holder, key).

2. If value is an Object or value is a BigInt, then
a. Let toJSON be ? GetV(value, "toJSON").
b. If IsCallable(toJSON) is true, then
i. Set value to ? Call(toJSON, value, « key »).
3. If state.⁠[[ReplacerFunction]] is not undefined, then
a. Set value to ? Call(state.⁠[[ReplacerFunction]], holder, « key, value »).
4. If value is an Object, then
a. If value has a ⁠[[NumberData]] internal slot, then
i. Set value to ? ToNumber(value).
b. Else if value has a ⁠[[StringData]] internal slot, then
i. Set value to ? ToString(value).
c. Else if value has a ⁠[[BooleanData]] internal slot, then
i. Set value to value.⁠[[BooleanData]].
d. Else if value has a ⁠[[BigIntData]] internal slot, then
i. Set value to value.⁠[[BigIntData]].
5. If value is null, return "null".
6. If value is true, return "true".
7. If value is false, return "false".
8. If value is a String, return QuoteJSONString(value).
9. If value is a Number, then
a. If value is finite, return ! ToString(value).
b. Return "null".
10. If value is a BigInt, throw a TypeError exception.
11. If value is an Object and IsCallable(value) is false, then
a. Let isArray be ? IsArray(value).
b. If isArray is true, return ? SerializeJSONArray(state, value).
c. Return ? SerializeJSONObject(state, value).
12. Return undefined.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] QuoteJSONString ( value )

The abstract operation QuoteJSONString takes argument value (a String) and returns a String. It wraps value in 0x0022
(QUOTATION MARK) code units and escapes certain other code units within it. This operation interprets value as a se-
quence of UTF-16 encoded code points, as described in 6.1.4. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let product be the String value consisting solely of the code unit 0x0022 (QUOTATION MARK).
2. For each code point C of StringToCodePoints(value), do
a. If C is listed in the “Code Point” column of Table 81, then
i. Set product to the string-concatenation of product and the escape sequence for C as specified in the
“Escape Sequence” column of the corresponding row.
b. Else if C has a numeric value less than 0x0020 (SPACE) or C has the same numeric value as a leading
surrogate or trailing surrogate, then
i. Let unit be the code unit whose numeric value is the numeric value of C.
ii. Set product to the string-concatenation of product and UnicodeEscape(unit).
c. Else,
i. Set product to the string-concatenation of product and UTF16EncodeCodePoint(C).
3. Set product to the string-concatenation of product and the code unit 0x0022 (QUOTATION MARK).
4. Return product.

Table 81: JSON Single Character Escape Sequences

Code Point Unicode Character Name Escape Sequence
U+0008 BACKSPACE \b
U+0009 CHARACTER TABULATION \t
U+000A LINE FEED (LF) \n
U+000C FORM FEED (FF) \f
U+000D CARRIAGE RETURN (CR) \r
U+0022 QUOTATION MARK \"
U+005C REVERSE SOLIDUS \\

[Link] UnicodeEscape ( C )

The abstract operation UnicodeEscape takes argument C (a code unit) and returns a String. It represents C as a
Unicode escape sequence. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let n be the numeric value of C.

2. Assert: n ≤ 0xFFFF.
3. Let hex be the String representation of n, formatted as a lowercase hexadecimal number.
4. Return the string-concatenation of the code unit 0x005C (REVERSE SOLIDUS), "u", and StringPad(hex, 4, "0",
START).

[Link] SerializeJSONObject ( state, value )

The abstract operation SerializeJSONObject takes arguments state (a JSON Serialization Record) and value (an
Object) and returns either a normal completion containing a String or a throw completion. It serializes an object. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

6. Else,
a. Let K be ? EnumerableOwnProperties(value, KEY).
7. Let partial be a new empty List.
8. For each element P of K, do
a. Let strP be ? SerializeJSONProperty(state, P, value).
b. If strP is not undefined, then
i. Let member be QuoteJSONString(P).
ii. Set member to the string-concatenation of member and ":".
iii. If state.⁠[[Gap]] is not the empty String, then
1. Set member to the string-concatenation of member and the code unit 0x0020 (SPACE).
iv. Set member to the string-concatenation of member and strP.
v. Append member to partial.
9. If partial is empty, then
a. Let final be "{}".
10. Else,
a. If state.⁠[[Gap]] is the empty String, then
i. Let properties be the String value formed by concatenating all the element Strings of partial with each
adjacent pair of Strings separated with the code unit 0x002C (COMMA). A comma is not inserted either
before the first String or after the last String.
ii. Let final be the string-concatenation of "{", properties, and "}".
b. Else,
i. Let separator be the string-concatenation of the code unit 0x002C (COMMA), the code unit 0x000A (LINE
FEED), and state.⁠[[Indent]].
ii. Let properties be the String value formed by concatenating all the element Strings of partial with each
adjacent pair of Strings separated with separator. The separator String is not inserted either before the first
String or after the last String.
iii. Let final be the string-concatenation of "{", the code unit 0x000A (LINE FEED), state.⁠[[Indent]], properties,
the code unit 0x000A (LINE FEED), stepBack, and "}".
11. Remove the last element of state.⁠[[Stack]].
12. Set state.⁠[[Indent]] to stepBack.
13. Return final.

[Link] SerializeJSONArray ( state, value )

The abstract operation SerializeJSONArray takes arguments state (a JSON Serialization Record) and value (an
ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal completion containing a String or a throw completion. It serial-
izes an array. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If state.⁠[[Stack]] contains value, throw a TypeError exception because the structure is cyclical.
2. Append value to state.⁠[[Stack]].
3. Let stepBack be state.⁠[[Indent]].
4. Set state.⁠[[Indent]] to the string-concatenation of state.⁠[[Indent]] and state.⁠[[Gap]].
5. Let partial be a new empty List.
6. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(value).
7. Let index be 0.
8. Repeat, while index < len,
a. Let strP be ? SerializeJSONProperty(state, ! ToString(𝔽(index)), value).
b. If strP is undefined, then
i. Append "null" to partial.
c. Else,
i. Append strP to partial.
d. Set index to index + 1.
9. If partial is empty, then
a. Let final be "[]".
10. Else,
a. If state.⁠[[Gap]] is the empty String, then
i. Let properties be the String value formed by concatenating all the element Strings of partial with each
adjacent pair of Strings separated with the code unit 0x002C (COMMA). A comma is not inserted either
before the first String or after the last String.
ii. Let final be the string-concatenation of "[", properties, and "]".
b. Else,

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

i. Let separator be the string-concatenation of the code unit 0x002C (COMMA), the code unit 0x000A (LINE
FEED), and state.⁠[[Indent]].
ii. Let properties be the String value formed by concatenating all the element Strings of partial with each
adjacent pair of Strings separated with separator. The separator String is not inserted either before the first
String or after the last String.
iii. Let final be the string-concatenation of "[", the code unit 0x000A (LINE FEED), state.⁠[[Indent]], properties,
the code unit 0x000A (LINE FEED), stepBack, and "]".
11. Remove the last element of state.⁠[[Stack]].
12. Set state.⁠[[Indent]] to stepBack.
13. Return final.

NOTE The representation of arrays includes only the elements in the interval from +0𝔽 (inclusive) to
[Link] (exclusive). Properties whose keys are not array indices are excluded from the
stringification. An array is stringified as an opening LEFT SQUARE BRACKET, elements separated by
COMMA, and a closing RIGHT SQUARE BRACKET.

25.5.3 JSON [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "JSON".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

26 Managing Memory

26.1 WeakRef Objects

A WeakRef is an object that is used to refer to a target object or symbol without preserving it from garbage
collection. WeakRefs can be dereferenced to allow access to the target value, if the target hasn't been reclaimed by
garbage collection.

26.1.1 The WeakRef Constructor

The WeakRef constructor:

is %WeakRef%.
is the initial value of the "WeakRef" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new WeakRef when called as a constructor.
is not intended to be called as a function and will throw an exception when called in that manner.
may be used as the value in an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified WeakRef behaviour must include a super call to the WeakRef constructor to create and initialize the
subclass instance with the internal state necessary to support the [Link] built-in methods.

[Link] WeakRef ( target )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is undefined, throw a TypeError exception.

2. If CanBeHeldWeakly(target) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let weakRef be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(NewTarget, "%[Link]%", « ⁠[[WeakRefTarget]] »).
4. Perform AddToKeptObjects(target).
5. Set weakRef.⁠[[WeakRefTarget]] to target.
6. Return weakRef.

26.1.2 Properties of the WeakRef Constructor

The WeakRef constructor:

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the WeakRef prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

26.1.3 Properties of the WeakRef Prototype Object

The WeakRef prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
does not have a ⁠[[WeakRefTarget]] internal slot.

NORMATIVE OPTIONAL
[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %WeakRef%.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let weakRef be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(weakRef, ⁠[[WeakRefTarget]]).
3. Return WeakRefDeref(weakRef).

NOTE If the WeakRef returns a target value that is not undefined, then this target value should not be garbage
collected until the current execution of ECMAScript code has completed. The AddToKeptObjects operation
makes sure read consistency is maintained.

let target = { foo() {} };

let weakRef = new WeakRef(target);

// ... later ...

if ([Link]()) {
[Link]().foo();
}

In the above example, if the first deref does not evaluate to undefined then the second deref cannot either.

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "WeakRef".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

26.1.4 WeakRef Abstract Operations

[Link] WeakRefDeref ( weakRef )

The abstract operation WeakRefDeref takes argument weakRef (a WeakRef) and returns an ECMAScript language
value. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let target be weakRef.⁠[[WeakRefTarget]].

2. If target is not EMPTY, then
a. Perform AddToKeptObjects(target).
b. Return target.
3. Return undefined.

NOTE This abstract operation is defined separately from [Link] strictly to make it possible to
succinctly define liveness.

26.1.5 Properties of WeakRef Instances

WeakRef instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the WeakRef prototype object. WeakRef instances
also have a ⁠[[WeakRefTarget]] internal slot.

26.2 FinalizationRegistry Objects

A FinalizationRegistry is an object that manages registration and unregistration of cleanup operations that are performed
when target objects and symbols are garbage collected.

26.2.1 The FinalizationRegistry Constructor

The FinalizationRegistry constructor:

is %FinalizationRegistry%.
is the initial value of the "FinalizationRegistry" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new FinalizationRegistry when called as a constructor.
is not intended to be called as a function and will throw an exception when called in that manner.
may be used as the value in an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified FinalizationRegistry behaviour must include a super call to the FinalizationRegistry
constructor to create and initialize the subclass instance with the internal state necessary to support the
[Link] built-in methods.

[Link] FinalizationRegistry ( cleanupCallback )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is undefined, throw a TypeError exception.

2. If IsCallable(cleanupCallback) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let finalizationRegistry be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(NewTarget, "%[Link]%", «
⁠[[Realm]], ⁠[[CleanupCallback]], ⁠[[Cells]] »).
4. Let fn be the active function object.
5. Set finalizationRegistry.⁠[[Realm]] to fn.⁠[[Realm]].
6. Set finalizationRegistry.⁠[[CleanupCallback]] to HostMakeJobCallback(cleanupCallback).
7. Set finalizationRegistry.⁠[[Cells]] to a new empty List.
8. Return finalizationRegistry.

26.2.2 Properties of the FinalizationRegistry Constructor

The FinalizationRegistry constructor:

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the FinalizationRegistry prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

26.2.3 Properties of the FinalizationRegistry Prototype Object

The FinalizationRegistry prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
does not have ⁠[[Cells]] and ⁠[[CleanupCallback]] internal slots.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %FinalizationRegistry%.

[Link] [Link] ( target, heldValue [ , unregisterToken ] )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let finalizationRegistry be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(finalizationRegistry, ⁠[[Cells]]).
3. If CanBeHeldWeakly(target) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. If SameValue(target, heldValue) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
5. If CanBeHeldWeakly(unregisterToken) is false, then
a. If unregisterToken is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
b. Set unregisterToken to EMPTY.
6. Let cell be the Record { ⁠[[WeakRefTarget]]: target, ⁠[[HeldValue]]: heldValue, ⁠[[UnregisterToken]]: unregisterToken }.
7. Append cell to finalizationRegistry.⁠[[Cells]].
8. Return undefined.

NOTE Based on the algorithms and definitions in this specification, cell.⁠[[HeldValue]] is live when
finalizationRegistry.⁠[[Cells]] contains cell; however, this does not necessarily mean that
cell.⁠[[UnregisterToken]] or cell.⁠[[Target]] are live. For example, registering an object with itself as its
unregister token would not keep the object alive forever.

[Link] [Link] ( unregisterToken )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let finalizationRegistry be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(finalizationRegistry, ⁠[[Cells]]).
3. If CanBeHeldWeakly(unregisterToken) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Let removed be false.
5. For each Record { ⁠[[WeakRefTarget]], ⁠[[HeldValue]], ⁠[[UnregisterToken]] } cell of finalizationRegistry.[[Cells]], do
a. If cell.⁠[[UnregisterToken]] is not EMPTY and SameValue(cell.⁠[[UnregisterToken]], unregisterToken) is true, then
i. Remove cell from finalizationRegistry.⁠[[Cells]].
ii. Set removed to true.
6. Return removed.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "FinalizationRegistry".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

26.2.4 Properties of FinalizationRegistry Instances

FinalizationRegistry instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the FinalizationRegistry prototype object.
FinalizationRegistry instances also have ⁠[[Cells]] and ⁠[[CleanupCallback]] internal slots.

27 Control Abstraction Objects

27.1 Iteration

27.1.1 Common Iteration Interfaces

An interface is a set of property keys whose associated values match a specific specification. Any object that provides
all the properties as described by an interface's specification conforms to that interface. An interface is not represented
by a distinct object. There may be many separately implemented objects that conform to any interface. An individual ob-
ject may conform to multiple interfaces.

[Link] The Iterable Interface

The iterable interface includes the property described in Table 82:

Table 82: Iterable Interface Required Properties

Property Value Requirements
%[Link]% a function that returns an iterator The returned object must conform to the iterator
object interface.

[Link] The Iterator Interface

An object that implements the iterator interface must include the property in Table 83. Such objects may also implement
the properties in Table 84.

Table 83: Iterator Interface Required Properties

Property Value Requirements
"next" a function that The returned object must conform to the IteratorResult interface. If a previous call to
returns an the next method of an iterator has returned an IteratorResult object whose "done"
IteratorResult property is true, then all subsequent calls to the next method of that object should
object also return an IteratorResult object whose "done" property is true. However, this
requirement is not enforced.

NOTE 1 Arguments may be passed to the next function but their interpretation and validity is dependent upon the
target iterator. The for-of statement and other common users of iterators do not pass any arguments, so
iterator objects that expect to be used in such a manner must be prepared to deal with being called with
no arguments.

Table 84: Iterator Interface Optional Properties

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Property Value Requirements

"return" a function that The returned object must conform to the IteratorResult interface. Invoking this method
returns an notifies the iterator object that the caller does not intend to make any more next
IteratorResult method calls to the iterator. The returned IteratorResult object will typically have a
object "done" property whose value is true, and a "value" property with the value passed
as the argument of the return method. However, this requirement is not enforced.
"throw" a function that The returned object must conform to the IteratorResult interface. Invoking this method
returns an notifies the iterator object that the caller has detected an error condition. The argument
IteratorResult may be used to identify the error condition and typically will be an exception object. A
object typical response is to throw the value passed as the argument. If the method does
not throw, the returned IteratorResult object will typically have a "done" property
whose value is true.

NOTE 2 Typically callers of these methods should check for their existence before invoking them. Certain
ECMAScript language features including for-of, yield*, and array destructuring call these methods after
performing an existence check. Most ECMAScript library functions that accept iterable objects as arguments
also conditionally call them.

[Link] The Async Iterable Interface

The async iterable interface includes the properties described in Table 85:

Table 85: Async Iterable Interface Required Properties

Property Value Requirements
%[Link]% a function that returns an async The returned object must conform to the async
iterator object iterator interface.

[Link] The Async Iterator Interface

An object that implements the async iterator interface must include the properties in Table 86. Such objects may also im-
plement the properties in Table 87.

Table 86: Async Iterator Interface Required Properties

Property Value Requirements
"next" a function that
returns a promise for The returned promise, when fulfilled, must fulfill with an object that conforms to the
an IteratorResult IteratorResult interface. If a previous call to the next method of an async iterator
object has returned a promise for an IteratorResult object whose "done" property is true,
then all subsequent calls to the next method of that object should also return a
promise for an IteratorResult object whose "done" property is true. However, this
requirement is not enforced.

Additionally, the IteratorResult object that serves as a fulfillment value should have a
"value" property whose value is not a promise (or "thenable"). However, this
requirement is also not enforced.

NOTE 1 Arguments may be passed to the next function but their interpretation and validity is dependent upon the
target async iterator. The for-await-of statement and other common users of async iterators do not pass
any arguments, so async iterator objects that expect to be used in such a manner must be prepared to deal
with being called with no arguments.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Table 87: Async Iterator Interface Optional Properties

Property Value Requirements
"return" a function that
returns a promise The returned promise, when fulfilled, must fulfill with an object that conforms to the
for an IteratorResult IteratorResult interface. Invoking this method notifies the async iterator object that
object the caller does not intend to make any more next method calls to the async iterator.
The returned promise will fulfill with an IteratorResult object which will typically
have a "done" property whose value is true, and a "value" property with the value
passed as the argument of the return method. However, this requirement is
not enforced.

Additionally, the IteratorResult object that serves as a fulfillment value should have a
"value" property whose value is not a promise (or "thenable"). If the argument value
is used in the typical manner, then if it is a rejected promise, a promise rejected with
the same reason should be returned; if it is a fulfilled promise, then its fulfillment
value should be used as the "value" property of the returned promise's
IteratorResult object fulfillment value. However, these requirements are also
not enforced.
"throw" a function that
returns a promise The returned promise, when fulfilled, must fulfill with an object that conforms to the
for an IteratorResult IteratorResult interface. Invoking this method notifies the async iterator object that
object the caller has detected an error condition. The argument may be used to identify the
error condition and typically will be an exception object. A typical response is to return
a rejected promise which rejects with the value passed as the argument.

If the returned promise is fulfilled, the IteratorResult object fulfillment value will
typically have a "done" property whose value is true. Additionally, it should have a
"value" property whose value is not a promise (or "thenable"), but this requirement is
not enforced.

NOTE 2 Typically callers of these methods should check for their existence before invoking them. Certain
ECMAScript language features including for-await-of and yield* call these methods after performing
an existence check.

[Link] The IteratorResult Interface

The IteratorResult interface includes the properties listed in Table 88:

Table 88: IteratorResult Interface Properties

Property Value Requirements
"done" a Boolean This is the result status of an iterator next method call. If the end of the iterator was
reached "done" is true. If the end was not reached "done" is false and a value is
available. If a "done" property (either own or inherited) does not exist, it is considered to
have the value false.
"value" an ECMAScript If done is false, this is the current iteration element value. If done is true, this is the
language value return value of the iterator, if it supplied one. If the iterator does not have a return value,
"value" is undefined. In that case, the "value" property may be absent from the
conforming object if it does not inherit an explicit "value" property.

27.1.2 Iterator Helper Objects

An Iterator Helper object is an ordinary object that represents a lazy transformation of some specific source iterator ob-
ject. There is not a named constructor for Iterator Helper objects. Instead, Iterator Helper objects are created by calling
certain methods of Iterator instance objects.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] The %IteratorHelperPrototype% Object

The %IteratorHelperPrototype% object:

has properties that are inherited by all Iterator Helper objects.

is an ordinary object.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
has the following properties:

[Link].1 %IteratorHelperPrototype%.next ( )

1. Return ? GeneratorResume(this value, undefined, "Iterator Helper").

[Link].2 %IteratorHelperPrototype%.return ( )

1. Let O be this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[UnderlyingIterator]]).
3. Assert: O has a ⁠[[GeneratorState]] internal slot.
4. If O.⁠[[GeneratorState]] is SUSPENDED-START, then
a. Set O.⁠[[GeneratorState]] to COMPLETED.
b. NOTE: Once a generator enters the completed state it never leaves it and its associated execution context is
never resumed. Any execution state associated with O can be discarded at this point.
c. Perform ? IteratorClose(O.⁠[[UnderlyingIterator]], NormalCompletion(UNUSED)).
d. Return CreateIteratorResultObject(undefined, true).
5. Let C be ReturnCompletion(undefined).
6. Return ? GeneratorResumeAbrupt(O, C, "Iterator Helper").

[Link].3 %IteratorHelperPrototype% [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "Iterator Helper".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

27.1.3 Iterator Objects

[Link] The Iterator Constructor

The Iterator constructor:

is %Iterator%.
is the initial value of the "Iterator" property of the global object.
is designed to be subclassable. It may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition.

[Link].1 Iterator ( )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is either undefined or the active function object, throw a TypeError exception.
2. Return ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(NewTarget, "%[Link]%").

[Link] Properties of the Iterator Constructor

The Iterator constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].1 [Link] ( O )

1. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIteratorFlattenable(O, ITERATE-STRING-PRIMITIVES).

2. Let hasInstance be ? OrdinaryHasInstance(%Iterator%, iteratorRecord.⁠[[Iterator]]).
3. If hasInstance is true, then
a. Return iteratorRecord.⁠[[Iterator]].
4. Let wrapper be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%WrapForValidIteratorPrototype%, « ⁠[[Iterated]] »).
5. Set wrapper.⁠[[Iterated]] to iteratorRecord.
6. Return wrapper.

[Link].1.1 The %WrapForValidIteratorPrototype% Object

The %WrapForValidIteratorPrototype% object:

is an ordinary object.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

[Link].1.1.1 %WrapForValidIteratorPrototype%.next ( )

1. Let O be this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[Iterated]]).
3. Let iteratorRecord be O.⁠[[Iterated]].
4. Return ? Call(iteratorRecord.⁠[[NextMethod]], iteratorRecord.⁠[[Iterator]]).

[Link].1.1.2 %WrapForValidIteratorPrototype%.return ( )

1. Let O be this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[Iterated]]).
3. Let iterator be O.⁠[[Iterated]].⁠[[Iterator]].
4. Assert: iterator is an Object.
5. Let returnMethod be ? GetMethod(iterator, "return").
6. If returnMethod is undefined, then
a. Return CreateIteratorResultObject(undefined, true).
7. Return ? Call(returnMethod, iterator).

[Link].2 [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the Iterator prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

27.1.4 Properties of the Iterator Prototype Object

The Iterator prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE All objects defined in this specification that implement the iterator interface also inherit from
%[Link]%. ECMAScript code may also define objects that inherit from %[Link]%.
%[Link]% provides a place where additional methods that are applicable to all iterator objects
may be added.

The following expression is one way that ECMAScript code can access the %[Link]% object:

[Link]([Link]([][[Link]]()))

[Link] [Link]

[Link] is an accessor property with attributes { ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]:

true }. The ⁠[[Get]] and ⁠[[Set]] attributes are defined as follows:

[Link].1 get [Link]

The value of the ⁠[[Get]] attribute is a built-in function that requires no arguments. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Return %Iterator%.

[Link].2 set [Link]

The value of the ⁠[[Set]] attribute is a built-in function that takes an argument v. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Perform ? SetterThatIgnoresPrototypeProperties(this value, %[Link]%, "constructor", v).

2. Return undefined.

NOTE Unlike the "constructor" property on most built-in prototypes, for web-compatibility reasons this property
must be an accessor.

[Link] [Link] ( limit )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. If O is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let iterated be the Iterator Record { ⁠[[Iterator]]: O, ⁠[[NextMethod]]: undefined, ⁠[[Done]]: false }.
4. Let numLimit be Completion(ToNumber(limit)).
5. IfAbruptCloseIterator(numLimit, iterated).
6. If numLimit is NaN, then
a. Let error be ThrowCompletion(a newly created RangeError object).
b. Return ? IteratorClose(iterated, error).
7. Let integerLimit be ! ToIntegerOrInfinity(numLimit).
8. If integerLimit < 0, then
a. Let error be ThrowCompletion(a newly created RangeError object).
b. Return ? IteratorClose(iterated, error).
9. Set iterated to ? GetIteratorDirect(O).
10. Let closure be a new Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures iterated and integerLimit and performs the
following steps when called:
a. Let remaining be integerLimit.
b. Repeat, while remaining > 0,

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

i. If remaining ≠ +∞, then

1. Set remaining to remaining - 1.
ii. Let next be ? IteratorStep(iterated).
iii. If next is DONE, return ReturnCompletion(undefined).
c. Repeat,
i. Let value be ? IteratorStepValue(iterated).
ii. If value is DONE, return ReturnCompletion(undefined).
iii. Let completion be Completion(Yield(value)).
iv. IfAbruptCloseIterator(completion, iterated).
11. Let result be CreateIteratorFromClosure(closure, "Iterator Helper", %IteratorHelperPrototype%, «
⁠[[UnderlyingIterator]] »).
12. Set result.⁠[[UnderlyingIterator]] to iterated.
13. Return result.

a. Let accumulator be ? IteratorStepValue(iterated).
b. If accumulator is DONE, throw a TypeError exception.
c. Let counter be 1.
7. Else,
a. Let accumulator be initialValue.
b. Let counter be 0.
8. Repeat,
a. Let value be ? IteratorStepValue(iterated).
b. If value is DONE, return accumulator.
c. Let result be Completion(Call(reducer, undefined, « accumulator, value, 𝔽(counter) »)).
d. IfAbruptCloseIterator(result, iterated).
e. Set accumulator to result.
f. Set counter to counter + 1.

[Link] [Link] ( predicate )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

[Link] [Link] ( limit )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

iii. Let value be ? IteratorStepValue(iterated).

iv. If value is DONE, return ReturnCompletion(undefined).
v. Let completion be Completion(Yield(value)).
vi. IfAbruptCloseIterator(completion, iterated).
11. Let result be CreateIteratorFromClosure(closure, "Iterator Helper", %IteratorHelperPrototype%, «
⁠[[UnderlyingIterator]] »).
12. Set result.⁠[[UnderlyingIterator]] to iterated.
13. Return result.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. If O is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let iterated be ? GetIteratorDirect(O).
4. Let items be a new empty List.
5. Repeat,
a. Let value be ? IteratorStepValue(iterated).
b. If value is DONE, return CreateArrayFromList(items).
c. Append value to items.

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ] ( )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Return the this value.

The value of the "name" property of this function is "[[Link]]".

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

[Link][%[Link]%] is an accessor property with attributes { ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false,

[[Configurable]]: true }. The ⁠[[Get]] and ⁠[[Set]] attributes are defined as follows:

[Link].1 get [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The value of the ⁠[[Get]] attribute is a built-in function that requires no arguments. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Return "Iterator".

[Link].2 set [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The value of the ⁠[[Set]] attribute is a built-in function that takes an argument v. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Perform ? SetterThatIgnoresPrototypeProperties(this value, %[Link]%, %[Link]%, v).

2. Return undefined.

NOTE Unlike the %[Link]% property on most built-in prototypes, for web-compatibility reasons this
property must be an accessor.

27.1.5 The %AsyncIteratorPrototype% Object

The %AsyncIteratorPrototype% object:

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

is an ordinary object.

NOTE All objects defined in this specification that implement the async iterator interface also inherit from
%AsyncIteratorPrototype%. ECMAScript code may also define objects that inherit from
%AsyncIteratorPrototype%. The %AsyncIteratorPrototype% object provides a place where additional
methods that are applicable to all async iterator objects may be added.

[Link] %AsyncIteratorPrototype% [ %[Link]% ] ( )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Return the this value.

The value of the "name" property of this function is "[[Link]]".

27.1.6 Async-from-Sync Iterator Objects

An Async-from-Sync Iterator object is an async iterator that adapts a specific synchronous iterator. Async-from-Sync
Iterator objects are never directly accessible to ECMAScript code. There is not a named constructor for Async-from-
Sync Iterator objects. Instead, Async-from-Sync Iterator objects are created by the CreateAsyncFromSyncIterator ab-
stract operation as needed.

[Link] CreateAsyncFromSyncIterator ( syncIteratorRecord )

The abstract operation CreateAsyncFromSyncIterator takes argument syncIteratorRecord (an Iterator Record) and re-
turns an Iterator Record. It is used to create an async Iterator Record from a synchronous Iterator Record. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Let asyncIterator be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%AsyncFromSyncIteratorPrototype%, « ⁠[[SyncIteratorRecord]] »).

2. Set asyncIterator.⁠[[SyncIteratorRecord]] to syncIteratorRecord.
3. Let nextMethod be ! Get(asyncIterator, "next").
4. Let iteratorRecord be the Iterator Record { ⁠[[Iterator]]: asyncIterator, ⁠[[NextMethod]]: nextMethod, ⁠[[Done]]: false }.
5. Return iteratorRecord.

[Link] The %AsyncFromSyncIteratorPrototype% Object

The %AsyncFromSyncIteratorPrototype% object:

has properties that are inherited by all Async-from-Sync Iterator objects.

is an ordinary object.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %AsyncIteratorPrototype%.
is never directly accessible to ECMAScript code.
has the following properties:

[Link].1 %AsyncFromSyncIteratorPrototype%.next ( [ value ] )

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Assert: O is an Object that has a ⁠[[SyncIteratorRecord]] internal slot.
3. Let promiseCapability be ! NewPromiseCapability(%Promise%).
4. Let syncIteratorRecord be O.⁠[[SyncIteratorRecord]].
5. If value is present, then
a. Let result be Completion(IteratorNext(syncIteratorRecord, value)).
6. Else,
a. Let result be Completion(IteratorNext(syncIteratorRecord)).
7. IfAbruptRejectPromise(result, promiseCapability).
8. Return AsyncFromSyncIteratorContinuation(result, promiseCapability, syncIteratorRecord, true).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].2 %AsyncFromSyncIteratorPrototype%.return ( [ value ] )

1. Let O be the this value.

[Link].3 %AsyncFromSyncIteratorPrototype%.throw ( [ value ] )

NOTE In this specification, value is always provided, but is left optional for consistency with
%AsyncFromSyncIteratorPrototype%.return ( [ value ] ).

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Assert: O is an Object that has a ⁠[[SyncIteratorRecord]] internal slot.
3. Let promiseCapability be ! NewPromiseCapability(%Promise%).
4. Let syncIteratorRecord be O.⁠[[SyncIteratorRecord]].
5. Let syncIterator be syncIteratorRecord.⁠[[Iterator]].
6. Let throw be Completion(GetMethod(syncIterator, "throw")).
7. IfAbruptRejectPromise(throw, promiseCapability).
8. If throw is undefined, then
a. NOTE: If syncIterator does not have a throw method, close it to give it a chance to clean up before we reject
the capability.
b. Let closeCompletion be NormalCompletion(EMPTY).
c. Let result be Completion(IteratorClose(syncIteratorRecord, closeCompletion)).
d. IfAbruptRejectPromise(result, promiseCapability).
e. NOTE: The next step throws a TypeError to indicate that there was a protocol violation: syncIterator does not
have a throw method.
f. NOTE: If closing syncIterator does not throw then the result of that operation is ignored, even if it yields a
rejected promise.
g. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « a newly created TypeError object »).
h. Return promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]].
9. If value is present, then
a. Let result be Completion(Call(throw, syncIterator, « value »)).
10. Else,
a. Let result be Completion(Call(throw, syncIterator)).
11. IfAbruptRejectPromise(result, promiseCapability).
12. If result is not an Object, then
a. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « a newly created TypeError object »).
b. Return promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]].
13. Return AsyncFromSyncIteratorContinuation(result, promiseCapability, syncIteratorRecord, true).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] Properties of Async-from-Sync Iterator Instances

Async-from-Sync Iterator instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the
%AsyncFromSyncIteratorPrototype% intrinsic object. Async-from-Sync Iterator instances are initially created with the in-
ternal slots listed in Table 89.

Table 89: Internal Slots of Async-from-Sync Iterator Instances

Internal Slot Type Description
⁠[[SyncIteratorRecord]] an Iterator Record Represents the original synchronous iterator which is being adapted.

[Link] AsyncFromSyncIteratorContinuation ( result,

promiseCapability, syncIteratorRecord, closeOnRejection )

The abstract operation AsyncFromSyncIteratorContinuation takes arguments result (an Object), promiseCapability (a
PromiseCapability Record for an intrinsic %Promise%), syncIteratorRecord (an Iterator Record), and closeOnRejection
(a Boolean) and returns a Promise. It performs the following steps when called:

1. NOTE: Because promiseCapability is derived from the intrinsic %Promise%, the calls to promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]]
entailed by the use IfAbruptRejectPromise below are guaranteed not to throw.
2. Let done be Completion(IteratorComplete(result)).
3. IfAbruptRejectPromise(done, promiseCapability).
4. Let value be Completion(IteratorValue(result)).
5. IfAbruptRejectPromise(value, promiseCapability).
6. Let valueWrapper be Completion(PromiseResolve(%Promise%, value)).
7. If valueWrapper is an abrupt completion, done is false, and closeOnRejection is true, then
a. Set valueWrapper to Completion(IteratorClose(syncIteratorRecord, valueWrapper)).
8. IfAbruptRejectPromise(valueWrapper, promiseCapability).
9. Let unwrap be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (v) that captures done and performs the following steps
when called:
a. Return CreateIteratorResultObject(v, done).
10. Let onFulfilled be CreateBuiltinFunction(unwrap, 1, "", « »).
11. NOTE: onFulfilled is used when processing the "value" property of an IteratorResult object in order to wait for its
value if it is a promise and re-package the result in a new "unwrapped" IteratorResult object.
12. If done is true, or if closeOnRejection is false, then
a. Let onRejected be undefined.
13. Else,
a. Let closeIterator be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (error) that captures syncIteratorRecord and
performs the following steps when called:
i. Return ? IteratorClose(syncIteratorRecord, ThrowCompletion(error)).
b. Let onRejected be CreateBuiltinFunction(closeIterator, 1, "", « »).
c. NOTE: onRejected is used to close the Iterator when the "value" property of an IteratorResult object it yields is
a rejected promise.
14. Perform PerformPromiseThen(valueWrapper, onFulfilled, onRejected, promiseCapability).
15. Return promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]].

27.2 Promise Objects

A Promise is an object that is used as a placeholder for the eventual results of a deferred (and possibly
asynchronous) computation.

Any Promise is in one of three mutually exclusive states: fulfilled, rejected, and pending:

A promise p is fulfilled if [Link](f, r) will immediately enqueue a Job to call the function f.
A promise p is rejected if [Link](f, r) will immediately enqueue a Job to call the function r.
A promise is pending if it is neither fulfilled nor rejected.

A promise is said to be settled if it is not pending, i.e. if it is either fulfilled or rejected.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

A promise is resolved if it is settled or if it has been “locked in” to match the state of another promise. Attempting to re-
solve or reject a resolved promise has no effect. A promise is unresolved if it is not resolved. An unresolved promise is
always in the pending state. A resolved promise may be pending, fulfilled or rejected.

27.2.1 Promise Abstract Operations

[Link] PromiseCapability Records

A PromiseCapability Record is a Record value used to encapsulate a Promise or promise-like object along with the
functions that are capable of resolving or rejecting that promise. PromiseCapability Records are produced by the
NewPromiseCapability abstract operation.

PromiseCapability Records have the fields listed in Table 90.

Table 90: PromiseCapability Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[Promise]] an Object An object that is usable as a promise.
⁠[[Resolve]] a function object The function that is used to resolve the given promise.
⁠[[Reject]] a function object The function that is used to reject the given promise.

[Link].1 IfAbruptRejectPromise ( value, capability )

IfAbruptRejectPromise is a shorthand for a sequence of algorithm steps that use a PromiseCapability Record. An al-
gorithm step of the form:

1. IfAbruptRejectPromise(value, capability).

means the same thing as:

1. Assert: value is a Completion Record.

2. If value is an abrupt completion, then
a. Perform ? Call(capability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « value.⁠[[Value]] »).
b. Return capability.[[Promise]].
3. Else,
a. Set value to ! value.

[Link] PromiseReaction Records

A PromiseReaction Record is a Record value used to store information about how a promise should react when it
becomes resolved or rejected with a given value. PromiseReaction Records are created by the PerformPromiseThen
abstract operation, and are used by the Abstract Closure returned by NewPromiseReactionJob.

PromiseReaction Records have the fields listed in Table 91.

Table 91: PromiseReaction Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[Capability]] a PromiseCapability The capabilities of the promise for which this record provides a reaction
Record or undefined handler.
⁠[[Type]] FULFILL or REJECT The ⁠[[Type]] is used when ⁠[[Handler]] is EMPTY to allow for behaviour
specific to the settlement type.
⁠[[Handler]] a JobCallback Record or The function that should be applied to the incoming value, and whose return
EMPTY value will govern what happens to the derived promise. If ⁠[[Handler]] is
EMPTY, a function that depends on the value of ⁠[[Type]] will be used instead.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] CreateResolvingFunctions ( promise )

The abstract operation CreateResolvingFunctions takes argument promise (a Promise) and returns a Record with fields
[[Resolve]] (a function object) and ⁠[[Reject]] (a function object). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let alreadyResolved be the Record { ⁠[[Value]]: false }.

2. Let stepsResolve be the algorithm steps defined in Promise Resolve Functions.
3. Let lengthResolve be the number of non-optional parameters of the function definition in Promise Resolve
Functions.
4. Let resolve be CreateBuiltinFunction(stepsResolve, lengthResolve, "", « ⁠[[Promise]], ⁠[[AlreadyResolved]] »).
5. Set resolve.⁠[[Promise]] to promise.
6. Set resolve.⁠[[AlreadyResolved]] to alreadyResolved.
7. Let stepsReject be the algorithm steps defined in Promise Reject Functions.
8. Let lengthReject be the number of non-optional parameters of the function definition in Promise Reject Functions.
9. Let reject be CreateBuiltinFunction(stepsReject, lengthReject, "", « ⁠[[Promise]], ⁠[[AlreadyResolved]] »).
10. Set reject.⁠[[Promise]] to promise.
11. Set reject.⁠[[AlreadyResolved]] to alreadyResolved.
12. Return the Record { ⁠[[Resolve]]: resolve, ⁠[[Reject]]: reject }.

[Link].1 Promise Reject Functions

A promise reject function is an anonymous built-in function that has ⁠[[Promise]] and [[AlreadyResolved]] internal slots.

When a promise reject function is called with argument reason, the following steps are taken:

1. Let F be the active function object.

The "length" property of a promise reject function is 1𝔽.

[Link].2 Promise Resolve Functions

A promise resolve function is an anonymous built-in function that has ⁠[[Promise]] and ⁠[[AlreadyResolved]] internal slots.

When a promise resolve function is called with argument resolution, the following steps are taken:

1. Let F be the active function object.

2. Assert: F has a ⁠[[Promise]] internal slot whose value is an Object.
3. Let promise be F.⁠[[Promise]].
4. Let alreadyResolved be F.⁠[[AlreadyResolved]].
5. If alreadyResolved.⁠[[Value]] is true, return undefined.
6. Set alreadyResolved.⁠[[Value]] to true.
7. If SameValue(resolution, promise) is true, then
a. Let selfResolutionError be a newly created TypeError object.
b. Perform RejectPromise(promise, selfResolutionError).
c. Return undefined.
8. If resolution is not an Object, then
a. Perform FulfillPromise(promise, resolution).
b. Return undefined.
9. Let then be Completion(Get(resolution, "then")).
10. If then is an abrupt completion, then
a. Perform RejectPromise(promise, then.⁠[[Value]]).
b. Return undefined.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

11. Let thenAction be then.⁠[[Value]].

12. If IsCallable(thenAction) is false, then
a. Perform FulfillPromise(promise, resolution).
b. Return undefined.
13. Let thenJobCallback be HostMakeJobCallback(thenAction).
14. Let job be NewPromiseResolveThenableJob(promise, resolution, thenJobCallback).
15. Perform HostEnqueuePromiseJob(job.⁠[[Job]], job.⁠[[Realm]]).
16. Return undefined.

The "length" property of a promise resolve function is 1𝔽.

[Link] FulfillPromise ( promise, value )

The abstract operation FulfillPromise takes arguments promise (a Promise) and value (an ECMAScript language value)
and returns UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: promise.⁠[[PromiseState]] is PENDING.

2. Let reactions be promise.⁠[[PromiseFulfillReactions]].
3. Set promise.⁠[[PromiseResult]] to value.
4. Set promise.⁠[[PromiseFulfillReactions]] to undefined.
5. Set promise.⁠[[PromiseRejectReactions]] to undefined.
6. Set promise.⁠[[PromiseState]] to FULFILLED.
7. Perform TriggerPromiseReactions(reactions, value).
8. Return UNUSED.

[Link] NewPromiseCapability ( C )

The abstract operation NewPromiseCapability takes argument C (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a
normal completion containing a PromiseCapability Record or a throw completion. It attempts to use C as a constructor
in the fashion of the built-in Promise constructor to create a promise and extract its resolve and reject functions.
The promise plus the resolve and reject functions are used to initialize a new PromiseCapability Record. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. If IsConstructor(C) is false, throw a TypeError exception.

2. NOTE: C is assumed to be a constructor function that supports the parameter conventions of the Promise
constructor (see [Link]).
3. Let resolvingFunctions be the Record { ⁠[[Resolve]]: undefined, ⁠[[Reject]]: undefined }.
4. Let executorClosure be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (resolve, reject) that captures resolvingFunctions
and performs the following steps when called:
a. If resolvingFunctions.⁠[[Resolve]] is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
b. If resolvingFunctions.⁠[[Reject]] is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
c. Set resolvingFunctions.⁠[[Resolve]] to resolve.
d. Set resolvingFunctions.⁠[[Reject]] to reject.
e. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).
5. Let executor be CreateBuiltinFunction(executorClosure, 2, "", « »).
6. Let promise be ? Construct(C, « executor »).
7. If IsCallable(resolvingFunctions.⁠[[Resolve]]) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
8. If IsCallable(resolvingFunctions.⁠[[Reject]]) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
9. Return the PromiseCapability Record { ⁠[[Promise]]: promise, ⁠[[Resolve]]: resolvingFunctions.⁠[[Resolve]], ⁠[[Reject]]:
resolvingFunctions.⁠[[Reject]] }.

NOTE This abstract operation supports Promise subclassing, as it is generic on any constructor that calls a passed
executor function argument in the same way as the Promise constructor. It is used to generalize static
methods of the Promise constructor to any subclass.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] IsPromise ( x )

The abstract operation IsPromise takes argument x (an ECMAScript language value) and returns a Boolean. It checks
for the promise brand on an object. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If x is not an Object, return false.

2. If x does not have a ⁠[[PromiseState]] internal slot, return false.
3. Return true.

[Link] RejectPromise ( promise, reason )

The abstract operation RejectPromise takes arguments promise (a Promise) and reason (an ECMAScript language
value) and returns UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: promise.⁠[[PromiseState]] is PENDING.

2. Let reactions be promise.⁠[[PromiseRejectReactions]].
3. Set promise.⁠[[PromiseResult]] to reason.
4. Set promise.⁠[[PromiseFulfillReactions]] to undefined.
5. Set promise.⁠[[PromiseRejectReactions]] to undefined.
6. Set promise.⁠[[PromiseState]] to REJECTED.
7. If promise.⁠[[PromiseIsHandled]] is false, perform HostPromiseRejectionTracker(promise, "reject").
8. Perform TriggerPromiseReactions(reactions, reason).
9. Return UNUSED.

[Link] TriggerPromiseReactions ( reactions, argument )

The abstract operation TriggerPromiseReactions takes arguments reactions (a List of PromiseReaction Records) and
argument (an ECMAScript language value) and returns UNUSED. It enqueues a new Job for each record in reactions.
Each such Job processes the ⁠[[Type]] and ⁠[[Handler]] of the PromiseReaction Record, and if the ⁠[[Handler]] is not
EMPTY, calls it passing the given argument. If the ⁠[[Handler]] is EMPTY, the behaviour is determined by the ⁠[[Type]]. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. For each element reaction of reactions, do

a. Let job be NewPromiseReactionJob(reaction, argument).
b. Perform HostEnqueuePromiseJob(job.⁠[[Job]], job.⁠[[Realm]]).
2. Return UNUSED.

[Link] HostPromiseRejectionTracker ( promise, operation )

The host-defined abstract operation HostPromiseRejectionTracker takes arguments promise (a Promise) and operation
("reject" or "handle") and returns UNUSED. It allows host environments to track promise rejections.

The default implementation of HostPromiseRejectionTracker is to return UNUSED.

NOTE 1 HostPromiseRejectionTracker is called in two scenarios:

When a promise is rejected without any handlers, it is called with its operation argument set to "reject".
When a handler is added to a rejected promise for the first time, it is called with its operation argument
set to "handle".

A typical implementation of HostPromiseRejectionTracker might try to notify developers of unhandled

rejections, while also being careful to notify them if such previous notifications are later invalidated by new
handlers being attached.

NOTE 2 If operation is "handle", an implementation should not hold a reference to promise in a way that would
interfere with garbage collection. An implementation may hold a reference to promise if operation is "reject",
since it is expected that rejections will be rare and not on hot code paths.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

27.2.2 Promise Jobs

[Link] NewPromiseReactionJob ( reaction, argument )

The abstract operation NewPromiseReactionJob takes arguments reaction (a PromiseReaction Record) and argument
(an ECMAScript language value) and returns a Record with fields ⁠[[Job]] (a Job Abstract Closure) and ⁠[[Realm]] (a
Realm Record or null). It returns a new Job Abstract Closure that applies the appropriate handler to the incoming value,
and uses the handler's return value to resolve or reject the derived promise associated with that handler. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let job be a new Job Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures reaction and argument and performs the
following steps when called:
a. Let promiseCapability be reaction.⁠[[Capability]].
b. Let type be reaction.⁠[[Type]].
c. Let handler be reaction.⁠[[Handler]].
d. If handler is EMPTY, then
i. If type is FULFILL, then
1. Let handlerResult be NormalCompletion(argument).
ii. Else,
1. Assert: type is REJECT.
2. Let handlerResult be ThrowCompletion(argument).
e. Else,
i. Let handlerResult be Completion(HostCallJobCallback(handler, undefined, « argument »)).
f. If promiseCapability is undefined, then
i. Assert: handlerResult is not an abrupt completion.
ii. Return EMPTY.
g. Assert: promiseCapability is a PromiseCapability Record.
h. If handlerResult is an abrupt completion, then
i. Return ? Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « handlerResult.⁠[[Value]] »).
i. Else,
i. Return ? Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « handlerResult.⁠[[Value]] »).
2. Let handlerRealm be null.
3. If reaction.⁠[[Handler]] is not EMPTY, then
a. Let getHandlerRealmResult be Completion(GetFunctionRealm(reaction.⁠[[Handler]].⁠[[Callback]])).
b. If getHandlerRealmResult is a normal completion, set handlerRealm to getHandlerRealmResult.⁠[[Value]].
c. Else, set handlerRealm to the current Realm Record.
d. NOTE: handlerRealm is never null unless the handler is undefined. When the handler is a revoked Proxy and
no ECMAScript code runs, handlerRealm is used to create error objects.
4. Return the Record { ⁠[[Job]]: job, ⁠[[Realm]]: handlerRealm }.

[Link] NewPromiseResolveThenableJob ( promiseToResolve, thenable, then )

The abstract operation NewPromiseResolveThenableJob takes arguments promiseToResolve (a Promise), thenable (an
Object), and then (a JobCallback Record) and returns a Record with fields ⁠[[Job]] (a Job Abstract Closure) and ⁠[[Realm]]
(a Realm Record). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let job be a new Job Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures promiseToResolve, thenable, and then and
performs the following steps when called:
a. Let resolvingFunctions be CreateResolvingFunctions(promiseToResolve).
b. Let thenCallResult be Completion(HostCallJobCallback(then, thenable, « resolvingFunctions.⁠[[Resolve]],
resolvingFunctions.⁠[[Reject]] »)).
c. If thenCallResult is an abrupt completion, then
i. Return ? Call(resolvingFunctions.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « thenCallResult.⁠[[Value]] »).
d. Return ! thenCallResult.
2. Let getThenRealmResult be Completion(GetFunctionRealm(then.⁠[[Callback]])).
3. If getThenRealmResult is a normal completion, let thenRealm be getThenRealmResult.⁠[[Value]].
4. Else, let thenRealm be the current Realm Record.
5. NOTE: thenRealm is never null. When then.⁠[[Callback]] is a revoked Proxy and no code runs, thenRealm is used to
create error objects.
6. Return the Record { ⁠[[Job]]: job, ⁠[[Realm]]: thenRealm }.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE This Job uses the supplied thenable and its then method to resolve the given promise. This process must
take place as a Job to ensure that the evaluation of the then method occurs after evaluation of any
surrounding code has completed.

27.2.3 The Promise Constructor

The Promise constructor:

is %Promise%.
is the initial value of the "Promise" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new Promise when called as a constructor.
is not intended to be called as a function and will throw an exception when called in that manner.
may be used as the value in an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified Promise behaviour must include a super call to the Promise constructor to create and initialize the
subclass instance with the internal state necessary to support the Promise and [Link] built-in
methods.

[Link] Promise ( executor )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is undefined, throw a TypeError exception.

2. If IsCallable(executor) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let promise be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(NewTarget, "%[Link]%", « ⁠[[PromiseState]],
⁠[[PromiseResult]], ⁠[[PromiseFulfillReactions]], ⁠[[PromiseRejectReactions]], ⁠[[PromiseIsHandled]] »).
4. Set promise.⁠[[PromiseState]] to PENDING.
5. Set promise.⁠[[PromiseResult]] to EMPTY.
6. Set promise.⁠[[PromiseFulfillReactions]] to a new empty List.
7. Set promise.⁠[[PromiseRejectReactions]] to a new empty List.
8. Set promise.⁠[[PromiseIsHandled]] to false.
9. Let resolvingFunctions be CreateResolvingFunctions(promise).
10. Let completion be Completion(Call(executor, undefined, « resolvingFunctions.⁠[[Resolve]],
resolvingFunctions.⁠[[Reject]] »)).
11. If completion is an abrupt completion, then
a. Perform ? Call(resolvingFunctions.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « completion.⁠[[Value]] »).
12. Return promise.

NOTE The executor argument must be a function object. It is called for initiating and reporting completion of the
possibly deferred action represented by this Promise. The executor is called with two arguments: resolve
and reject. These are functions that may be used by the executor function to report eventual completion
or failure of the deferred computation. Returning from the executor function does not mean that the
deferred action has been completed but only that the request to eventually perform the deferred action has
been accepted.

The resolve function that is passed to an executor function accepts a single argument. The executor code
may eventually call the resolve function to indicate that it wishes to resolve the associated Promise. The
argument passed to the resolve function represents the eventual value of the deferred action and can be
either the actual fulfillment value or another promise which will provide the value if it is fulfilled.

The reject function that is passed to an executor function accepts a single argument. The executor code
may eventually call the reject function to indicate that the associated Promise is rejected and will never be
fulfilled. The argument passed to the reject function is used as the rejection value of the promise. Typically it
will be an Error object.

The resolve and reject functions passed to an executor function by the Promise constructor have the
capability to actually resolve and reject the associated promise. Subclasses may have different constructor
behaviour that passes in customized values for resolve and reject.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

27.2.4 Properties of the Promise Constructor

The Promise constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

has the following properties:

[Link] [Link] ( iterable )

This function returns a new promise which is fulfilled with an array of fulfillment values for the passed promises, or re-
jects with the reason of the first passed promise that rejects. It resolves all elements of the passed iterable to promises
as it runs this algorithm.

1. Let C be the this value.

2. Let promiseCapability be ? NewPromiseCapability(C).
3. Let promiseResolve be Completion(GetPromiseResolve(C)).
4. IfAbruptRejectPromise(promiseResolve, promiseCapability).
5. Let iteratorRecord be Completion(GetIterator(iterable, SYNC)).
6. IfAbruptRejectPromise(iteratorRecord, promiseCapability).
7. Let result be Completion(PerformPromiseAll(iteratorRecord, C, promiseCapability, promiseResolve)).
8. If result is an abrupt completion, then
a. If iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false, set result to Completion(IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, result)).
b. IfAbruptRejectPromise(result, promiseCapability).
9. Return ! result.

NOTE This function requires its this value to be a constructor function that supports the parameter conventions of
the Promise constructor.

[Link].1 GetPromiseResolve ( promiseConstructor )

The abstract operation GetPromiseResolve takes argument promiseConstructor (a constructor) and returns either a nor-
mal completion containing a function object or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let promiseResolve be ? Get(promiseConstructor, "resolve").

2. If IsCallable(promiseResolve) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Return promiseResolve.

[Link].2 PerformPromiseAll ( iteratorRecord, constructor, resultCapability, promiseResolve )

The abstract operation PerformPromiseAll takes arguments iteratorRecord (an Iterator Record), constructor (a con-
structor), resultCapability (a PromiseCapability Record), and promiseResolve (a function object) and returns either a
normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let values be a new empty List.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

f. Let length be the number of non-optional parameters of the function definition in [Link] Resolve
Element Functions.
g. Let onFulfilled be CreateBuiltinFunction(steps, length, "", « ⁠[[AlreadyCalled]], ⁠[[Index]], ⁠[[Values]], ⁠[[Capability]],
⁠[[RemainingElements]] »).
h. Set onFulfilled.⁠[[AlreadyCalled]] to false.
i. Set onFulfilled.⁠[[Index]] to index.
j. Set onFulfilled.⁠[[Values]] to values.
k. Set onFulfilled.⁠[[Capability]] to resultCapability.
l. Set onFulfilled.⁠[[RemainingElements]] to remainingElementsCount.
m. Set remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] to remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] + 1.
n. Perform ? Invoke(nextPromise, "then", « onFulfilled, resultCapability.⁠[[Reject]] »).
o. Set index to index + 1.

[Link].3 [Link] Resolve Element Functions

A [Link] resolve element function is an anonymous built-in function that is used to resolve a specific
[Link] element. Each [Link] resolve element function has ⁠[[Index]], ⁠[[Values]], ⁠[[Capability]],
[[RemainingElements]], and ⁠[[AlreadyCalled]] internal slots.

When a [Link] resolve element function is called with argument x, the following steps are taken:

1. Let F be the active function object.

2. If F.⁠[[AlreadyCalled]] is true, return undefined.
3. Set F.⁠[[AlreadyCalled]] to true.
4. Let index be F.⁠[[Index]].
5. Let values be F.⁠[[Values]].
6. Let promiseCapability be F.⁠[[Capability]].
7. Let remainingElementsCount be F.⁠[[RemainingElements]].
8. Set values[index] to x.
9. Set remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] to remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] - 1.
10. If remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] = 0, then
a. Let valuesArray be CreateArrayFromList(values).
b. Return ? Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « valuesArray »).
11. Return undefined.

The "length" property of a [Link] resolve element function is 1𝔽.

[Link] [Link] ( iterable )

This function returns a promise that is fulfilled with an array of promise state snapshots, but only after all the original
promises have settled, i.e. become either fulfilled or rejected. It resolves all elements of the passed iterable to promises
as it runs this algorithm.

1. Let C be the this value.

2. Let promiseCapability be ? NewPromiseCapability(C).
3. Let promiseResolve be Completion(GetPromiseResolve(C)).
4. IfAbruptRejectPromise(promiseResolve, promiseCapability).
5. Let iteratorRecord be Completion(GetIterator(iterable, SYNC)).
6. IfAbruptRejectPromise(iteratorRecord, promiseCapability).
7. Let result be Completion(PerformPromiseAllSettled(iteratorRecord, C, promiseCapability, promiseResolve)).
8. If result is an abrupt completion, then
a. If iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false, set result to Completion(IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, result)).
b. IfAbruptRejectPromise(result, promiseCapability).
9. Return ! result.

NOTE This function requires its this value to be a constructor function that supports the parameter conventions of
the Promise constructor.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link].1 PerformPromiseAllSettled ( iteratorRecord, constructor, resultCapability, promiseResolve )

The abstract operation PerformPromiseAllSettled takes arguments iteratorRecord (an Iterator Record), constructor (a
constructor), resultCapability (a PromiseCapability Record), and promiseResolve (a function object) and returns either a
normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let values be a new empty List.

2. Let remainingElementsCount be the Record { ⁠[[Value]]: 1 }.
3. Let index be 0.
4. Repeat,
a. Let next be ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is DONE, then
i. Set remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] to remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] - 1.
ii. If remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] = 0, then
1. Let valuesArray be CreateArrayFromList(values).
2. Perform ? Call(resultCapability.⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « valuesArray »).
iii. Return resultCapability.⁠[[Promise]].
c. Append undefined to values.
d. Let nextPromise be ? Call(promiseResolve, constructor, « next »).
e. Let stepsFulfilled be the algorithm steps defined in [Link] Resolve Element Functions.
f. Let lengthFulfilled be the number of non-optional parameters of the function definition in
[Link] Resolve Element Functions.
g. Let onFulfilled be CreateBuiltinFunction(stepsFulfilled, lengthFulfilled, "", « ⁠[[AlreadyCalled]], ⁠[[Index]],
⁠[[Values]], [[Capability]], ⁠[[RemainingElements]] »).
h. Let alreadyCalled be the Record { ⁠[[Value]]: false }.
i. Set onFulfilled.⁠[[AlreadyCalled]] to alreadyCalled.
j. Set onFulfilled.⁠[[Index]] to index.
k. Set onFulfilled.⁠[[Values]] to values.
l. Set onFulfilled.⁠[[Capability]] to resultCapability.
m. Set onFulfilled.⁠[[RemainingElements]] to remainingElementsCount.
n. Let stepsRejected be the algorithm steps defined in [Link] Reject Element Functions.
o. Let lengthRejected be the number of non-optional parameters of the function definition in
[Link] Reject Element Functions.
p. Let onRejected be CreateBuiltinFunction(stepsRejected, lengthRejected, "", « ⁠[[AlreadyCalled]], ⁠[[Index]],
⁠[[Values]], [[Capability]], ⁠[[RemainingElements]] »).
q. Set onRejected.⁠[[AlreadyCalled]] to alreadyCalled.
r. Set onRejected.⁠[[Index]] to index.
s. Set onRejected.⁠[[Values]] to values.
t. Set onRejected.⁠[[Capability]] to resultCapability.
u. Set onRejected.⁠[[RemainingElements]] to remainingElementsCount.
v. Set remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] to remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] + 1.
w. Perform ? Invoke(nextPromise, "then", « onFulfilled, onRejected »).
x. Set index to index + 1.

[Link].2 [Link] Resolve Element Functions

A [Link] resolve element function is an anonymous built-in function that is used to resolve a specific
[Link] element. Each [Link] resolve element function has ⁠[[Index]], ⁠[[Values]],
[[Capability]], ⁠[[RemainingElements]], and ⁠[[AlreadyCalled]] internal slots.

When a [Link] resolve element function is called with argument x, the following steps are taken:

1. Let F be the active function object.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

9. Let obj be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%).

10. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "status", "fulfilled").
11. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "value", x).
12. Set values[index] to obj.
13. Set remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] to remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] - 1.
14. If remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] = 0, then
a. Let valuesArray be CreateArrayFromList(values).
b. Return ? Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « valuesArray »).
15. Return undefined.

The "length" property of a [Link] resolve element function is 1𝔽.

[Link].3 [Link] Reject Element Functions

A [Link] reject element function is an anonymous built-in function that is used to reject a specific
[Link] element. Each [Link] reject element function has [⁠[Index]], ⁠[[Values]],
[[Capability]], ⁠[[RemainingElements]], and ⁠[[AlreadyCalled]] internal slots.

When a [Link] reject element function is called with argument x, the following steps are taken:

1. Let F be the active function object.

2. Let alreadyCalled be F.⁠[[AlreadyCalled]].
3. If alreadyCalled.⁠[[Value]] is true, return undefined.
4. Set alreadyCalled.⁠[[Value]] to true.
5. Let index be F.⁠[[Index]].
6. Let values be F.⁠[[Values]].
7. Let promiseCapability be F.⁠[[Capability]].
8. Let remainingElementsCount be F.⁠[[RemainingElements]].
9. Let obj be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%).
10. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "status", "rejected").
11. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "reason", x).
12. Set values[index] to obj.
13. Set remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] to remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] - 1.
14. If remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] = 0, then
a. Let valuesArray be CreateArrayFromList(values).
b. Return ? Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « valuesArray »).
15. Return undefined.

The "length" property of a [Link] reject element function is 1𝔽.

[Link] [Link] ( iterable )

This function returns a promise that is fulfilled by the first given promise to be fulfilled, or rejected with an
AggregateError holding the rejection reasons if all of the given promises are rejected. It resolves all elements of the
passed iterable to promises as it runs this algorithm.

1. Let C be the this value.

2. Let promiseCapability be ? NewPromiseCapability(C).
3. Let promiseResolve be Completion(GetPromiseResolve(C)).
4. IfAbruptRejectPromise(promiseResolve, promiseCapability).
5. Let iteratorRecord be Completion(GetIterator(iterable, SYNC)).
6. IfAbruptRejectPromise(iteratorRecord, promiseCapability).
7. Let result be Completion(PerformPromiseAny(iteratorRecord, C, promiseCapability, promiseResolve)).
8. If result is an abrupt completion, then
a. If iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false, set result to Completion(IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, result)).
b. IfAbruptRejectPromise(result, promiseCapability).
9. Return ! result.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NOTE This function requires its this value to be a constructor function that supports the parameter conventions of
the Promise constructor.

[Link].1 PerformPromiseAny ( iteratorRecord, constructor, resultCapability, promiseResolve )

The abstract operation PerformPromiseAny takes arguments iteratorRecord (an Iterator Record), constructor (a con-
structor), resultCapability (a PromiseCapability Record), and promiseResolve (a function object) and returns either a
normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let errors be a new empty List.

2. Let remainingElementsCount be the Record { ⁠[[Value]]: 1 }.
3. Let index be 0.
4. Repeat,
a. Let next be ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is DONE, then
i. Set remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] to remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] - 1.
ii. If remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] = 0, then
1. Let error be a newly created AggregateError object.
2. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(error, "errors", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Configurable]]: true,
⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Value]]: CreateArrayFromList(errors) }).
3. Return ThrowCompletion(error).
iii. Return resultCapability.⁠[[Promise]].
c. Append undefined to errors.
d. Let nextPromise be ? Call(promiseResolve, constructor, « next »).
e. Let stepsRejected be the algorithm steps defined in [Link] Reject Element Functions.
f. Let lengthRejected be the number of non-optional parameters of the function definition in [Link] Reject
Element Functions.
g. Let onRejected be CreateBuiltinFunction(stepsRejected, lengthRejected, "", « ⁠[[AlreadyCalled]], ⁠[[Index]],
⁠[[Errors]], ⁠[[Capability]], ⁠[[RemainingElements]] »).
h. Set onRejected.⁠[[AlreadyCalled]] to false.
i. Set onRejected.⁠[[Index]] to index.
j. Set onRejected.⁠[[Errors]] to errors.
k. Set onRejected.⁠[[Capability]] to resultCapability.
l. Set onRejected.⁠[[RemainingElements]] to remainingElementsCount.
m. Set remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] to remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] + 1.
n. Perform ? Invoke(nextPromise, "then", « resultCapability.⁠[[Resolve]], onRejected »).
o. Set index to index + 1.

[Link].2 [Link] Reject Element Functions

A [Link] reject element function is an anonymous built-in function that is used to reject a specific
[Link] element. Each [Link] reject element function has ⁠[[Index]], ⁠[[Errors]], ⁠[[Capability]],
[[RemainingElements]], and ⁠[[AlreadyCalled]] internal slots.

When a [Link] reject element function is called with argument x, the following steps are taken:

1. Let F be the active function object.

2. If F.⁠[[AlreadyCalled]] is true, return undefined.
3. Set F.⁠[[AlreadyCalled]] to true.
4. Let index be F.⁠[[Index]].
5. Let errors be F.⁠[[Errors]].
6. Let promiseCapability be F.⁠[[Capability]].
7. Let remainingElementsCount be F.⁠[[RemainingElements]].
8. Set errors[index] to x.
9. Set remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] to remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] - 1.
10. If remainingElementsCount.⁠[[Value]] = 0, then
a. Let error be a newly created AggregateError object.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

b. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(error, "errors", PropertyDescriptor { ⁠[[Configurable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]:

false, ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Value]]: CreateArrayFromList(errors) }).
c. Return ? Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « error »).
11. Return undefined.

The "length" property of a [Link] reject element function is 1𝔽.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the Promise prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

[Link] [Link] ( iterable )

This function returns a new promise which is settled in the same way as the first passed promise to settle. It resolves all
elements of the passed iterable to promises as it runs this algorithm.

1. Let C be the this value.

2. Let promiseCapability be ? NewPromiseCapability(C).
3. Let promiseResolve be Completion(GetPromiseResolve(C)).
4. IfAbruptRejectPromise(promiseResolve, promiseCapability).
5. Let iteratorRecord be Completion(GetIterator(iterable, SYNC)).
6. IfAbruptRejectPromise(iteratorRecord, promiseCapability).
7. Let result be Completion(PerformPromiseRace(iteratorRecord, C, promiseCapability, promiseResolve)).
8. If result is an abrupt completion, then
a. If iteratorRecord.⁠[[Done]] is false, set result to Completion(IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, result)).
b. IfAbruptRejectPromise(result, promiseCapability).
9. Return ! result.

NOTE 1 If the iterable argument yields no values or if none of the promises yielded by iterable ever settle, then the
pending promise returned by this method will never be settled.

NOTE 2 This function expects its this value to be a constructor function that supports the parameter conventions of
the Promise constructor. It also expects that its this value provides a resolve method.

[Link].1 PerformPromiseRace ( iteratorRecord, constructor, resultCapability, promiseResolve )

The abstract operation PerformPromiseRace takes arguments iteratorRecord (an Iterator Record), constructor (a con-
structor), resultCapability (a PromiseCapability Record), and promiseResolve (a function object) and returns either a
normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Repeat,
a. Let next be ? IteratorStepValue(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is DONE, then
i. Return resultCapability.⁠[[Promise]].
c. Let nextPromise be ? Call(promiseResolve, constructor, « next »).
d. Perform ? Invoke(nextPromise, "then", « resultCapability.⁠[[Resolve]], resultCapability.⁠[[Reject]] »).

[Link] [Link] ( r )

This function returns a new promise rejected with the passed argument.

1. Let C be the this value.

2. Let promiseCapability be ? NewPromiseCapability(C).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Perform ? Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « r »).

4. Return promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]].

NOTE This function expects its this value to be a constructor function that supports the parameter conventions of
the Promise constructor.

[Link] [Link] ( x )

This function returns either a new promise resolved with the passed argument, or the argument itself if the argument is a
promise produced by this constructor.

1. Let C be the this value.

2. If C is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Return ? PromiseResolve(C, x).

NOTE This function expects its this value to be a constructor function that supports the parameter conventions of
the Promise constructor.

[Link].1 PromiseResolve ( C, x )

The abstract operation PromiseResolve takes arguments C (an Object) and x (an ECMAScript language value) and re-
turns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It returns a new
promise resolved with x. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If IsPromise(x) is true, then

a. Let xConstructor be ? Get(x, "constructor").
b. If SameValue(xConstructor, C) is true, return x.
2. Let promiseCapability be ? NewPromiseCapability(C).
3. Perform ? Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « x »).
4. Return promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]].

[Link] [Link] ( callback, ...args )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let C be the this value.

2. If C is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let promiseCapability be ? NewPromiseCapability(C).
4. Let status be Completion(Call(callback, undefined, args)).
5. If status is an abrupt completion, then
a. Perform ? Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « status.⁠[[Value]] »).
6. Else,
a. Perform ? Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « status.⁠[[Value]] »).
7. Return promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]].

NOTE This function expects its this value to be a constructor function that supports the parameter conventions of
the Promise constructor.

[Link] [Link] ( )

This function returns an object with three properties: a new promise together with the resolve and reject functions
associated with it.

1. Let C be the this value.

2. Let promiseCapability be ? NewPromiseCapability(C).
3. Let obj be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

4. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "promise", promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]]).

5. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "resolve", promiseCapability.⁠[[Resolve]]).
6. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "reject", promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]]).
7. Return obj.

[Link] get Promise [ %[Link]% ]

Promise[%[Link]%] is an accessor property whose set accessor function is undefined. Its get accessor
function performs the following steps when called:

1. Return the this value.

The value of the "name" property of this function is "get [[Link]]".

NOTE Promise prototype methods normally use their this value's constructor to create a derived object. However,
a subclass constructor may over-ride that default behaviour by redefining its %[Link]% property.

27.2.5 Properties of the Promise Prototype Object

The Promise prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
does not have a ⁠[[PromiseState]] internal slot or any of the other internal slots of Promise instances.

[Link] [Link] ( onRejected )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let promise be the this value.

2. Return ? Invoke(promise, "then", « undefined, onRejected »).

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %Promise%.

[Link] [Link] ( onFinally )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let promise be the this value.

2. If promise is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let C be ? SpeciesConstructor(promise, %Promise%).
4. Assert: IsConstructor(C) is true.
5. If IsCallable(onFinally) is false, then
a. Let thenFinally be onFinally.
b. Let catchFinally be onFinally.
6. Else,
a. Let thenFinallyClosure be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (value) that captures onFinally and C and
performs the following steps when called:
i. Let result be ? Call(onFinally, undefined).
ii. Let p be ? PromiseResolve(C, result).
iii. Let returnValue be a new Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures value and performs the
following steps when called:
1. Return NormalCompletion(value).
iv. Let valueThunk be CreateBuiltinFunction(returnValue, 0, "", « »).
v. Return ? Invoke(p, "then", « valueThunk »).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

b. Let thenFinally be CreateBuiltinFunction(thenFinallyClosure, 1, "", « »).

c. Let catchFinallyClosure be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (reason) that captures onFinally and C and
performs the following steps when called:
i. Let result be ? Call(onFinally, undefined).
ii. Let p be ? PromiseResolve(C, result).
iii. Let throwReason be a new Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures reason and performs the
following steps when called:
1. Return ThrowCompletion(reason).
iv. Let thrower be CreateBuiltinFunction(throwReason, 0, "", « »).
v. Return ? Invoke(p, "then", « thrower »).
d. Let catchFinally be CreateBuiltinFunction(catchFinallyClosure, 1, "", « »).
7. Return ? Invoke(promise, "then", « thenFinally, catchFinally »).

[Link] [Link] ( onFulfilled, onRejected )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let promise be the this value.

2. If IsPromise(promise) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let C be ? SpeciesConstructor(promise, %Promise%).
4. Let resultCapability be ? NewPromiseCapability(C).
5. Return PerformPromiseThen(promise, onFulfilled, onRejected, resultCapability).

[Link].1 PerformPromiseThen ( promise, onFulfilled, onRejected [ , resultCapability ] )

The abstract operation PerformPromiseThen takes arguments promise (a Promise), onFulfilled (an ECMAScript lan-
guage value), and onRejected (an ECMAScript language value) and optional argument resultCapability (a
PromiseCapability Record) and returns an ECMAScript language value. It performs the “then” operation on promise us-
ing onFulfilled and onRejected as its settlement actions. If resultCapability is passed, the result is stored by updating
resultCapability's promise. If it is not passed, then PerformPromiseThen is being called by a specification-internal opera-
tion where the result does not matter. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPromise(promise) is true.

2. If resultCapability is not present, then
a. Set resultCapability to undefined.
3. If IsCallable(onFulfilled) is false, then
a. Let onFulfilledJobCallback be EMPTY.
4. Else,
a. Let onFulfilledJobCallback be HostMakeJobCallback(onFulfilled).
5. If IsCallable(onRejected) is false, then
a. Let onRejectedJobCallback be EMPTY.
6. Else,
a. Let onRejectedJobCallback be HostMakeJobCallback(onRejected).
7. Let fulfillReaction be the PromiseReaction Record { ⁠[[Capability]]: resultCapability, ⁠[[Type]]: FULFILL, ⁠[[Handler]]:
onFulfilledJobCallback }.
8. Let rejectReaction be the PromiseReaction Record { ⁠[[Capability]]: resultCapability, ⁠[[Type]]: REJECT, ⁠[[Handler]]:
onRejectedJobCallback }.
9. If promise.⁠[[PromiseState]] is PENDING, then
a. Append fulfillReaction to promise.⁠[[PromiseFulfillReactions]].
b. Append rejectReaction to promise.⁠[[PromiseRejectReactions]].
10. Else if promise.⁠[[PromiseState]] is FULFILLED, then
a. Let value be promise.⁠[[PromiseResult]].
b. Let fulfillJob be NewPromiseReactionJob(fulfillReaction, value).
c. Perform HostEnqueuePromiseJob(fulfillJob.⁠[[Job]], fulfillJob.⁠[[Realm]]).
11. Else,
a. Assert: promise.⁠[[PromiseState]] is REJECTED.
b. Let reason be promise.⁠[[PromiseResult]].
c. If promise.⁠[[PromiseIsHandled]] is false, perform HostPromiseRejectionTracker(promise, "handle").
d. Let rejectJob be NewPromiseReactionJob(rejectReaction, reason).
e. Perform HostEnqueuePromiseJob(rejectJob.⁠[[Job]], rejectJob.⁠[[Realm]]).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

12. Set promise.⁠[[PromiseIsHandled]] to true.

13. If resultCapability is undefined, then
a. Return undefined.
14. Else,
a. Return resultCapability.⁠[[Promise]].

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "Promise".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

27.2.6 Properties of Promise Instances

Promise instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the Promise prototype object (the intrinsic,
%[Link]%). Promise instances are initially created with the internal slots described in Table 92.

Table 92: Internal Slots of Promise Instances

Internal Slot Type Description
⁠[[PromiseState]] PENDING, FULFILLED, or Governs how a promise will react to incoming calls to its
REJECTED then method.
⁠[[PromiseResult]] an ECMAScript language The value with which the promise has been fulfilled or
value or EMPTY rejected, if any. EMPTY if and only if the ⁠[[PromiseState]] is
PENDING.
⁠[[PromiseFulfillReactions]] a List of PromiseReaction Records to be processed when/if the promise transitions
Records from the PENDING state to the FULFILLED state.
⁠[[PromiseRejectReactions]] a List of PromiseReaction Records to be processed when/if the promise transitions
Records from the PENDING state to the REJECTED state.
⁠[[PromiseIsHandled]] a Boolean Indicates whether the promise has ever had a fulfillment or
rejection handler; used in unhandled rejection tracking.

27.3 GeneratorFunction Objects

GeneratorFunctions are functions that are usually created by evaluating GeneratorDeclarations, GeneratorExpressions,
and GeneratorMethods. They may also be created by calling the %GeneratorFunction% intrinsic.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Figure 6 (Informative): Generator Objects Relationships

[[Prototype]] of
[Link] is null

[Link]

%IteratorPrototype%

%[Link]%() : object
[Link]

%[Link]%()
«constructor» %[Link]%
apply()
«callable» is an ordinary object that serves
bind()
Function as the abstract constructor of
call()
Generator instances.

constructor
constructor
«constructor» %[Link]% %GeneratorPrototype%
«callable» prototype prototype
%GeneratorFunction% %[Link]% = %[Link]% = "Generator"
"GeneratorFunction"
next() : object
return()
throw()
%GeneratorFunction% and instanceof
%[Link]%
do not have global names.
«callable» [Link]
function *g1() { yield; } prototype
%GeneratorFunction% is
essentially a subclass of
Function and is structured as instanceof g1()
if it were declared as:
A typical generator
function. It is not a
class extends Function { }
constructor.
Each Generator Function has an associated
prototype that does not have a constructor
property. Hence a generator instance does not
expose access to its generator function.

But the prototype may be used to add additional

behavior to its generator function's instances.

27.3.1 The GeneratorFunction Constructor

The GeneratorFunction constructor:

is %GeneratorFunction%.
is a subclass of Function.
creates and initializes a new GeneratorFunction when called as a function rather than as a constructor. Thus the
function call GeneratorFunction (…) is equivalent to the object creation expression
new GeneratorFunction (…) with the same arguments.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified GeneratorFunction behaviour must include a super call to the GeneratorFunction constructor to create
and initialize subclass instances with the internal slots necessary for built-in GeneratorFunction behaviour. All
ECMAScript syntactic forms for defining generator function objects create direct instances of GeneratorFunction.
There is no syntactic means to create instances of GeneratorFunction subclasses.

[Link] GeneratorFunction ( ...parameterArgs, bodyArg )

The last argument (if any) specifies the body (executable code) of a generator function; any preceding arguments spe-
cify formal parameters.

This function performs the following steps when called:

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

1. Let C be the active function object.

2. If bodyArg is not present, set bodyArg to the empty String.
3. Return ? CreateDynamicFunction(C, NewTarget, GENERATOR, parameterArgs, bodyArg).

NOTE See NOTE for [Link].

27.3.2 Properties of the GeneratorFunction Constructor

The GeneratorFunction constructor:

is a standard built-in function object that inherits from the Function constructor.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %Function%.
has a "length" property whose value is 1𝔽.
has a "name" property whose value is "GeneratorFunction".
has the following properties:

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the GeneratorFunction prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

27.3.3 Properties of the GeneratorFunction Prototype Object

The GeneratorFunction prototype object:

is %[Link]% (see Figure 6).

is an ordinary object.
is not a function object and does not have an ⁠[[ECMAScriptCode]] internal slot or any other of the internal slots listed
in Table 30 or Table 93.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %GeneratorFunction%.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %GeneratorPrototype%.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "GeneratorFunction".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

27.3.4 GeneratorFunction Instances

Every GeneratorFunction instance is an ECMAScript function object and has the internal slots listed in Table 30. The
value of the ⁠[[IsClassConstructor]] internal slot for all such instances is false.

Each GeneratorFunction instance has the following own properties:

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] length

The specification for the "length" property of Function instances given in [Link] also applies to
GeneratorFunction instances.

[Link] name

The specification for the "name" property of Function instances given in [Link] also applies to
GeneratorFunction instances.

[Link] prototype

Whenever a GeneratorFunction instance is created another ordinary object is also created and is the initial value of the
generator function's "prototype" property. The value of the prototype property is used to initialize the ⁠[[Prototype]] in-
ternal slot of a newly created Generator when the generator function object is invoked using ⁠[[Call]].

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

NOTE Unlike Function instances, the object that is the value of a GeneratorFunction's "prototype" property does
not have a "constructor" property whose value is the GeneratorFunction instance.

27.4 AsyncGeneratorFunction Objects

AsyncGeneratorFunctions are functions that are usually created by evaluating AsyncGeneratorDeclaration,

AsyncGeneratorExpression, and AsyncGeneratorMethod syntactic productions. They may also be created by calling the
%AsyncGeneratorFunction% intrinsic.

27.4.1 The AsyncGeneratorFunction Constructor

The AsyncGeneratorFunction constructor:

is %AsyncGeneratorFunction%.
is a subclass of Function.
creates and initializes a new AsyncGeneratorFunction when called as a function rather than as a constructor. Thus
the function call AsyncGeneratorFunction (...) is equivalent to the object creation expression
new AsyncGeneratorFunction (...) with the same arguments.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified AsyncGeneratorFunction behaviour must include a super call to the AsyncGeneratorFunction constructor
to create and initialize subclass instances with the internal slots necessary for built-in AsyncGeneratorFunction
behaviour. All ECMAScript syntactic forms for defining async generator function objects create direct instances of
AsyncGeneratorFunction. There is no syntactic means to create instances of AsyncGeneratorFunction subclasses.

[Link] AsyncGeneratorFunction ( ...parameterArgs, bodyArg )

The last argument (if any) specifies the body (executable code) of an async generator function; any preceding argu-
ments specify formal parameters.

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let C be the active function object.

2. If bodyArg is not present, set bodyArg to the empty String.
3. Return ? CreateDynamicFunction(C, NewTarget, ASYNC-GENERATOR, parameterArgs, bodyArg).

NOTE See NOTE for [Link].

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

27.4.2 Properties of the AsyncGeneratorFunction Constructor

The AsyncGeneratorFunction constructor:

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the AsyncGeneratorFunction prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

27.4.3 Properties of the AsyncGeneratorFunction Prototype Object

The AsyncGeneratorFunction prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
is not a function object and does not have an ⁠[[ECMAScriptCode]] internal slot or any other of the internal slots listed
in Table 30 or Table 94.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %AsyncGeneratorFunction%.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %AsyncGeneratorPrototype%.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "AsyncGeneratorFunction".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

27.4.4 AsyncGeneratorFunction Instances

Every AsyncGeneratorFunction instance is an ECMAScript function object and has the internal slots listed in Table 30.
The value of the ⁠[[IsClassConstructor]] internal slot for all such instances is false.

Each AsyncGeneratorFunction instance has the following own properties:

[Link] length

The value of the "length" property is an integral Number that indicates the typical number of arguments expected by
the AsyncGeneratorFunction. However, the language permits the function to be invoked with some other number of ar-
guments. The behaviour of an AsyncGeneratorFunction when invoked on a number of arguments other than the number

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

specified by its "length" property depends on the function.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

[Link] name

The specification for the "name" property of Function instances given in [Link] also applies to
AsyncGeneratorFunction instances.

[Link] prototype

Whenever an AsyncGeneratorFunction instance is created, another ordinary object is also created and is the initial
value of the async generator function's "prototype" property. The value of the prototype property is used to initialize the
[[Prototype]] internal slot of a newly created AsyncGenerator when the generator function object is invoked using ⁠[[Call]].

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: true, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

NOTE Unlike function instances, the object that is the value of an AsyncGeneratorFunction's "prototype" property
does not have a "constructor" property whose value is the AsyncGeneratorFunction instance.

27.5 Generator Objects

A Generator is created by calling a generator function and conforms to both the iterator interface and the
iterable interface.

Generator instances directly inherit properties from the initial value of the "prototype" property of the generator function
that created the instance. Generator instances indirectly inherit properties from %GeneratorPrototype%.

27.5.1 The %GeneratorPrototype% Object

The %GeneratorPrototype% object:

is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
is not a Generator instance and does not have a ⁠[[GeneratorState]] internal slot.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
has properties that are indirectly inherited by all Generator instances.

[Link] %GeneratorPrototype%.constructor

The initial value of %GeneratorPrototype%.constructor is %[Link]%.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

[Link] %GeneratorPrototype%.next ( value )

1. Return ? GeneratorResume(this value, value, EMPTY).

[Link] %GeneratorPrototype%.return ( value )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let g be the this value.

2. Let C be ReturnCompletion(value).
3. Return ? GeneratorResumeAbrupt(g, C, EMPTY).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] %GeneratorPrototype%.throw ( exception )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let g be the this value.

2. Let C be ThrowCompletion(exception).
3. Return ? GeneratorResumeAbrupt(g, C, EMPTY).

[Link] %GeneratorPrototype% [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "Generator".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

27.5.2 Properties of Generator Instances

Generator instances are initially created with the internal slots described in Table 93.

Table 93: Internal Slots of Generator Instances

Internal Slot Type Description
⁠[[GeneratorState]] SUSPENDED-START, The current execution state of the generator.
SUSPENDED-YIELD,
EXECUTING, or COMPLETED
⁠[[GeneratorContext]] an execution context The execution context that is used when executing the code
of this generator.
⁠[[GeneratorBrand]] a String or EMPTY A brand used to distinguish different kinds of generators. The
⁠[[GeneratorBrand]] of generators declared by ECMAScript
source text is always EMPTY.

27.5.3 Generator Abstract Operations

[Link] GeneratorStart ( generator, generatorBody )

The abstract operation GeneratorStart takes arguments generator (a Generator) and generatorBody (a FunctionBody
Parse Node or an Abstract Closure with no parameters) and returns UNUSED. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Assert: generator.⁠[[GeneratorState]] is SUSPENDED-START.

2. Let genContext be the running execution context.
3. Set the Generator component of genContext to generator.
4. Let closure be a new Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures generatorBody and performs the following
steps when called:
a. Let acGenContext be the running execution context.
b. Let acGenerator be the Generator component of acGenContext.
c. If generatorBody is a Parse Node, then
i. Let result be Completion(Evaluation of generatorBody).
d. Else,
i. Assert: generatorBody is an Abstract Closure with no parameters.
ii. Let result be Completion(generatorBody()).
e. Assert: If we return here, the generator either threw an exception or performed either an implicit or explicit
return.
f. Remove acGenContext from the execution context stack and restore the execution context that is at the top of
the execution context stack as the running execution context.
g. Set acGenerator.⁠[[GeneratorState]] to COMPLETED.
h. NOTE: Once a generator enters the COMPLETED state it never leaves it and its associated execution context is
never resumed. Any execution state associated with acGenerator can be discarded at this point.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

i. If result is a normal completion, then

i. Let resultValue be undefined.
j. Else if result is a return completion, then
i. Let resultValue be result.⁠[[Value]].
k. Else,
i. Assert: result is a throw completion.
ii. Return ? result.
l. Return NormalCompletion(CreateIteratorResultObject(resultValue, true)).
5. Set the code evaluation state of genContext such that when evaluation is resumed for that execution context,
closure will be called with no arguments.
6. Set generator.⁠[[GeneratorContext]] to genContext.
7. Return UNUSED.

[Link] GeneratorValidate ( generator, generatorBrand )

The abstract operation GeneratorValidate takes arguments generator (an ECMAScript language value) and generator-
Brand (a String or EMPTY) and returns either a normal completion containing one of SUSPENDED-START, SUSPENDED-
YIELD, or COMPLETED, or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(generator, ⁠[[GeneratorState]]).

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(generator, ⁠[[GeneratorBrand]]).
3. If generator.⁠[[GeneratorBrand]] is not generatorBrand, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Assert: generator also has a ⁠[[GeneratorContext]] internal slot.
5. Let state be generator.⁠[[GeneratorState]].
6. If state is EXECUTING, throw a TypeError exception.
7. Return state.

[Link] GeneratorResume ( generator, value, generatorBrand )

The abstract operation GeneratorResume takes arguments generator (an ECMAScript language value), value (an
ECMAScript language value or EMPTY), and generatorBrand (a String or EMPTY) and returns either a normal comple-
tion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let state be ? GeneratorValidate(generator, generatorBrand).

2. If state is COMPLETED, return CreateIteratorResultObject(undefined, true).
3. Assert: state is either SUSPENDED-START or SUSPENDED-YIELD.
4. Let genContext be generator.⁠[[GeneratorContext]].
5. Let methodContext be the running execution context.
6. Suspend methodContext.
7. Set generator.⁠[[GeneratorState]] to EXECUTING.
8. Push genContext onto the execution context stack; genContext is now the running execution context.
9. Resume the suspended evaluation of genContext using NormalCompletion(value) as the result of the operation that
suspended it. Let result be the value returned by the resumed computation.
10. Assert: When we return here, genContext has already been removed from the execution context stack and
methodContext is the currently running execution context.
11. Return ? result.

[Link] GeneratorResumeAbrupt ( generator, abruptCompletion, generatorBrand )

The abstract operation GeneratorResumeAbrupt takes arguments generator (an ECMAScript language value), ab-
ruptCompletion (a return completion or a throw completion), and generatorBrand (a String or EMPTY) and returns either
a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or a throw completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let state be ? GeneratorValidate(generator, generatorBrand).

2. If state is SUSPENDED-START, then
a. Set generator.⁠[[GeneratorState]] to COMPLETED.
b. NOTE: Once a generator enters the COMPLETED state it never leaves it and its associated execution context is
never resumed. Any execution state associated with generator can be discarded at this point.
c. Set state to COMPLETED.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. If state is COMPLETED, then

a. If abruptCompletion is a return completion, then
i. Return CreateIteratorResultObject(abruptCompletion.⁠[[Value]], true).
b. Return ? abruptCompletion.
4. Assert: state is SUSPENDED-YIELD.
5. Let genContext be generator.⁠[[GeneratorContext]].
6. Let methodContext be the running execution context.
7. Suspend methodContext.
8. Set generator.⁠[[GeneratorState]] to EXECUTING.
9. Push genContext onto the execution context stack; genContext is now the running execution context.
10. Resume the suspended evaluation of genContext using abruptCompletion as the result of the operation that
suspended it. Let result be the Completion Record returned by the resumed computation.
11. Assert: When we return here, genContext has already been removed from the execution context stack and
methodContext is the currently running execution context.
12. Return ? result.

[Link] GetGeneratorKind ( )

The abstract operation GetGeneratorKind takes no arguments and returns NON-GENERATOR, SYNC, or ASYNC. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Let genContext be the running execution context.

2. If genContext does not have a Generator component, return NON-GENERATOR.
3. Let generator be the Generator component of genContext.
4. If generator has an ⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]] internal slot, return ASYNC.
5. Else, return SYNC.

[Link] GeneratorYield ( iteratorResult )

The abstract operation GeneratorYield takes argument iteratorResult (an Object that conforms to the IteratorResult in-
terface) and returns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or an abrupt completion. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Let genContext be the running execution context.

2. Assert: genContext is the execution context of a generator.
3. Let generator be the value of the Generator component of genContext.
4. Assert: GetGeneratorKind() is SYNC.
5. Set generator.⁠[[GeneratorState]] to SUSPENDED-YIELD.
6. Remove genContext from the execution context stack and restore the execution context that is at the top of the
execution context stack as the running execution context.
7. Let callerContext be the running execution context.
8. Resume callerContext passing NormalCompletion(iteratorResult). If genContext is ever resumed again, let
resumptionValue be the Completion Record with which it is resumed.
9. Assert: If control reaches here, then genContext is the running execution context again.
10. Return resumptionValue.

[Link] Yield ( value )

The abstract operation Yield takes argument value (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal com-
pletion containing an ECMAScript language value or an abrupt completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let generatorKind be GetGeneratorKind().

2. If generatorKind is ASYNC, return ? AsyncGeneratorYield(? Await(value)).
3. Otherwise, return ? GeneratorYield(CreateIteratorResultObject(value, false)).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] CreateIteratorFromClosure ( closure, generatorBrand, generatorPrototype [ , extraSlots ] )

The abstract operation CreateIteratorFromClosure takes arguments closure (an Abstract Closure with no parameters),
generatorBrand (a String or EMPTY), and generatorPrototype (an Object) and optional argument extraSlots (a List of
names of internal slots) and returns a Generator. It performs the following steps when called:

1. NOTE: closure can contain uses of the Yield operation to yield an IteratorResult object.
2. If extraSlots is not present, set extraSlots to a new empty List.
3. Let internalSlotsList be the list-concatenation of extraSlots and « ⁠[[GeneratorState]], ⁠[[GeneratorContext]],
⁠[[GeneratorBrand]] ».
4. Let generator be OrdinaryObjectCreate(generatorPrototype, internalSlotsList).
5. Set generator.⁠[[GeneratorBrand]] to generatorBrand.
6. Set generator.⁠[[GeneratorState]] to SUSPENDED-START.
7. Let callerContext be the running execution context.
8. Let calleeContext be a new execution context.
9. Set the Function of calleeContext to null.
10. Set the Realm of calleeContext to the current Realm Record.
11. Set the ScriptOrModule of calleeContext to callerContext's ScriptOrModule.
12. If callerContext is not already suspended, suspend callerContext.
13. Push calleeContext onto the execution context stack; calleeContext is now the running execution context.
14. Perform GeneratorStart(generator, closure).
15. Remove calleeContext from the execution context stack and restore callerContext as the running execution context.
16. Return generator.

27.6 AsyncGenerator Objects

An AsyncGenerator is created by calling an async generator function and conforms to both the async iterator interface
and the async iterable interface.

AsyncGenerator instances directly inherit properties from the initial value of the "prototype" property of the
async generator function that created the instance. AsyncGenerator instances indirectly inherit properties
from %AsyncGeneratorPrototype%.

27.6.1 The %AsyncGeneratorPrototype% Object

The %AsyncGeneratorPrototype% object:

is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
is not an AsyncGenerator instance and does not have an [[AsyncGeneratorState]] internal slot.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %AsyncIteratorPrototype%.
has properties that are indirectly inherited by all AsyncGenerator instances.

[Link] %AsyncGeneratorPrototype%.constructor

The initial value of %AsyncGeneratorPrototype%.constructor is %[Link]%.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

[Link] %AsyncGeneratorPrototype%.next ( value )

1. Let generator be the this value.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

b. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « iteratorResult »).

c. Return promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]].
7. Let completion be NormalCompletion(value).
8. Perform AsyncGeneratorEnqueue(generator, completion, promiseCapability).
9. If state is either SUSPENDED-START or SUSPENDED-YIELD, then
a. Perform AsyncGeneratorResume(generator, completion).
10. Else,
a. Assert: state is either EXECUTING or DRAINING-QUEUE.
11. Return promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]].

[Link] %AsyncGeneratorPrototype%.return ( value )

1. Let generator be the this value.

2. Let promiseCapability be ! NewPromiseCapability(%Promise%).
3. Let result be Completion(AsyncGeneratorValidate(generator, EMPTY)).
4. IfAbruptRejectPromise(result, promiseCapability).
5. Let completion be ReturnCompletion(value).
6. Perform AsyncGeneratorEnqueue(generator, completion, promiseCapability).
7. Let state be generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]].
8. If state is either SUSPENDED-START or COMPLETED, then
a. Set generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]] to DRAINING-QUEUE.
b. Perform AsyncGeneratorAwaitReturn(generator).
9. Else if state is SUSPENDED-YIELD, then
a. Perform AsyncGeneratorResume(generator, completion).
10. Else,
a. Assert: state is either EXECUTING or DRAINING-QUEUE.
11. Return promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]].

[Link] %AsyncGeneratorPrototype%.throw ( exception )

1. Let generator be the this value.

2. Let promiseCapability be ! NewPromiseCapability(%Promise%).
3. Let result be Completion(AsyncGeneratorValidate(generator, EMPTY)).
4. IfAbruptRejectPromise(result, promiseCapability).
5. Let state be generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]].
6. If state is SUSPENDED-START, then
a. Set generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]] to COMPLETED.
b. Set state to COMPLETED.
7. If state is COMPLETED, then
a. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « exception »).
b. Return promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]].
8. Let completion be ThrowCompletion(exception).
9. Perform AsyncGeneratorEnqueue(generator, completion, promiseCapability).
10. If state is SUSPENDED-YIELD, then
a. Perform AsyncGeneratorResume(generator, completion).
11. Else,
a. Assert: state is either EXECUTING or DRAINING-QUEUE.
12. Return promiseCapability.⁠[[Promise]].

[Link] %AsyncGeneratorPrototype% [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "AsyncGenerator".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

27.6.2 Properties of AsyncGenerator Instances

AsyncGenerator instances are initially created with the internal slots described below:

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Table 94: Internal Slots of AsyncGenerator Instances

Internal Slot Type Description
⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]] SUSPENDED-START, SUSPENDED- The current execution state of the async generator.
YIELD, EXECUTING, DRAINING-
QUEUE, or COMPLETED
⁠[[AsyncGeneratorContext]] an execution context The execution context that is used when executing
the code of this async generator.
⁠[[AsyncGeneratorQueue]] a List of AsyncGeneratorRequest Records which represent requests to resume the
Records async generator. Except during state transitions, it is
non-empty if and only if ⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]] is
either EXECUTING or DRAINING-QUEUE.
⁠[[GeneratorBrand]] a String or EMPTY A brand used to distinguish different kinds of async
generators. The ⁠[[GeneratorBrand]] of async
generators declared by ECMAScript source text is
always EMPTY.

27.6.3 AsyncGenerator Abstract Operations

[Link] AsyncGeneratorRequest Records

An AsyncGeneratorRequest is a Record value used to store information about how an async generator should be re-
sumed and contains capabilities for fulfilling or rejecting the corresponding promise.

They have the following fields:

Table 95: AsyncGeneratorRequest Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[Completion]] a Completion Record The Completion Record which should be used to resume the async
generator.
⁠[[Capability]] a PromiseCapability The promise capabilities associated with this request.
Record

[Link] AsyncGeneratorStart ( generator, generatorBody )

The abstract operation AsyncGeneratorStart takes arguments generator (an AsyncGenerator) and generatorBody (a
FunctionBody Parse Node or an Abstract Closure with no parameters) and returns UNUSED. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Assert: generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]] is SUSPENDED-START.

2. Let genContext be the running execution context.
3. Set the Generator component of genContext to generator.
4. Let closure be a new Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures generatorBody and performs the following
steps when called:
a. Let acGenContext be the running execution context.
b. Let acGenerator be the Generator component of acGenContext.
c. If generatorBody is a Parse Node, then
i. Let result be Completion(Evaluation of generatorBody).
d. Else,
i. Assert: generatorBody is an Abstract Closure with no parameters.
ii. Let result be Completion(generatorBody()).
e. Assert: If we return here, the async generator either threw an exception or performed either an implicit or
explicit return.
f. Remove acGenContext from the execution context stack and restore the execution context that is at the top of
the execution context stack as the running execution context.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

g. Set acGenerator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]] to DRAINING-QUEUE.

h. If result is a normal completion, set result to NormalCompletion(undefined).
i. If result is a return completion, set result to NormalCompletion(result.⁠[[Value]]).
j. Perform AsyncGeneratorCompleteStep(acGenerator, result, true).
k. Perform AsyncGeneratorDrainQueue(acGenerator).
l. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).
5. Set the code evaluation state of genContext such that when evaluation is resumed for that execution context,
closure will be called with no arguments.
6. Set generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorContext]] to genContext.
7. Set generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorQueue]] to a new empty List.
8. Return UNUSED.

[Link] AsyncGeneratorValidate ( generator, generatorBrand )

The abstract operation AsyncGeneratorValidate takes arguments generator (an ECMAScript language value) and
generatorBrand (a String or EMPTY) and returns either a normal completion containing UNUSED or a throw completion.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(generator, ⁠[[AsyncGeneratorContext]]).

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(generator, ⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]]).
3. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(generator, ⁠[[AsyncGeneratorQueue]]).
4. If generator.⁠[[GeneratorBrand]] is not generatorBrand, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Return UNUSED.

[Link] AsyncGeneratorEnqueue ( generator, completion, promiseCapability )

The abstract operation AsyncGeneratorEnqueue takes arguments generator (an AsyncGenerator), completion (a
Completion Record), and promiseCapability (a PromiseCapability Record) and returns UNUSED. It performs the follow-
ing steps when called:

1. Let request be AsyncGeneratorRequest { ⁠[[Completion]]: completion, ⁠[[Capability]]: promiseCapability }.

2. Append request to generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorQueue]].
3. Return UNUSED.

[Link] AsyncGeneratorCompleteStep ( generator, completion, done [ , realm ] )

The abstract operation AsyncGeneratorCompleteStep takes arguments generator (an AsyncGenerator), completion (a
Completion Record), and done (a Boolean) and optional argument realm (a Realm Record) and returns UNUSED. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Assert: generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorQueue]] is not empty.

2. Let next be the first element of generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorQueue]].
3. Remove the first element from generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorQueue]].
4. Let promiseCapability be next.⁠[[Capability]].
5. Let value be completion.⁠[[Value]].
6. If completion is a throw completion, then
a. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « value »).
7. Else,
a. Assert: completion is a normal completion.
b. If realm is present, then
i. Let oldRealm be the running execution context's Realm.
ii. Set the running execution context's Realm to realm.
iii. Let iteratorResult be CreateIteratorResultObject(value, done).
iv. Set the running execution context's Realm to oldRealm.
c. Else,
i. Let iteratorResult be CreateIteratorResultObject(value, done).
d. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « iteratorResult »).
8. Return UNUSED.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] AsyncGeneratorResume ( generator, completion )

The abstract operation AsyncGeneratorResume takes arguments generator (an AsyncGenerator) and completion (a
Completion Record) and returns UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]] is either SUSPENDED-START or SUSPENDED-YIELD.

2. Let genContext be generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorContext]].
3. Let callerContext be the running execution context.
4. Suspend callerContext.
5. Set generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]] to EXECUTING.
6. Push genContext onto the execution context stack; genContext is now the running execution context.
7. Resume the suspended evaluation of genContext using completion as the result of the operation that suspended it.
Let result be the Completion Record returned by the resumed computation.
8. Assert: result is never an abrupt completion.
9. Assert: When we return here, genContext has already been removed from the execution context stack and
callerContext is the currently running execution context.
10. Return UNUSED.

[Link] AsyncGeneratorUnwrapYieldResumption ( resumptionValue )

The abstract operation AsyncGeneratorUnwrapYieldResumption takes argument resumptionValue (a Completion

Record) and returns either a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or an abrupt completion. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. If resumptionValue is not a return completion, return ? resumptionValue.

2. Let awaited be Completion(Await(resumptionValue.⁠[[Value]])).
3. If awaited is a throw completion, return ? awaited.
4. Assert: awaited is a normal completion.
5. Return ReturnCompletion(awaited.⁠[[Value]]).

[Link] AsyncGeneratorYield ( value )

The abstract operation AsyncGeneratorYield takes argument value (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either
a normal completion containing an ECMAScript language value or an abrupt completion. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let genContext be the running execution context.

2. Assert: genContext is the execution context of a generator.
3. Let generator be the value of the Generator component of genContext.
4. Assert: GetGeneratorKind() is ASYNC.
5. Let completion be NormalCompletion(value).
6. Assert: The execution context stack has at least two elements.
7. Let previousContext be the second to top element of the execution context stack.
8. Let previousRealm be previousContext's Realm.
9. Perform AsyncGeneratorCompleteStep(generator, completion, false, previousRealm).
10. Let queue be generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorQueue]].
11. If queue is not empty, then
a. NOTE: Execution continues without suspending the generator.
b. Let toYield be the first element of queue.
c. Let resumptionValue be Completion(toYield.⁠[[Completion]]).
d. Return ? AsyncGeneratorUnwrapYieldResumption(resumptionValue).
12. Else,
a. Set generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]] to SUSPENDED-YIELD.
b. Remove genContext from the execution context stack and restore the execution context that is at the top of the
execution context stack as the running execution context.
c. Let callerContext be the running execution context.
d. Resume callerContext passing undefined. If genContext is ever resumed again, let resumptionValue be the
Completion Record with which it is resumed.
e. Assert: If control reaches here, then genContext is the running execution context again.
f. Return ? AsyncGeneratorUnwrapYieldResumption(resumptionValue).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] AsyncGeneratorAwaitReturn ( generator )

The abstract operation AsyncGeneratorAwaitReturn takes argument generator (an AsyncGenerator) and returns
UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]] is DRAINING-QUEUE.

2. Let queue be generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorQueue]].
3. Assert: queue is not empty.
4. Let next be the first element of queue.
5. Let completion be Completion(next.⁠[[Completion]]).
6. Assert: completion is a return completion.
7. Let promiseCompletion be Completion(PromiseResolve(%Promise%, completion.⁠[[Value]])).
8. If promiseCompletion is an abrupt completion, then
a. Perform AsyncGeneratorCompleteStep(generator, promiseCompletion, true).
b. Perform AsyncGeneratorDrainQueue(generator).
c. Return UNUSED.
9. Assert: promiseCompletion is a normal completion.
10. Let promise be promiseCompletion.⁠[[Value]].
11. Let fulfilledClosure be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (value) that captures generator and performs the
following steps when called:
a. Assert: generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]] is DRAINING-QUEUE.
b. Let result be NormalCompletion(value).
c. Perform AsyncGeneratorCompleteStep(generator, result, true).
d. Perform AsyncGeneratorDrainQueue(generator).
e. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).
12. Let onFulfilled be CreateBuiltinFunction(fulfilledClosure, 1, "", « »).
13. Let rejectedClosure be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (reason) that captures generator and performs the
following steps when called:
a. Assert: generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]] is DRAINING-QUEUE.
b. Let result be ThrowCompletion(reason).
c. Perform AsyncGeneratorCompleteStep(generator, result, true).
d. Perform AsyncGeneratorDrainQueue(generator).
e. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).
14. Let onRejected be CreateBuiltinFunction(rejectedClosure, 1, "", « »).
15. Perform PerformPromiseThen(promise, onFulfilled, onRejected).
16. Return UNUSED.

[Link] AsyncGeneratorDrainQueue ( generator )

The abstract operation AsyncGeneratorDrainQueue takes argument generator (an AsyncGenerator) and returns
UNUSED. It drains the generator's AsyncGeneratorQueue until it encounters an AsyncGeneratorRequest which holds a
return completion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]] is DRAINING-QUEUE.

2. Let queue be generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorQueue]].
3. Repeat, while queue is not empty,
a. Let next be the first element of queue.
b. Let completion be Completion(next.⁠[[Completion]]).
c. If completion is a return completion, then
i. Perform AsyncGeneratorAwaitReturn(generator).
ii. Return UNUSED.
d. Else,
i. If completion is a normal completion, then
1. Set completion to NormalCompletion(undefined).
ii. Perform AsyncGeneratorCompleteStep(generator, completion, true).
4. Set generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]] to COMPLETED.
5. Return UNUSED.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link] CreateAsyncIteratorFromClosure ( closure, generatorBrand, generatorPrototype )

The abstract operation CreateAsyncIteratorFromClosure takes arguments closure (an Abstract Closure with no para-
meters), generatorBrand (a String or EMPTY), and generatorPrototype (an Object) and returns an AsyncGenerator. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. NOTE: closure can contain uses of the Await operation and uses of the Yield operation to yield an IteratorResult
object.
2. Let internalSlotsList be « ⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]], ⁠[[AsyncGeneratorContext]], ⁠[[AsyncGeneratorQueue]],
⁠[[GeneratorBrand]] ».
3. Let generator be OrdinaryObjectCreate(generatorPrototype, internalSlotsList).
4. Set generator.⁠[[GeneratorBrand]] to generatorBrand.
5. Set generator.⁠[[AsyncGeneratorState]] to SUSPENDED-START.
6. Let callerContext be the running execution context.
7. Let calleeContext be a new execution context.
8. Set the Function of calleeContext to null.
9. Set the Realm of calleeContext to the current Realm Record.
10. Set the ScriptOrModule of calleeContext to callerContext's ScriptOrModule.
11. If callerContext is not already suspended, suspend callerContext.
12. Push calleeContext onto the execution context stack; calleeContext is now the running execution context.
13. Perform AsyncGeneratorStart(generator, closure).
14. Remove calleeContext from the execution context stack and restore callerContext as the running execution context.
15. Return generator.

27.7 AsyncFunction Objects

AsyncFunctions are functions that are usually created by evaluating AsyncFunctionDeclarations,

AsyncFunctionExpressions, AsyncMethods, and AsyncArrowFunctions. They may also be created by calling the
%AsyncFunction% intrinsic.

27.7.1 The AsyncFunction Constructor

The AsyncFunction constructor:

is %AsyncFunction%.
is a subclass of Function.
creates and initializes a new AsyncFunction when called as a function rather than as a constructor. Thus the
function call AsyncFunction(…) is equivalent to the object creation expression new AsyncFunction(…) with
the same arguments.
may be used as the value of an extends clause of a class definition. Subclass constructors that intend to inherit the
specified AsyncFunction behaviour must include a super call to the AsyncFunction constructor to create and
initialize a subclass instance with the internal slots necessary for built-in async function behaviour. All ECMAScript
syntactic forms for defining async function objects create direct instances of AsyncFunction. There is no syntactic
means to create instances of AsyncFunction subclasses.

[Link] AsyncFunction ( ...parameterArgs, bodyArg )

The last argument (if any) specifies the body (executable code) of an async function. Any preceding arguments specify
formal parameters.

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. Let C be the active function object.

2. If bodyArg is not present, set bodyArg to the empty String.
3. Return ? CreateDynamicFunction(C, NewTarget, ASYNC, parameterArgs, bodyArg).

NOTE See NOTE for [Link].

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

27.7.2 Properties of the AsyncFunction Constructor

The AsyncFunction constructor:

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is the AsyncFunction prototype object.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

27.7.3 Properties of the AsyncFunction Prototype Object

The AsyncFunction prototype object:

is %[Link]%.
is an ordinary object.
is not a function object and does not have an ⁠[[ECMAScriptCode]] internal slot or any other of the internal slots listed
in Table 30.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

[Link] [Link]

The initial value of [Link] is %AsyncFunction%.

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

[Link] [Link] [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "AsyncFunction".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

27.7.4 AsyncFunction Instances

Every AsyncFunction instance is an ECMAScript function object and has the internal slots listed in Table 30. The value
of the ⁠[[IsClassConstructor]] internal slot for all such instances is false. AsyncFunction instances are not constructors
and do not have a ⁠[[Construct]] internal method. AsyncFunction instances do not have a prototype property as they are
not constructable.

Each AsyncFunction instance has the following own properties:

[Link] length

The specification for the "length" property of Function instances given in [Link] also applies to
AsyncFunction instances.

[Link] name

The specification for the "name" property of Function instances given in [Link] also applies to
AsyncFunction instances.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

27.7.5 Async Functions Abstract Operations

[Link] AsyncFunctionStart ( promiseCapability, asyncFunctionBody )

The abstract operation AsyncFunctionStart takes arguments promiseCapability (a PromiseCapability Record) and
asyncFunctionBody (a FunctionBody Parse Node, an ExpressionBody Parse Node, or an Abstract Closure with no
parameters) and returns UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let runningContext be the running execution context.

2. Let asyncContext be a copy of runningContext.
3. NOTE: Copying the execution state is required for AsyncBlockStart to resume its execution. It is ill-defined to
resume a currently executing context.
4. Perform AsyncBlockStart(promiseCapability, asyncFunctionBody, asyncContext).
5. Return UNUSED.

[Link] AsyncBlockStart ( promiseCapability, asyncBody, asyncContext )

The abstract operation AsyncBlockStart takes arguments promiseCapability (a PromiseCapability Record), asyncBody
(a Parse Node or an Abstract Closure with no parameters), and asyncContext (an execution context) and returns
UNUSED. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let runningContext be the running execution context.

2. Let closure be a new Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures promiseCapability and asyncBody and
performs the following steps when called:
a. Let acAsyncContext be the running execution context.
b. If asyncBody is a Parse Node, then
i. Let result be Completion(Evaluation of asyncBody).
c. Else,
i. Assert: asyncBody is an Abstract Closure with no parameters.
ii. Let result be Completion(asyncBody()).
d. Assert: If we return here, the async function either threw an exception or performed an implicit or explicit return;
all awaiting is done.
e. Remove acAsyncContext from the execution context stack and restore the execution context that is at the top of
the execution context stack as the running execution context.
f. If result is a normal completion, then
i. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « undefined »).
g. Else if result is a return completion, then
i. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Resolve]], undefined, « result.⁠[[Value]] »).
h. Else,
i. Assert: result is a throw completion.
ii. Perform ! Call(promiseCapability.⁠[[Reject]], undefined, « result.⁠[[Value]] »).
i. Return NormalCompletion(UNUSED).
3. Set the code evaluation state of asyncContext such that when evaluation is resumed for that execution context,
closure will be called with no arguments.
4. Push asyncContext onto the execution context stack; asyncContext is now the running execution context.
5. Resume the suspended evaluation of asyncContext. Let result be the value returned by the resumed computation.
6. Assert: When we return here, asyncContext has already been removed from the execution context stack and
runningContext is the currently running execution context.
7. Assert: result is a normal completion with a value of UNUSED. The possible sources of this value are Await or, if the
async function doesn't await anything, step 2.i above.
8. Return UNUSED.

[Link] Await ( value )

The abstract operation Await takes argument value (an ECMAScript language value) and returns either a normal com-
pletion containing either an ECMAScript language value or EMPTY, or a throw completion. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let asyncContext be the running execution context.

2. Let promise be ? PromiseResolve(%Promise%, value).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

3. Let fulfilledClosure be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (v) that captures asyncContext and performs the
following steps when called:
a. Let prevContext be the running execution context.
b. Suspend prevContext.
c. Push asyncContext onto the execution context stack; asyncContext is now the running execution context.
d. Resume the suspended evaluation of asyncContext using NormalCompletion(v) as the result of the operation
that suspended it.
e. Assert: When we reach this step, asyncContext has already been removed from the execution context stack
and prevContext is the currently running execution context.
f. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).
4. Let onFulfilled be CreateBuiltinFunction(fulfilledClosure, 1, "", « »).
5. Let rejectedClosure be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (reason) that captures asyncContext and performs
the following steps when called:
a. Let prevContext be the running execution context.
b. Suspend prevContext.
c. Push asyncContext onto the execution context stack; asyncContext is now the running execution context.
d. Resume the suspended evaluation of asyncContext using ThrowCompletion(reason) as the result of the
operation that suspended it.
e. Assert: When we reach this step, asyncContext has already been removed from the execution context stack
and prevContext is the currently running execution context.
f. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).
6. Let onRejected be CreateBuiltinFunction(rejectedClosure, 1, "", « »).
7. Perform PerformPromiseThen(promise, onFulfilled, onRejected).
8. Remove asyncContext from the execution context stack and restore the execution context that is at the top of the
execution context stack as the running execution context.
9. Let callerContext be the running execution context.
10. Resume callerContext passing EMPTY. If asyncContext is ever resumed again, let completion be the Completion
Record with which it is resumed.
11. Assert: If control reaches here, then asyncContext is the running execution context again.
12. Return completion.

28 Reflection

28.1 The Reflect Object

The Reflect object:

is %Reflect%.
is the initial value of the "Reflect" property of the global object.
is an ordinary object.
has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.
is not a function object.
does not have a ⁠[[Construct]] internal method; it cannot be used as a constructor with the new operator.
does not have a ⁠[[Call]] internal method; it cannot be invoked as a function.

28.1.1 [Link] ( target, thisArgument, argumentsList )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If IsCallable(target) is false, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let args be ? CreateListFromArrayLike(argumentsList).
3. Perform PrepareForTailCall().
4. Return ? Call(target, thisArgument, args).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

28.1.2 [Link] ( target, argumentsList [ , newTarget ] )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If IsConstructor(target) is false, throw a TypeError exception.

2. If newTarget is not present, set newTarget to target.
3. Else if IsConstructor(newTarget) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Let args be ? CreateListFromArrayLike(argumentsList).
5. Return ? Construct(target, args, newTarget).

28.1.3 [Link] ( target, propertyKey, attributes )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If target is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let key be ? ToPropertyKey(propertyKey).
3. Let desc be ? ToPropertyDescriptor(attributes).
4. Return ? target.⁠[[DefineOwnProperty]](key, desc).

28.1.4 [Link] ( target, propertyKey )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If target is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let key be ? ToPropertyKey(propertyKey).
3. Return ? target.⁠[[Delete]](key).

28.1.5 [Link] ( target, propertyKey [ , receiver ] )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If target is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let key be ? ToPropertyKey(propertyKey).
3. If receiver is not present, then
a. Set receiver to target.
4. Return ? target.⁠[[Get]](key, receiver).

28.1.6 [Link] ( target, propertyKey )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If target is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let key be ? ToPropertyKey(propertyKey).
3. Let desc be ? target.⁠[[GetOwnProperty]](key).
4. Return FromPropertyDescriptor(desc).

28.1.7 [Link] ( target )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If target is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Return ? target.⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]]().

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

28.1.8 [Link] ( target, propertyKey )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If target is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let key be ? ToPropertyKey(propertyKey).
3. Return ? target.⁠[[HasProperty]](key).

28.1.9 [Link] ( target )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If target is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Return ? target.⁠[[IsExtensible]]().

28.1.10 [Link] ( target )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If target is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let keys be ? target.⁠[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
3. Return CreateArrayFromList(keys).

28.1.11 [Link] ( target )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If target is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Return ? target.⁠[[PreventExtensions]]().

28.1.12 [Link] ( target, propertyKey, V [ , receiver ] )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If target is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let key be ? ToPropertyKey(propertyKey).
3. If receiver is not present, then
a. Set receiver to target.
4. Return ? target.⁠[[Set]](key, V, receiver).

28.1.13 [Link] ( target, proto )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If target is not an Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. If proto is not an Object and proto is not null, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Return ? target.⁠[[SetPrototypeOf]](proto).

28.1.14 Reflect [ %[Link]% ]

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "Reflect".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: true }.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

28.2 Proxy Objects

28.2.1 The Proxy Constructor

The Proxy constructor:

is %Proxy%.
is the initial value of the "Proxy" property of the global object.
creates and initializes a new Proxy object when called as a constructor.
is not intended to be called as a function and will throw an exception when called in that manner.

[Link] Proxy ( target, handler )

This function performs the following steps when called:

1. If NewTarget is undefined, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Return ? ProxyCreate(target, handler).

28.2.2 Properties of the Proxy Constructor

The Proxy constructor:

has a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %[Link]%.

does not have a "prototype" property because Proxy objects do not have a ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot that requires
initialization.
has the following properties:

[Link] [Link] ( target, handler )

This function creates a revocable Proxy object.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let proxy be ? ProxyCreate(target, handler).

2. Let revokerClosure be a new Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures nothing and performs the following
steps when called:
a. Let F be the active function object.
b. Let p be F.⁠[[RevocableProxy]].
c. If p is null, return NormalCompletion(undefined).
d. Set F.⁠[[RevocableProxy]] to null.
e. Assert: p is a Proxy exotic object.
f. Set p.⁠[[ProxyTarget]] to null.
g. Set p.⁠[[ProxyHandler]] to null.
h. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).
3. Let revoker be CreateBuiltinFunction(revokerClosure, 0, "", « ⁠[[RevocableProxy]] »).
4. Set revoker.⁠[[RevocableProxy]] to proxy.
5. Let result be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%[Link]%).
6. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(result, "proxy", proxy).
7. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(result, "revoke", revoker).
8. Return result.

28.3 Module Namespace Objects

A Module Namespace Object is a module namespace exotic object that provides runtime property-based access to a
module's exported bindings. There is no constructor function for Module Namespace Objects. Instead, such an object is
created for each module that is imported by an ImportDeclaration that contains a NameSpaceImport.

In addition to the properties specified in 10.4.6 each Module Namespace Object has the following own property:

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

28.3.1 %[Link]%

The initial value of the %[Link]% property is the String value "Module".

This property has the attributes { ⁠[[Writable]]: false, ⁠[[Enumerable]]: false, ⁠[[Configurable]]: false }.

29 Memory Model
The memory consistency model, or memory model, specifies the possible orderings of Shared Data Block events,
arising via accessing TypedArray instances backed by a SharedArrayBuffer and via methods on the Atomics object.
When the program has no data races (defined below), the ordering of events appears as sequentially consistent, i.e., as
an interleaving of actions from each agent. When the program has data races, shared memory operations may appear
sequentially inconsistent. For example, programs may exhibit causality-violating behaviour and other astonishments.
These astonishments arise from compiler transforms and the design of CPUs (e.g., out-of-order execution and spec-
ulation). The memory model defines both the precise conditions under which a program exhibits sequentially consistent
behaviour as well as the possible values read from data races. To wit, there is no undefined behaviour.

The memory model is defined as relational constraints on events introduced by abstract operations on
SharedArrayBuffer or by methods on the Atomics object during an evaluation.

NOTE This section provides an axiomatic model on events introduced by the abstract operations on
SharedArrayBuffers. It bears stressing that the model is not expressible algorithmically, unlike the rest of this
specification. The nondeterministic introduction of events by abstract operations is the interface between the
operational semantics of ECMAScript evaluation and the axiomatic semantics of the memory model. The
semantics of these events is defined by considering graphs of all events in an evaluation. These are neither
Static Semantics nor Runtime Semantics. There is no demonstrated algorithmic implementation, but instead
a set of constraints that determine if a particular event graph is allowed or disallowed.

29.1 Memory Model Fundamentals

Shared memory accesses (reads and writes) are divided into two groups, atomic accesses and data accesses,
defined below. Atomic accesses are sequentially consistent, i.e., there is a strict total ordering of events agreed upon
by all agents in an agent cluster. Non-atomic accesses do not have a strict total ordering agreed upon by all agents,
i.e., unordered.

NOTE 1 No orderings weaker than sequentially consistent and stronger than unordered, such as release-acquire,
are supported.

A Shared Data Block event is either a ReadSharedMemory, WriteSharedMemory, or

ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory Record.

Table 96: ReadSharedMemory Event Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[Order]] SEQ-CST or The weakest ordering guaranteed by the memory model for the event.
UNORDERED
⁠[[NoTear]] a Boolean Whether this event is allowed to read from multiple write events with equal
range as this event.
⁠[[Block]] a Shared Data Block The block the event operates on.
⁠[[ByteIndex]] a non-negative integer The byte address of the read in ⁠[[Block]].
⁠[[ElementSize]] a non-negative integer The size of the read.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Table 97: WriteSharedMemory Event Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[Order]] SEQ-CST, UNORDERED, or The weakest ordering guaranteed by the memory model for the event.
INIT
⁠[[NoTear]] a Boolean Whether this event is allowed to be read from multiple read events with
equal range as this event.
⁠[[Block]] a Shared Data Block The block the event operates on.
⁠[[ByteIndex]] a non-negative integer The byte address of the write in ⁠[[Block]].
⁠[[ElementSize]] a non-negative integer The size of the write.
⁠[[Payload]] a List of byte values The List of byte values to be read by other events.

Table 98: ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory Event Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[Order]] SEQ-CST Read-modify-write events are always sequentially consistent.
⁠[[NoTear]] true Read-modify-write events cannot tear.
⁠[[Block]] a Shared Data Block The block the event operates on.
⁠[[ByteIndex]] a non-negative integer The byte address of the read-modify-write in ⁠[[Block]].
⁠[[ElementSize]] a non-negative integer The size of the read-modify-write.
⁠[[Payload]] a List of byte values The List of byte values to be passed to ⁠[[ModifyOp]].
⁠[[ModifyOp]] a read-modify-write An abstract closure that returns a modified List of byte values from a
modification function read List of byte values and ⁠[[Payload]].

These events are introduced by abstract operations or by methods on the Atomics object.

Some operations may also introduce Synchronize events. A Synchronize event has no fields, and exists purely to dir-
ectly constrain the permitted orderings of other events.

In addition to Shared Data Block and Synchronize events, there are host-specific events.

Let the range of a ReadSharedMemory, WriteSharedMemory, or ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory event be the Set of

contiguous integers from its ⁠[[ByteIndex]] to ⁠[[ByteIndex]] + ⁠[[ElementSize]] - 1. Two events' ranges are equal when the
events have the same ⁠[[Block]], and the ranges are element-wise equal. Two events' ranges are overlapping when the
events have the same ⁠[[Block]], the ranges are not equal and their intersection is non-empty. Two events' ranges are
disjoint when the events do not have the same ⁠[[Block]] or their ranges are neither equal nor overlapping.

NOTE 2 Examples of host-specific synchronizing events that should be accounted for are: sending a
SharedArrayBuffer from one agent to another (e.g., by postMessage in a browser), starting and stopping
agents, and communicating within the agent cluster via channels other than shared memory. For a particular
execution execution, those events are provided by the host via the host-synchronizes-with strict partial order.
Additionally, hosts can add host-specific synchronizing events to execution.⁠[[EventList]] so as to participate
in the is-agent-order-before Relation.

Events are ordered within candidate executions by the relations defined below.

29.2 Agent Events Records

An Agent Events Record is a Record with the following fields.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Table 99: Agent Events Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[AgentSignifier]] an agent signifier The agent whose evaluation resulted in this ordering.
⁠[[EventList]] a List of events Events are appended to the list during evaluation.
⁠[[AgentSynchronizesWith]] a List of pairs of Synchronize Synchronize relationships introduced by the operational
events semantics.

29.3 Chosen Value Records

A Chosen Value Record is a Record with the following fields.

Table 100: Chosen Value Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[Event]] a Shared Data The ReadSharedMemory or ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory event that was
Block event introduced for this chosen value.
⁠[[ChosenValue]] a List of byte The bytes that were nondeterministically chosen during evaluation.
values

29.4 Candidate Executions

A candidate execution of the evaluation of an agent cluster is a Record with the following fields.

Table 101: Candidate Execution Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning
⁠[[EventsRecords]] a List of Agent Maps an agent to Lists of events appended during the evaluation.
Events Records
⁠[[ChosenValues]] a List of Chosen Maps ReadSharedMemory or ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory events to the
Value Records List of byte values chosen during the evaluation.

An empty candidate execution is a candidate execution Record whose fields are empty Lists.

29.5 Abstract Operations for the Memory Model

29.5.1 EventSet ( execution )

The abstract operation EventSet takes argument execution (a candidate execution) and returns a Set of events. It per-
forms the following steps when called:

1. Let events be an empty Set.

2. For each Agent Events Record aer of execution.⁠[[EventsRecords]], do
a. For each event E of aer.⁠[[EventList]], do
i. Add E to events.
3. Return events.

29.5.2 SharedDataBlockEventSet ( execution )

The abstract operation SharedDataBlockEventSet takes argument execution (a candidate execution) and returns a Set

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

of events. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let events be an empty Set.

2. For each event E of EventSet(execution), do
a. If E is a ReadSharedMemory, WriteSharedMemory, or ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory event, add E to events.
3. Return events.

29.5.3 HostEventSet ( execution )

The abstract operation HostEventSet takes argument execution (a candidate execution) and returns a Set of events. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Let events be an empty Set.

2. For each event E of EventSet(execution), do
a. If E is not in SharedDataBlockEventSet(execution), add E to events.
3. Return events.

29.5.4 ComposeWriteEventBytes ( execution, byteIndex, Ws )

The abstract operation ComposeWriteEventBytes takes arguments execution (a candidate execution), byteIndex (a non-
negative integer), and Ws (a List of either WriteSharedMemory or ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory events) and returns
a List of byte values. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let byteLocation be byteIndex.

2. Let bytesRead be a new empty List.
3. For each element W of Ws, do
a. Assert: W has byteLocation in its range.
b. Let payloadIndex be byteLocation - W.⁠[[ByteIndex]].
c. If W is a WriteSharedMemory event, then
i. Let byte be W.⁠[[Payload]][payloadIndex].
d. Else,
i. Assert: W is a ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory event.
ii. Let bytes be ValueOfReadEvent(execution, W).
iii. Let bytesModified be W.⁠[[ModifyOp]](bytes, W.⁠[[Payload]]).
iv. Let byte be bytesModified[payloadIndex].
e. Append byte to bytesRead.
f. Set byteLocation to byteLocation + 1.
4. Return bytesRead.

NOTE 1 The read-modify-write modification ⁠[[ModifyOp]] is given by the function properties on the Atomics object that
introduce ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory events.

NOTE 2 This abstract operation composes a List of write events into a List of byte values. It is used in the event
semantics of ReadSharedMemory and ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory events.

29.5.5 ValueOfReadEvent ( execution, R )

The abstract operation ValueOfReadEvent takes arguments execution (a candidate execution) and R (a
ReadSharedMemory or ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory event) and returns a List of byte values. It performs the follow-
ing steps when called:

1. Let Ws be reads-bytes-from(R) in execution.

2. Assert: Ws is a List of WriteSharedMemory or ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory events with length equal to
R.⁠[[ElementSize]].
3. Return ComposeWriteEventBytes(execution, R.⁠[[ByteIndex]], Ws).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

29.6 Relations of Candidate Executions

The following relations and mathematical functions are parameterized over a particular candidate execution and order
its events.

29.6.1 is-agent-order-before

For a candidate execution execution, its is-agent-order-before Relation is the least Relation on events that satisfies
the following.

For events E and D, E is-agent-order-before D in execution if there is some Agent Events Record aer in
execution.⁠[[EventsRecords]] such that aer.⁠[[EventList]] contains both E and D and E is before D in List order of
aer.⁠[[EventList]].

NOTE Each agent introduces events in a per-agent strict total order during the evaluation. This is the union of
those strict total orders.

29.6.2 reads-bytes-from

For a candidate execution execution, its reads-bytes-from function is a mathematical function mapping events in
SharedDataBlockEventSet(execution) to Lists of events in SharedDataBlockEventSet(execution) that satisfies the fol-
lowing conditions.

For each ReadSharedMemory or ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory event R in SharedDataBlockEventSet(execu-

tion), reads-bytes-from(R) in execution is a List of length R.⁠[[ElementSize]] whose elements are
WriteSharedMemory or ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory events Ws such that all of the following are true.
Each event W with index i in Ws has R.⁠[[ByteIndex]] + i in its range.
R is not in Ws.

A candidate execution always admits a reads-bytes-from function.

29.6.3 reads-from

For a candidate execution execution, its reads-from Relation is the least Relation on events that satisfies the following.

For events R and W, R reads-from W in execution if SharedDataBlockEventSet(execution) contains both R and W,

and reads-bytes-from(R) in execution contains W.

29.6.4 host-synchronizes-with

For a candidate execution execution, its host-synchronizes-with Relation is a host-provided strict partial order on host-
specific events that satisfies at least the following.

If E host-synchronizes-with D in execution, HostEventSet(execution) contains E and D.

There is no cycle in the union of host-synchronizes-with and is-agent-order-before in execution.

NOTE 1 For two host-specific events E and D in a candidate execution execution, E host-synchronizes-with D in
execution implies E happens-before D in execution.

NOTE 2 This Relation allows the host to provide additional synchronization mechanisms, such as postMessage
between HTML workers.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

29.6.5 synchronizes-with

For a candidate execution execution, its synchronizes-with Relation is the least Relation on events that satisfies
the following.

For events R and W, W synchronizes-with R in execution if R reads-from W in execution, R.⁠[[Order]] is SEQ-CST,

W.⁠[[Order]] is SEQ-CST, and R and W have equal ranges.
For each element eventsRecord of execution.⁠[[EventsRecords]], the following is true.
For events S and Sw, S synchronizes-with Sw in execution if eventsRecord.⁠[[AgentSynchronizesWith]] contains
(S, Sw).
For events E and D, E synchronizes-with D in execution if execution.⁠[[HostSynchronizesWith]] contains (E, D).

NOTE 1 Owing to convention in memory model literature, in a candidate execution execution, write events
synchronizes-with read events, instead of read events synchronizes-with write events.

NOTE 2 In a candidate execution execution, INIT events do not participate in this Relation and are instead
constrained directly by happens-before.

NOTE 3 In a candidate execution execution, not all SEQ-CST events related by reads-from are related by
synchronizes-with. Only events that also have equal ranges are related by synchronizes-with.

NOTE 4 For Shared Data Block events R and W in a candidate execution execution such that W synchronizes-with
R, R may reads-from other writes than W.

29.6.6 happens-before

For a candidate execution execution, its happens-before Relation is the least Relation on events that satisfies
the following.

For events E and D, E happens-before D in execution if any of the following conditions are true.
E is-agent-order-before D in execution.
E synchronizes-with D in execution.
SharedDataBlockEventSet(execution) contains both E and D, E.⁠[[Order]] is INIT, and E and D have
overlapping ranges.
There is an event F such that E happens-before F and F happens-before D in execution.

NOTE Because happens-before is a superset of agent-order, a candidate execution is consistent with the single-
thread evaluation semantics of ECMAScript.

29.7 Properties of Valid Executions

29.7.1 Valid Chosen Reads

A candidate execution execution has valid chosen reads if the following algorithm returns true.

1. For each ReadSharedMemory or ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory event R of

SharedDataBlockEventSet(execution), do
a. Let chosenValueRecord be the element of execution.⁠[[ChosenValues]] whose ⁠[[Event]] field is R.
b. Let chosenValue be chosenValueRecord.⁠[[ChosenValue]].
c. Let readValue be ValueOfReadEvent(execution, R).
d. Let chosenLen be the number of elements in chosenValue.
e. Let readLen be the number of elements in readValue.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

f. If chosenLen ≠ readLen, then

i. Return false.
g. If chosenValue[i] ≠ readValue[i] for some integer i in the interval from 0 (inclusive) to chosenLen (exclusive),
then
i. Return false.
2. Return true.

29.7.2 Coherent Reads

A candidate execution execution has coherent reads if the following algorithm returns true.

1. For each ReadSharedMemory or ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory event R of

SharedDataBlockEventSet(execution), do
a. Let Ws be reads-bytes-from(R) in execution.
b. Let byteLocation be R.⁠[[ByteIndex]].
c. For each element W of Ws, do
i. If R happens-before W in execution, then
1. Return false.
ii. If there exists a WriteSharedMemory or ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory event V that has byteLocation in
its range such that W happens-before V in execution and V happens-before R in execution, then
1. Return false.
iii. Set byteLocation to byteLocation + 1.
2. Return true.

29.7.3 Tear Free Reads

A candidate execution execution has tear free reads if the following algorithm returns true.

1. For each ReadSharedMemory or ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory event R of

SharedDataBlockEventSet(execution), do
a. If R.⁠[[NoTear]] is true, then
i. Assert: The remainder of dividing R.⁠[[ByteIndex]] by R.⁠[[ElementSize]] is 0.
ii. For each event W such that R reads-from W in execution and W.⁠[[NoTear]] is true, do
1. If R and W have equal ranges and there exists an event V such that V and W have equal ranges,
V.⁠[[NoTear]] is true, W and V are not the same Shared Data Block event, and R reads-from V in
execution, then
a. Return false.
2. Return true.

NOTE An event's ⁠[[NoTear]] field is true when that event was introduced via accessing an integer TypedArray, and
false when introduced via accessing a floating point TypedArray or DataView.

Intuitively, this requirement says when a memory range is accessed in an aligned fashion via an integer
TypedArray, a single write event on that range must "win" when in a data race with other write events with
equal ranges. More precisely, this requirement says an aligned read event cannot read a value composed of
bytes from multiple, different write events all with equal ranges. It is possible, however, for an aligned read
event to read from multiple write events with overlapping ranges.

29.7.4 Sequentially Consistent Atomics

For a candidate execution execution, is-memory-order-before is a strict total order of all events in EventSet(execution)
that satisfies the following.

For events E and D, E is-memory-order-before D in execution if E happens-before D in execution.

For events R and W such that R reads-from W in execution, there is no WriteSharedMemory or

ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory event V in SharedDataBlockEventSet(execution) such that V.⁠[[Order]] is SEQ-CST,
W is-memory-order-before V in execution, V is-memory-order-before R in execution, and any of the following condi-
tions are true.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

W synchronizes-with R in execution, and V and R have equal ranges.

W happens-before R and V happens-before R in execution, W.⁠[[Order]] is SEQ-CST, and W and V have equal
ranges.
W happens-before R and W happens-before V in execution, R.⁠[[Order]] is SEQ-CST, and V and R have equal
ranges.

NOTE 1 This clause additionally constrains SEQ-CST events on equal ranges.

For each WriteSharedMemory or ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory event W in SharedDataBlockEventSet(execu-

tion), if W.⁠[[Order]] is SEQ-CST, then it is not the case that there is an infinite number of ReadSharedMemory or
ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory events in SharedDataBlockEventSet(execution) with equal range that is memory-
order before W.

NOTE 2 This clause together with the forward progress guarantee on agents ensure the liveness condition that
SEQ-CST writes become visible to SEQ-CST reads with equal range in finite time.

A candidate execution has sequentially consistent atomics if it admits an is-memory-order-before Relation.

NOTE 3 While is-memory-order-before includes all events in EventSet(execution), those that are not constrained by
happens-before or synchronizes-with in execution are allowed to occur anywhere in the order.

29.7.5 Valid Executions

A candidate execution execution is a valid execution (or simply an execution) if all of the following are true.

The host provides a host-synchronizes-with Relation for execution.

execution admits a happens-before Relation that is a strict partial order.
execution has valid chosen reads.
execution has coherent reads.
execution has tear free reads.
execution has sequentially consistent atomics.

All programs have at least one valid execution.

29.8 Races

For an execution execution and events E and D that are contained in SharedDataBlockEventSet(execution), E and D
are in a race if the following algorithm returns true.

1. If E and D are not the same Shared Data Block event, then
a. If it is not the case that both E happens-before D in execution and D happens-before E in execution, then
i. If E and D are both WriteSharedMemory or ReadModifyWriteSharedMemory events and E and D do not
have disjoint ranges, then
1. Return true.
ii. If E reads-from D in execution or D reads-from E in execution, then
1. Return true.
2. Return false.

29.9 Data Races

For an execution execution and events E and D that are contained in SharedDataBlockEventSet(execution), E and D
are in a data race if the following algorithm returns true.

1. If E and D are in a race in execution, then

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

a. If E.⁠[[Order]] is not SEQ-CST or D.⁠[[Order]] is not SEQ-CST, then

i. Return true.
b. If E and D have overlapping ranges, then
i. Return true.
2. Return false.

29.10 Data Race Freedom

An execution execution is data race free if there are no two events in SharedDataBlockEventSet(execution) that are in a
data race.

A program is data race free if all its executions are data race free.

The memory model guarantees sequential consistency of all events for data race free programs.

29.11 Shared Memory Guidelines

NOTE 1 The following are guidelines for ECMAScript programmers working with shared memory.

We recommend programs be kept data race free, i.e., make it so that it is impossible for there to be
concurrent non-atomic operations on the same memory location. Data race free programs have interleaving
semantics where each step in the evaluation semantics of each agent are interleaved with each other. For
data race free programs, it is not necessary to understand the details of the memory model. The details are
unlikely to build intuition that will help one to better write ECMAScript.

More generally, even if a program is not data race free it may have predictable behaviour, so long as atomic
operations are not involved in any data races and the operations that race all have the same access size.
The simplest way to arrange for atomics not to be involved in races is to ensure that different memory cells
are used by atomic and non-atomic operations and that atomic accesses of different sizes are not used to
access the same cells at the same time. Effectively, the program should treat shared memory as strongly
typed as much as possible. One still cannot depend on the ordering and timing of non-atomic accesses that
race, but if memory is treated as strongly typed the racing accesses will not "tear" (bits of their values will not
be mixed).

NOTE 2 The following are guidelines for ECMAScript implementers writing compiler transformations for programs
using shared memory.

It is desirable to allow most program transformations that are valid in a single-agent setting in a multi-agent
setting, to ensure that the performance of each agent in a multi-agent program is as good as it would be in a
single-agent setting. Frequently these transformations are hard to judge. We outline some rules about
program transformations that are intended to be taken as normative (in that they are implied by the memory
model or stronger than what the memory model implies) but which are likely not exhaustive. These rules are
intended to apply to program transformations that precede the introductions of the events that make up the
is-agent-order-before Relation.

Let an agent-order slice be the subset of the is-agent-order-before Relation pertaining to a single agent.

Let possible read values of a read event be the set of all values of ValueOfReadEvent for that event across
all valid executions.

Any transformation of an agent-order slice that is valid in the absence of shared memory is valid in the
presence of shared memory, with the following exceptions.

Atomics are carved in stone: Program transformations must not cause the SEQ-CST events in an agent-
order slice to be reordered with its UNORDERED operations, nor its SEQ-CST operations to be reordered
with each other, nor may a program transformation remove a SEQ-CST operation from the is-agent-
order-before Relation.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

(In practice, the prohibition on reorderings forces a compiler to assume that every SEQ-CST operation is
a synchronization and included in the final is-memory-order-before Relation, which it would usually
have to assume anyway in the absence of inter-agent program analysis. It also forces the compiler to
assume that every call where the callee's effects on the memory-order are unknown may contain SEQ-
CST operations.)

Reads must be stable: Any given shared memory read must only observe a single value in an execution.

(For example, if what is semantically a single read in the program is executed multiple times then the
program is subsequently allowed to observe only one of the values read. A transformation known as
rematerialization can violate this rule.)

Writes must be stable: All observable writes to shared memory must follow from program semantics in
an execution.

(For example, a transformation may not introduce certain observable writes, such as by using read-
modify-write operations on a larger location to write a smaller datum, writing a value to memory that the
program could not have written, or writing a just-read value back to the location it was read from, if that
location could have been overwritten by another agent after the read.)

Possible read values must be non-empty: Program transformations cannot cause the possible read
values of a shared memory read to become empty.

(Counterintuitively, this rule in effect restricts transformations on writes, because writes have force in
memory model insofar as to be read by read events. For example, writes may be moved and coalesced
and sometimes reordered between two SEQ-CST operations, but the transformation may not remove
every write that updates a location; some write must be preserved.)

Examples of transformations that remain valid are: merging multiple non-atomic reads from the same
location, reordering non-atomic reads, introducing speculative non-atomic reads, merging multiple non-
atomic writes to the same location, reordering non-atomic writes to different locations, and hoisting non-
atomic reads out of loops even if that affects termination. Note in general that aliased TypedArrays make it
hard to prove that locations are different.

NOTE 3 The following are guidelines for ECMAScript implementers generating machine code for shared
memory accesses.

For architectures with memory models no weaker than those of ARM or Power, non-atomic stores and loads
may be compiled to bare stores and loads on the target architecture. Atomic stores and loads may be
compiled down to instructions that guarantee sequential consistency. If no such instructions exist, memory
barriers are to be employed, such as placing barriers on both sides of a bare store or load. Read-modify-
write operations may be compiled to read-modify-write instructions on the target architecture, such as LOCK-
prefixed instructions on x86, load-exclusive/store-exclusive instructions on ARM, and load-link/store-
conditional instructions on Power.

Specifically, the memory model is intended to allow code generation as follows.

Every atomic operation in the program is assumed to be necessary.

Atomic operations are never rearranged with each other or with non-atomic operations.
Functions are always assumed to perform atomic operations.
Atomic operations are never implemented as read-modify-write operations on larger data, but as non-
lock-free atomics if the platform does not have atomic operations of the appropriate size. (We already
assume that every platform has normal memory access operations of every interesting size.)

Naive code generation uses these patterns:

Regular loads and stores compile to single load and store instructions.
Lock-free atomic loads and stores compile to a full (sequentially consistent) fence, a regular load or
store, and a full fence.
Lock-free atomic read-modify-write accesses compile to a full fence, an atomic read-modify-write
instruction sequence, and a full fence.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Non-lock-free atomics compile to a spinlock acquire, a full fence, a series of non-atomic load and store
instructions, a full fence, and a spinlock release.

That mapping is correct so long as an atomic operation on an address range does not race with a non-
atomic write or with an atomic operation of different size. However, that is all we need: the memory model
effectively demotes the atomic operations involved in a race to non-atomic status. On the other hand, the
naive mapping is quite strong: it allows atomic operations to be used as sequentially consistent fences,
which the memory model does not actually guarantee.

Local improvements to those basic patterns are also allowed, subject to the constraints of the memory
model. For example:

There are obvious platform-dependent improvements that remove redundant fences. For example, on
x86 the fences around lock-free atomic loads and stores can always be omitted except for the fence
following a store, and no fence is needed for lock-free read-modify-write instructions, as these all use
LOCK-prefixed instructions. On many platforms there are fences of several strengths, and weaker fences
can be used in certain contexts without destroying sequential consistency.
Most modern platforms support lock-free atomics for all the data sizes required by ECMAScript atomics.
Should non-lock-free atomics be needed, the fences surrounding the body of the atomic operation can
usually be folded into the lock and unlock steps. The simplest solution for non-lock-free atomics is to
have a single lock word per SharedArrayBuffer.
There are also more complicated platform-dependent local improvements, requiring some code analysis.
For example, two back-to-back fences often have the same effect as a single fence, so if code is
generated for two atomic operations in sequence, only a single fence need separate them. On x86, even
a single fence separating atomic stores can be omitted, as the fence following a store is only needed to
separate the store from a subsequent load.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Annex A
(informative)

Grammar Summary

A.1

Lexical Grammar
SourceCharacter ::
any Unicode code point
InputElementDiv ::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator
Comment
CommonToken
DivPunctuator
RightBracePunctuator
InputElementRegExp ::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator
Comment
CommonToken
RightBracePunctuator
RegularExpressionLiteral
InputElementRegExpOrTemplateTail ::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator
Comment
CommonToken
RegularExpressionLiteral
TemplateSubstitutionTail
InputElementTemplateTail ::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator
Comment
CommonToken
DivPunctuator
TemplateSubstitutionTail
InputElementHashbangOrRegExp ::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator
Comment
CommonToken
HashbangComment
RegularExpressionLiteral
WhiteSpace ::
<TAB>
<VT>
<FF>
<ZWNBSP>
<USP>

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

LineTerminator ::
<LF>
<CR>
<LS>
<PS>
LineTerminatorSequence ::
<LF>
<CR> [lookahead ≠ <LF>]
<LS>
<PS>
<CR> <LF>
Comment ::
MultiLineComment
SingleLineComment
MultiLineComment ::
/* MultiLineCommentCharsopt */
MultiLineCommentChars ::
MultiLineNotAsteriskChar MultiLineCommentCharsopt
* PostAsteriskCommentCharsopt
PostAsteriskCommentChars ::
MultiLineNotForwardSlashOrAsteriskChar MultiLineCommentCharsopt
* PostAsteriskCommentCharsopt
MultiLineNotAsteriskChar ::
SourceCharacter but not *
MultiLineNotForwardSlashOrAsteriskChar ::
SourceCharacter but not one of / or *
SingleLineComment ::
// SingleLineCommentCharsopt
SingleLineCommentChars ::
SingleLineCommentChar SingleLineCommentCharsopt
SingleLineCommentChar ::
SourceCharacter but not LineTerminator
HashbangComment ::
#! SingleLineCommentCharsopt
CommonToken ::
IdentifierName
PrivateIdentifier
Punctuator
NumericLiteral
StringLiteral
Template
PrivateIdentifier ::
# IdentifierName
IdentifierName ::
IdentifierStart
IdentifierName IdentifierPart
IdentifierStart ::
IdentifierStartChar
\ UnicodeEscapeSequence
IdentifierPart ::
IdentifierPartChar
\ UnicodeEscapeSequence

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

IdentifierStartChar ::
UnicodeIDStart
$
_
IdentifierPartChar ::
UnicodeIDContinue
$
AsciiLetter :: one of
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q
R S T U V W X Y Z
UnicodeIDStart ::
any Unicode code point with the Unicode property “ID_Start”
UnicodeIDContinue ::
any Unicode code point with the Unicode property “ID_Continue”
ReservedWord :: one of
await break case catch class const continue debugger default delete do else enum
export extends false finally for function if import in instanceof new null
return super switch this throw true try typeof var void while with yield
Punctuator ::
OptionalChainingPunctuator
OtherPunctuator
OptionalChainingPunctuator ::
?. [lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]
OtherPunctuator :: one of
{ ( ) [ ] . ... ; , < > <= >= == != === !== + - * % ** ++ -- << >> >>> & | ^ ! ~ &&
|| ?? ? : = += -= *= %= **= <<= >>= >>>= &= |= ^= &&= ||= ??= =>
DivPunctuator ::
/
/=
RightBracePunctuator ::
}
NullLiteral ::
null
BooleanLiteral ::
true
false
NumericLiteralSeparator ::
_
NumericLiteral ::
DecimalLiteral
DecimalBigIntegerLiteral
NonDecimalIntegerLiteral[+Sep]
NonDecimalIntegerLiteral[+Sep] BigIntLiteralSuffix
LegacyOctalIntegerLiteral
DecimalBigIntegerLiteral ::
0 BigIntLiteralSuffix
NonZeroDigit DecimalDigits[+Sep] opt BigIntLiteralSuffix
NonZeroDigit NumericLiteralSeparator DecimalDigits[+Sep] BigIntLiteralSuffix
NonDecimalIntegerLiteral[Sep] ::
BinaryIntegerLiteral[?Sep]
OctalIntegerLiteral[?Sep]
HexIntegerLiteral[?Sep]
BigIntLiteralSuffix ::
n

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

DecimalLiteral ::
DecimalIntegerLiteral . DecimalDigits[+Sep] opt ExponentPart[+Sep] opt
. DecimalDigits[+Sep] ExponentPart[+Sep] opt
DecimalIntegerLiteral ExponentPart[+Sep] opt
DecimalIntegerLiteral ::
0
NonZeroDigit
NonZeroDigit NumericLiteralSeparatoropt DecimalDigits[+Sep]
NonOctalDecimalIntegerLiteral
DecimalDigits[Sep] ::
DecimalDigit
DecimalDigits[?Sep] DecimalDigit
[+Sep] DecimalDigits[+Sep] NumericLiteralSeparator DecimalDigit
DecimalDigit :: one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
NonZeroDigit :: one of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ExponentPart[Sep] ::
ExponentIndicator SignedInteger[?Sep]
ExponentIndicator :: one of
e E
SignedInteger[Sep] ::
DecimalDigits[?Sep]
+ DecimalDigits[?Sep]
- DecimalDigits[?Sep]
BinaryIntegerLiteral[Sep] ::
0b BinaryDigits[?Sep]
0B BinaryDigits[?Sep]
BinaryDigits[Sep] ::
BinaryDigit
BinaryDigits[?Sep] BinaryDigit
[+Sep] BinaryDigits[+Sep] NumericLiteralSeparator BinaryDigit
BinaryDigit :: one of
0 1
OctalIntegerLiteral[Sep] ::
0o OctalDigits[?Sep]
0O OctalDigits[?Sep]
OctalDigits[Sep] ::
OctalDigit
OctalDigits[?Sep] OctalDigit
[+Sep] OctalDigits[+Sep] NumericLiteralSeparator OctalDigit
LegacyOctalIntegerLiteral ::
0 OctalDigit
LegacyOctalIntegerLiteral OctalDigit
NonOctalDecimalIntegerLiteral ::
0 NonOctalDigit
LegacyOctalLikeDecimalIntegerLiteral NonOctalDigit
NonOctalDecimalIntegerLiteral DecimalDigit
LegacyOctalLikeDecimalIntegerLiteral ::
0 OctalDigit
LegacyOctalLikeDecimalIntegerLiteral OctalDigit

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

OctalDigit :: one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
NonOctalDigit :: one of
8 9
HexIntegerLiteral[Sep] ::
0x HexDigits[?Sep]
0X HexDigits[?Sep]
HexDigits[Sep] ::
HexDigit
HexDigits[?Sep] HexDigit
[+Sep] HexDigits[+Sep] NumericLiteralSeparator HexDigit
HexDigit :: one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 a b c d e f A B C D E F
StringLiteral ::
" DoubleStringCharactersopt "
' SingleStringCharactersopt '
DoubleStringCharacters ::
DoubleStringCharacter DoubleStringCharactersopt
SingleStringCharacters ::
SingleStringCharacter SingleStringCharactersopt
DoubleStringCharacter ::
SourceCharacter but not one of " or \ or LineTerminator
<LS>
<PS>
\ EscapeSequence
LineContinuation
SingleStringCharacter ::
SourceCharacter but not one of ' or \ or LineTerminator
<LS>
<PS>
\ EscapeSequence
LineContinuation
LineContinuation ::
\ LineTerminatorSequence
EscapeSequence ::
CharacterEscapeSequence
0 [lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]
LegacyOctalEscapeSequence
NonOctalDecimalEscapeSequence
HexEscapeSequence
UnicodeEscapeSequence
CharacterEscapeSequence ::
SingleEscapeCharacter
NonEscapeCharacter
SingleEscapeCharacter :: one of
' " \ b f n r t v
NonEscapeCharacter ::
SourceCharacter but not one of EscapeCharacter or LineTerminator
EscapeCharacter ::
SingleEscapeCharacter
DecimalDigit
x
u

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

LegacyOctalEscapeSequence ::
0 [lookahead ∈ { 8 , 9 }]
NonZeroOctalDigit [lookahead ∉ OctalDigit]
ZeroToThree OctalDigit [lookahead ∉ OctalDigit]
FourToSeven OctalDigit
ZeroToThree OctalDigit OctalDigit
NonZeroOctalDigit ::
OctalDigit but not 0
ZeroToThree :: one of
0 1 2 3
FourToSeven :: one of
4 5 6 7
NonOctalDecimalEscapeSequence :: one of
8 9
HexEscapeSequence ::
x HexDigit HexDigit
UnicodeEscapeSequence ::
u Hex4Digits
u{ CodePoint }
Hex4Digits ::
HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit
RegularExpressionLiteral ::
/ RegularExpressionBody / RegularExpressionFlags
RegularExpressionBody ::
RegularExpressionFirstChar RegularExpressionChars
RegularExpressionChars ::
[empty]
RegularExpressionChars RegularExpressionChar
RegularExpressionFirstChar ::
RegularExpressionNonTerminator but not one of * or \ or / or [
RegularExpressionBackslashSequence
RegularExpressionClass
RegularExpressionChar ::
RegularExpressionNonTerminator but not one of \ or / or [
RegularExpressionBackslashSequence
RegularExpressionClass
RegularExpressionBackslashSequence ::
\ RegularExpressionNonTerminator
RegularExpressionNonTerminator ::
SourceCharacter but not LineTerminator
RegularExpressionClass ::
[ RegularExpressionClassChars ]
RegularExpressionClassChars ::
[empty]
RegularExpressionClassChars RegularExpressionClassChar
RegularExpressionClassChar ::
RegularExpressionNonTerminator but not one of ] or \
RegularExpressionBackslashSequence
RegularExpressionFlags ::
[empty]
RegularExpressionFlags IdentifierPartChar
Template ::
NoSubstitutionTemplate
TemplateHead
NoSubstitutionTemplate ::
` TemplateCharactersopt `

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

TemplateHead ::
` TemplateCharactersopt ${
TemplateSubstitutionTail ::
TemplateMiddle
TemplateTail
TemplateMiddle ::
} TemplateCharactersopt ${
TemplateTail ::
} TemplateCharactersopt `
TemplateCharacters ::
TemplateCharacter TemplateCharactersopt
TemplateCharacter ::
$ [lookahead ≠ {]
\ TemplateEscapeSequence
\ NotEscapeSequence
LineContinuation
LineTerminatorSequence
SourceCharacter but not one of ` or \ or $ or LineTerminator
TemplateEscapeSequence ::
CharacterEscapeSequence
0 [lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]
HexEscapeSequence
UnicodeEscapeSequence
NotEscapeSequence ::
0 DecimalDigit
DecimalDigit but not 0
x [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
x HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
u [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] [lookahead ≠ {]
u HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
u HexDigit HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
u HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
u { [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
u { NotCodePoint [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
u { CodePoint [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] [lookahead ≠ }]
NotCodePoint ::
HexDigits[~Sep] but only if the MV of HexDigits > 0x10FFFF
CodePoint ::
HexDigits[~Sep] but only if the MV of HexDigits ≤ 0x10FFFF

A.2

Expressions
IdentifierReference[Yield, Await] :
Identifier
[~Yield] yield
[~Await] await
BindingIdentifier[Yield, Await] :
Identifier
yield
await

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

LabelIdentifier[Yield, Await] :
Identifier
[~Yield] yield
[~Await] await
Identifier :
IdentifierName but not ReservedWord
PrimaryExpression[Yield, Await] :
this
IdentifierReference[?Yield, ?Await]
Literal
ArrayLiteral[?Yield, ?Await]
ObjectLiteral[?Yield, ?Await]
FunctionExpression
ClassExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
GeneratorExpression
AsyncFunctionExpression
AsyncGeneratorExpression
RegularExpressionLiteral
TemplateLiteral[?Yield, ?Await, ~Tagged]
CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList[?Yield, ?Await]
CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList[Yield, Await] :
( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] , )
( )
( ... BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] )
( ... BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await] )
( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] , ... BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] )
( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] , ... BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await] )

When processing an instance of the production

ParenthesizedExpression[Yield, Await] :
( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )

Literal :
NullLiteral
BooleanLiteral
NumericLiteral
StringLiteral
ArrayLiteral[Yield, Await] :
[ Elisionopt ]
[ ElementList[?Yield, ?Await] ]
[ ElementList[?Yield, ?Await] , Elisionopt ]

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ElementList[Yield, Await] :
Elisionopt AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
Elisionopt SpreadElement[?Yield, ?Await]
ElementList[?Yield, ?Await] , Elisionopt AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
ElementList[?Yield, ?Await] , Elisionopt SpreadElement[?Yield, ?Await]
Elision :
,
Elision ,
SpreadElement[Yield, Await] :
... AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
ObjectLiteral[Yield, Await] :
{ }
{ PropertyDefinitionList[?Yield, ?Await] }
{ PropertyDefinitionList[?Yield, ?Await] , }
PropertyDefinitionList[Yield, Await] :
PropertyDefinition[?Yield, ?Await]
PropertyDefinitionList[?Yield, ?Await] , PropertyDefinition[?Yield, ?Await]
PropertyDefinition[Yield, Await] :
IdentifierReference[?Yield, ?Await]
CoverInitializedName[?Yield, ?Await]
PropertyName[?Yield, ?Await] : AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
MethodDefinition[?Yield, ?Await]
... AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
PropertyName[Yield, Await] :
LiteralPropertyName
ComputedPropertyName[?Yield, ?Await]
LiteralPropertyName :
IdentifierName
StringLiteral
NumericLiteral
ComputedPropertyName[Yield, Await] :
[ AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ]
CoverInitializedName[Yield, Await] :
IdentifierReference[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
Initializer[In, Yield, Await] :
= AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
TemplateLiteral[Yield, Await, Tagged] :
NoSubstitutionTemplate
SubstitutionTemplate[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged]
SubstitutionTemplate[Yield, Await, Tagged] :
TemplateHead Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] TemplateSpans[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged]
TemplateSpans[Yield, Await, Tagged] :
TemplateTail
TemplateMiddleList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged] TemplateTail
TemplateMiddleList[Yield, Await, Tagged] :
TemplateMiddle Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
TemplateMiddleList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged] TemplateMiddle Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

MemberExpression[Yield, Await] :
PrimaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await] [ Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ]
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await] . IdentifierName
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await] TemplateLiteral[?Yield, ?Await, +Tagged]
SuperProperty[?Yield, ?Await]
MetaProperty
new MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await] Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await] . PrivateIdentifier
SuperProperty[Yield, Await] :
super [ Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ]
super . IdentifierName
MetaProperty :
NewTarget
ImportMeta
NewTarget :
new . target
ImportMeta :
import . meta
NewExpression[Yield, Await] :
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
new NewExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
CallExpression[Yield, Await] :
CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead[?Yield, ?Await]
SuperCall[?Yield, ?Await]
ImportCall[?Yield, ?Await]
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await] Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await] [ Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ]
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await] . IdentifierName
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await] TemplateLiteral[?Yield, ?Await, +Tagged]
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await] . PrivateIdentifier

When processing an instance of the production

CallExpression[Yield, Await] : CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead[?Yield, ?Await]
the interpretation of CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead is refined using the following grammar:

CallMemberExpression[Yield, Await] :
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await] Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]

SuperCall[Yield, Await] :
super Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]
ImportCall[Yield, Await] :
import ( AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ,opt )
import ( AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ,
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ,opt )

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Arguments[Yield, Await] :
( )
( ArgumentList[?Yield, ?Await] )
( ArgumentList[?Yield, ?Await] , )
ArgumentList[Yield, Await] :
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
... AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
ArgumentList[?Yield, ?Await] , AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
ArgumentList[?Yield, ?Await] , ... AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
OptionalExpression[Yield, Await] :
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await] OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await]
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await] OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await]
OptionalExpression[?Yield, ?Await] OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await]
OptionalChain[Yield, Await] :
?. Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]
?. [ Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ]
?. IdentifierName
?. TemplateLiteral[?Yield, ?Await, +Tagged]
?. PrivateIdentifier
OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await] Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]
OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await] [ Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ]
OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await] . IdentifierName
OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await] TemplateLiteral[?Yield, ?Await, +Tagged]
OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await] . PrivateIdentifier
LeftHandSideExpression[Yield, Await] :
NewExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
OptionalExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
UpdateExpression[Yield, Await] :
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] [no LineTerminator here] ++
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] [no LineTerminator here] --
++ UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
-- UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
UnaryExpression[Yield, Await] :
UpdateExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
delete UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
void UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
typeof UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
+ UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
- UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
~ UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
! UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
[+Await] AwaitExpression[?Yield]

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ExponentiationExpression[Yield, Await] :
UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
UpdateExpression[?Yield, ?Await] ** ExponentiationExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
MultiplicativeExpression[Yield, Await] :
ExponentiationExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
MultiplicativeExpression[?Yield, ?Await] MultiplicativeOperator
ExponentiationExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
MultiplicativeOperator : one of
* / %
AdditiveExpression[Yield, Await] :
MultiplicativeExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await] + MultiplicativeExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await] - MultiplicativeExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
ShiftExpression[Yield, Await] :
AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await] << AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await] >> AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await] >>> AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
RelationalExpression[In, Yield, Await] :
ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] < ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] > ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] <= ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] >= ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] instanceof ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
[+In] RelationalExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] in ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

[+In] PrivateIdentifier in ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

EqualityExpression[In, Yield, Await] :
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] == RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] != RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] === RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] !== RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BitwiseANDExpression[In, Yield, Await] :
EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BitwiseANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] & EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BitwiseXORExpression[In, Yield, Await] :
BitwiseANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BitwiseXORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] ^ BitwiseANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BitwiseORExpression[In, Yield, Await] :
BitwiseXORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BitwiseORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] | BitwiseXORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LogicalANDExpression[In, Yield, Await] :
BitwiseORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LogicalANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] && BitwiseORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

LogicalORExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

LogicalANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LogicalORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] || LogicalANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
CoalesceExpression[In, Yield, Await] :
CoalesceExpressionHead[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] ?? BitwiseORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
CoalesceExpressionHead[In, Yield, Await] :
CoalesceExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BitwiseORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
ShortCircuitExpression[In, Yield, Await] :
LogicalORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
CoalesceExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
ConditionalExpression[In, Yield, Await] :
ShortCircuitExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
ShortCircuitExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] ? AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] :
AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
AssignmentExpression[In, Yield, Await] :
ConditionalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
YieldExpression[?In, ?Await]
[+Yield]

ArrowFunction[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

In certain circumstances when processing an instance of the production

AssignmentExpression[In, Yield, Await] : LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] =
AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
the interpretation of LeftHandSideExpression is refined using the following grammar:

AssignmentPattern[Yield, Await] :
ObjectAssignmentPattern[?Yield, ?Await]
ArrayAssignmentPattern[?Yield, ?Await]
ObjectAssignmentPattern[Yield, Await] :
{ }
{ AssignmentRestProperty[?Yield, ?Await] }
{ AssignmentPropertyList[?Yield, ?Await] }
{ AssignmentPropertyList[?Yield, ?Await] , AssignmentRestProperty[?Yield, ?Await] opt }
ArrayAssignmentPattern[Yield, Await] :
[ Elisionopt AssignmentRestElement[?Yield, ?Await] opt ]
[ AssignmentElementList[?Yield, ?Await] ]
[ AssignmentElementList[?Yield, ?Await] , Elisionopt AssignmentRestElement[?Yield, ?Await] opt
]

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

AssignmentRestProperty[Yield, Await] :
... DestructuringAssignmentTarget[?Yield, ?Await]
AssignmentPropertyList[Yield, Await] :
AssignmentProperty[?Yield, ?Await]
AssignmentPropertyList[?Yield, ?Await] , AssignmentProperty[?Yield, ?Await]
AssignmentElementList[Yield, Await] :
AssignmentElisionElement[?Yield, ?Await]
AssignmentElementList[?Yield, ?Await] , AssignmentElisionElement[?Yield, ?Await]
AssignmentElisionElement[Yield, Await] :
Elisionopt AssignmentElement[?Yield, ?Await]
AssignmentProperty[Yield, Await] :
IdentifierReference[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt
PropertyName[?Yield, ?Await] : AssignmentElement[?Yield, ?Await]
AssignmentElement[Yield, Await] :
DestructuringAssignmentTarget[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt
AssignmentRestElement[Yield, Await] :
... DestructuringAssignmentTarget[?Yield, ?Await]
DestructuringAssignmentTarget[Yield, Await] :
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

Expression[In, Yield, Await] :

AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
Expression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] , AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

A.3

Statements
Statement[Yield, Await, Return] :
BlockStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
VariableStatement[?Yield, ?Await]
EmptyStatement
ExpressionStatement[?Yield, ?Await]
IfStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
BreakableStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
ContinueStatement[?Yield, ?Await]
BreakStatement[?Yield, ?Await]
[+Return] ReturnStatement[?Yield, ?Await]

WithStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

LabelledStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
ThrowStatement[?Yield, ?Await]
TryStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
DebuggerStatement

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Declaration[Yield, Await] :
HoistableDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ~Default]
ClassDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ~Default]
LexicalDeclaration[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
HoistableDeclaration[Yield, Await, Default] :
FunctionDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ?Default]
GeneratorDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ?Default]
AsyncFunctionDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ?Default]
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ?Default]
BreakableStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :
IterationStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
SwitchStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
BlockStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :
Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
Block[Yield, Await, Return] :
{ StatementList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt }
StatementList[Yield, Await, Return] :
StatementListItem[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
StatementList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] StatementListItem[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
StatementListItem[Yield, Await, Return] :
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
Declaration[?Yield, ?Await]
LexicalDeclaration[In, Yield, Await] :
LetOrConst BindingList[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;
LetOrConst :
let
const
BindingList[In, Yield, Await] :
LexicalBinding[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BindingList[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] , LexicalBinding[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LexicalBinding[In, Yield, Await] :
BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt
BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
VariableStatement[Yield, Await] :
var VariableDeclarationList[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;
VariableDeclarationList[In, Yield, Await] :
VariableDeclaration[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
VariableDeclarationList[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] , VariableDeclaration[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
VariableDeclaration[In, Yield, Await] :
BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt
BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BindingPattern[Yield, Await] :
ObjectBindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await]
ArrayBindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await]

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ObjectBindingPattern[Yield, Await] :
{ }
{ BindingRestProperty[?Yield, ?Await] }
{ BindingPropertyList[?Yield, ?Await] }
{ BindingPropertyList[?Yield, ?Await] , BindingRestProperty[?Yield, ?Await] opt }
ArrayBindingPattern[Yield, Await] :
[ Elisionopt BindingRestElement[?Yield, ?Await] opt ]
[ BindingElementList[?Yield, ?Await] ]
[ BindingElementList[?Yield, ?Await] , Elisionopt BindingRestElement[?Yield, ?Await] opt ]
BindingRestProperty[Yield, Await] :
... BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingPropertyList[Yield, Await] :
BindingProperty[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingPropertyList[?Yield, ?Await] , BindingProperty[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingElementList[Yield, Await] :
BindingElisionElement[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingElementList[?Yield, ?Await] , BindingElisionElement[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingElisionElement[Yield, Await] :
Elisionopt BindingElement[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingProperty[Yield, Await] :
SingleNameBinding[?Yield, ?Await]
PropertyName[?Yield, ?Await] : BindingElement[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingElement[Yield, Await] :
SingleNameBinding[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt
SingleNameBinding[Yield, Await] :
BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt
BindingRestElement[Yield, Await] :
... BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await]
... BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await]
EmptyStatement :
;
ExpressionStatement[Yield, Await] :
[lookahead ∉ { { , function , async [no LineTerminator here] function , class , let [ }]
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;
IfStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :
if ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] else
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
if ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] [lookahead ≠ else]
IterationStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :
DoWhileStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
WhileStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
ForStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
ForInOfStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
DoWhileStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :
do Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] while ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) ;

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

WhileStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

while ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
ForStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :
for ( [lookahead ≠ let [] Expression[~In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt ;
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt ; Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( var VariableDeclarationList[~In, ?Yield, ?Await] ; Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt ;
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( LexicalDeclaration[~In, ?Yield, ?Await] Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt ;
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
ForInOfStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :
for ( [lookahead ≠ let [] LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] in
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( var ForBinding[?Yield, ?Await] in Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( ForDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await] in Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( [lookahead ∉ { let , async of }] LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] of
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( var ForBinding[?Yield, ?Await] of AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( ForDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await] of AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for await ( [lookahead ≠ let] LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] of
[+Await]
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for await ( var ForBinding[?Yield, ?Await] of
[+Await]
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
[+Await] for await ( ForDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await] of AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
ForDeclaration[Yield, Await] :
LetOrConst ForBinding[?Yield, ?Await]
ForBinding[Yield, Await] :
BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await]
ContinueStatement[Yield, Await] :
continue ;
continue [no LineTerminator here] LabelIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] ;
BreakStatement[Yield, Await] :
break ;
break [no LineTerminator here] LabelIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] ;
ReturnStatement[Yield, Await] :
return ;
return [no LineTerminator here] Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;
WithStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :
with ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
SwitchStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :
switch ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) CaseBlock[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

CaseBlock[Yield, Await, Return] :

{ CaseClauses[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt }
{ CaseClauses[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt DefaultClause[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
CaseClauses[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt }
CaseClauses[Yield, Await, Return] :
CaseClause[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
CaseClauses[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] CaseClause[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
CaseClause[Yield, Await, Return] :
case Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] : StatementList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt
DefaultClause[Yield, Await, Return] :
default : StatementList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt
LabelledStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :
LabelIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] : LabelledItem[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
LabelledItem[Yield, Await, Return] :
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
FunctionDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ~Default]
ThrowStatement[Yield, Await] :
throw [no LineTerminator here] Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;
TryStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :
try Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] Catch[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
try Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] Finally[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
try Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] Catch[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
Finally[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
Catch[Yield, Await, Return] :
catch ( CatchParameter[?Yield, ?Await] ) Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
catch Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
Finally[Yield, Await, Return] :
finally Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
CatchParameter[Yield, Await] :
BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await]
DebuggerStatement :
debugger ;

A.4

Functions and Classes

UniqueFormalParameters[Yield, Await] :
FormalParameters[?Yield, ?Await]
FormalParameters[Yield, Await] :
[empty]
FunctionRestParameter[?Yield, ?Await]
FormalParameterList[?Yield, ?Await]
FormalParameterList[?Yield, ?Await] ,
FormalParameterList[?Yield, ?Await] , FunctionRestParameter[?Yield, ?Await]

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

FormalParameterList[Yield, Await] :
FormalParameter[?Yield, ?Await]
FormalParameterList[?Yield, ?Await] , FormalParameter[?Yield, ?Await]
FunctionRestParameter[Yield, Await] :
BindingRestElement[?Yield, ?Await]
FormalParameter[Yield, Await] :
BindingElement[?Yield, ?Await]
FunctionDeclaration[Yield, Await, Default] :
function BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] ( FormalParameters[~Yield, ~Await] ) {
FunctionBody[~Yield, ~Await] }
[+Default] function ( FormalParameters[~Yield, ~Await] ) { FunctionBody[~Yield, ~Await] }
FunctionExpression :
function BindingIdentifier[~Yield, ~Await] opt ( FormalParameters[~Yield, ~Await] ) {
FunctionBody[~Yield, ~Await] }
FunctionBody[Yield, Await] :
FunctionStatementList[?Yield, ?Await]
FunctionStatementList[Yield, Await] :
StatementList[?Yield, ?Await, +Return] opt
ArrowFunction[In, Yield, Await] :
ArrowParameters[?Yield, ?Await] [no LineTerminator here] => ConciseBody[?In]
ArrowParameters[Yield, Await] :
BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await]
CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList[?Yield, ?Await]
ConciseBody[In] :
[lookahead ≠ {] ExpressionBody[?In, ~Await]
{ FunctionBody[~Yield, ~Await] }
ExpressionBody[In, Await] :
AssignmentExpression[?In, ~Yield, ?Await]

When processing an instance of the production

ArrowFormalParameters[Yield, Await] :
( UniqueFormalParameters[?Yield, ?Await] )

AsyncArrowFunction[In, Yield, Await] :

async [no LineTerminator here] AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier[?Yield] [no LineTerminator here] =>
AsyncConciseBody[?In]
CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead[?Yield, ?Await] [no LineTerminator here] =>
AsyncConciseBody[?In]
AsyncConciseBody[In] :
[lookahead ≠ {] ExpressionBody[?In, +Await]
{ AsyncFunctionBody }
AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier[Yield] :
BindingIdentifier[?Yield, +Await]
CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead[Yield, Await] :
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await] Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

When processing an instance of the production

AsyncArrowFunction[In, Yield, Await] : CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead[?Yield, ?Await] [no
LineTerminator here] => AsyncConciseBody[?In]
the interpretation of CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead is refined using the following grammar:

AsyncArrowHead :
async [no LineTerminator here] ArrowFormalParameters[~Yield, +Await]

MethodDefinition[Yield, Await] :
ClassElementName[?Yield, ?Await] ( UniqueFormalParameters[~Yield, ~Await] ) {
FunctionBody[~Yield, ~Await] }
GeneratorMethod[?Yield, ?Await]
AsyncMethod[?Yield, ?Await]
AsyncGeneratorMethod[?Yield, ?Await]
get ClassElementName[?Yield, ?Await] ( ) { FunctionBody[~Yield, ~Await] }
set ClassElementName[?Yield, ?Await] ( PropertySetParameterList ) {
FunctionBody[~Yield, ~Await] }
PropertySetParameterList :
FormalParameter[~Yield, ~Await]
GeneratorDeclaration[Yield, Await, Default] :
function * BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] ( FormalParameters[+Yield, ~Await] ) {
GeneratorBody }
[+Default] function * ( FormalParameters[+Yield, ~Await] ) { GeneratorBody }

GeneratorExpression :
function * BindingIdentifier[+Yield, ~Await] opt ( FormalParameters[+Yield, ~Await] ) {
GeneratorBody }
GeneratorMethod[Yield, Await] :
* ClassElementName[?Yield, ?Await] ( UniqueFormalParameters[+Yield, ~Await] ) {
GeneratorBody }
GeneratorBody :
FunctionBody[+Yield, ~Await]
YieldExpression[In, Await] :
yield
yield [no LineTerminator here] AssignmentExpression[?In, +Yield, ?Await]
yield [no LineTerminator here] * AssignmentExpression[?In, +Yield, ?Await]
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration[Yield, Await, Default] :
async [no LineTerminator here] function * BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] (
FormalParameters[+Yield, +Await] ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
async [no LineTerminator here] function * ( FormalParameters[+Yield, +Await] ) {
[+Default]
AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorExpression :
async [no LineTerminator here] function * BindingIdentifier[+Yield, +Await] opt (
FormalParameters[+Yield, +Await] ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorMethod[Yield, Await] :
async [no LineTerminator here] * ClassElementName[?Yield, ?Await] (
UniqueFormalParameters[+Yield, +Await] ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorBody :
FunctionBody[+Yield, +Await]

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

AsyncFunctionDeclaration[Yield, Await, Default] :

async [no LineTerminator here] function BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] (
FormalParameters[~Yield, +Await] ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
async [no LineTerminator here] function ( FormalParameters[~Yield, +Await] ) {
[+Default]
AsyncFunctionBody }
AsyncFunctionExpression :
async [no LineTerminator here] function BindingIdentifier[~Yield, +Await] opt (
FormalParameters[~Yield, +Await] ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
AsyncMethod[Yield, Await] :
async [no LineTerminator here] ClassElementName[?Yield, ?Await] (
UniqueFormalParameters[~Yield, +Await] ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
AsyncFunctionBody :
FunctionBody[~Yield, +Await]
AwaitExpression[Yield] :
await UnaryExpression[?Yield, +Await]
ClassDeclaration[Yield, Await, Default] :
class BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] ClassTail[?Yield, ?Await]
[+Default] class ClassTail[?Yield, ?Await]
ClassExpression[Yield, Await] :
class BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] opt ClassTail[?Yield, ?Await]
ClassTail[Yield, Await] :
ClassHeritage[?Yield, ?Await] opt { ClassBody[?Yield, ?Await] opt }
ClassHeritage[Yield, Await] :
extends LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
ClassBody[Yield, Await] :
ClassElementList[?Yield, ?Await]
ClassElementList[Yield, Await] :
ClassElement[?Yield, ?Await]
ClassElementList[?Yield, ?Await] ClassElement[?Yield, ?Await]
ClassElement[Yield, Await] :
MethodDefinition[?Yield, ?Await]
static MethodDefinition[?Yield, ?Await]
FieldDefinition[?Yield, ?Await] ;
static FieldDefinition[?Yield, ?Await] ;
ClassStaticBlock
;
FieldDefinition[Yield, Await] :
ClassElementName[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt
ClassElementName[Yield, Await] :
PropertyName[?Yield, ?Await]
PrivateIdentifier
ClassStaticBlock :
static { ClassStaticBlockBody }
ClassStaticBlockBody :
ClassStaticBlockStatementList
ClassStaticBlockStatementList :
StatementList[~Yield, +Await, ~Return] opt

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

A.5

Scripts and Modules

Script :
ScriptBodyopt
ScriptBody :
StatementList[~Yield, ~Await, ~Return]
Module :
ModuleBodyopt
ModuleBody :
ModuleItemList
ModuleItemList :
ModuleItem
ModuleItemList ModuleItem
ModuleItem :
ImportDeclaration
ExportDeclaration
StatementListItem[~Yield, +Await, ~Return]
ModuleExportName :
IdentifierName
StringLiteral
ImportDeclaration :
import ImportClause FromClause WithClauseopt ;
import ModuleSpecifier WithClauseopt ;
ImportClause :
ImportedDefaultBinding
NameSpaceImport
NamedImports
ImportedDefaultBinding , NameSpaceImport
ImportedDefaultBinding , NamedImports
ImportedDefaultBinding :
ImportedBinding
NameSpaceImport :
* as ImportedBinding
NamedImports :
{ }
{ ImportsList }
{ ImportsList , }
FromClause :
from ModuleSpecifier
ImportsList :
ImportSpecifier
ImportsList , ImportSpecifier
ImportSpecifier :
ImportedBinding
ModuleExportName as ImportedBinding
ModuleSpecifier :
StringLiteral
ImportedBinding :
BindingIdentifier[~Yield, +Await]
WithClause :
with { }
with { WithEntries ,opt }

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

WithEntries :
AttributeKey : StringLiteral
AttributeKey : StringLiteral , WithEntries
AttributeKey :
IdentifierName
StringLiteral
ExportDeclaration :
export ExportFromClause FromClause WithClauseopt ;
export NamedExports ;
export VariableStatement[~Yield, +Await]
export Declaration[~Yield, +Await]
export default HoistableDeclaration[~Yield, +Await, +Default]
export default ClassDeclaration[~Yield, +Await, +Default]
export default [lookahead ∉ { function , async [no LineTerminator here] function , class }]
AssignmentExpression[+In, ~Yield, +Await] ;
ExportFromClause :
*
* as ModuleExportName
NamedExports
NamedExports :
{ }
{ ExportsList }
{ ExportsList , }
ExportsList :
ExportSpecifier
ExportsList , ExportSpecifier
ExportSpecifier :
ModuleExportName
ModuleExportName as ModuleExportName

A.6

Number Conversions
StringNumericLiteral :::
StrWhiteSpaceopt
StrWhiteSpaceopt StrNumericLiteral StrWhiteSpaceopt
StrWhiteSpace :::
StrWhiteSpaceChar StrWhiteSpaceopt
StrWhiteSpaceChar :::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator
StrNumericLiteral :::
StrDecimalLiteral
NonDecimalIntegerLiteral[~Sep]
StrDecimalLiteral :::
StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral
+ StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral
- StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral :::
Infinity
DecimalDigits[~Sep] . DecimalDigits[~Sep] opt ExponentPart[~Sep] opt
. DecimalDigits[~Sep] ExponentPart[~Sep] opt
DecimalDigits[~Sep] ExponentPart[~Sep] opt

All grammar symbols not explicitly defined by the StringNumericLiteral grammar have the definitions used in the Lexical
Grammar for numeric literals.

StringIntegerLiteral :::
StrWhiteSpaceopt
StrWhiteSpaceopt StrIntegerLiteral StrWhiteSpaceopt
StrIntegerLiteral :::
SignedInteger[~Sep]
NonDecimalIntegerLiteral[~Sep]

A.7

Time Zone Offset String Format

UTCOffset :::
ASCIISign Hour
ASCIISign Hour HourSubcomponents[+Extended]
ASCIISign Hour HourSubcomponents[~Extended]
ASCIISign ::: one of
+ -
Hour :::
0 DecimalDigit
1 DecimalDigit
20
21
22
23
HourSubcomponents[Extended] :::
TimeSeparator[?Extended] MinuteSecond
TimeSeparator[?Extended] MinuteSecond TimeSeparator[?Extended] MinuteSecond
TemporalDecimalFractionopt
TimeSeparator[Extended] :::
[+Extended] :
[~Extended] [empty]
MinuteSecond :::
0 DecimalDigit
1 DecimalDigit
2 DecimalDigit
3 DecimalDigit
4 DecimalDigit
5 DecimalDigit

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

A.8

Regular Expressions
Pattern[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::
Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
Disjunction[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::
Alternative[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
Alternative[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] |
Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
Alternative[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::
[empty]
Alternative[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
Term[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
Term[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::
Assertion[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
Atom[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
Atom[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] Quantifier
Assertion[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::
^
$
\b
\B
(?= Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )
(?! Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )
(?<= Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )
(?<! Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )
Quantifier ::
QuantifierPrefix
QuantifierPrefix ?

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

QuantifierPrefix ::
*
+
?
{ DecimalDigits[~Sep] }
{ DecimalDigits[~Sep] ,}
{ DecimalDigits[~Sep] , DecimalDigits[~Sep] }
Atom[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::
PatternCharacter
.
\ AtomEscape[?UnicodeMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
CharacterClass[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode]
( GroupSpecifier[?UnicodeMode] opt
Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )
(? RegularExpressionModifiers : Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
)
(? RegularExpressionModifiers - RegularExpressionModifiers :
Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )
RegularExpressionModifiers ::
[empty]
RegularExpressionModifiers RegularExpressionModifier
RegularExpressionModifier :: one of
i m s
SyntaxCharacter :: one of
^ $ \ . * + ? ( ) [ ] { } |
PatternCharacter ::
SourceCharacter but not SyntaxCharacter
AtomEscape[UnicodeMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::
DecimalEscape
CharacterClassEscape[?UnicodeMode]
CharacterEscape[?UnicodeMode]
k GroupName[?UnicodeMode]
[+NamedCaptureGroups]
CharacterEscape[UnicodeMode] ::
ControlEscape
c AsciiLetter
0 [lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]
HexEscapeSequence
RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence[?UnicodeMode]
IdentityEscape[?UnicodeMode]
ControlEscape :: one of
f n r t v
GroupSpecifier[UnicodeMode] ::
? GroupName[?UnicodeMode]
GroupName[UnicodeMode] ::
< RegExpIdentifierName[?UnicodeMode] >
RegExpIdentifierName[UnicodeMode] ::
RegExpIdentifierStart[?UnicodeMode]
RegExpIdentifierName[?UnicodeMode] RegExpIdentifierPart[?UnicodeMode]

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

RegExpIdentifierStart[UnicodeMode] ::
IdentifierStartChar
\ RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence[+UnicodeMode]
[~UnicodeMode] UnicodeLeadSurrogate UnicodeTrailSurrogate
RegExpIdentifierPart[UnicodeMode] ::
IdentifierPartChar
\ RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence[+UnicodeMode]
[~UnicodeMode] UnicodeLeadSurrogate UnicodeTrailSurrogate
RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence[UnicodeMode] ::
u HexLeadSurrogate \u HexTrailSurrogate
[+UnicodeMode]
u HexLeadSurrogate
[+UnicodeMode]
[+UnicodeMode] u HexTrailSurrogate
[+UnicodeMode] u HexNonSurrogate
[~UnicodeMode] u Hex4Digits
[+UnicodeMode] u{ CodePoint }
UnicodeLeadSurrogate ::
any Unicode code point in the inclusive interval from U+D800 to U+DBFF
UnicodeTrailSurrogate ::
any Unicode code point in the inclusive interval from U+DC00 to U+DFFF

HexLeadSurrogate ::
Hex4Digits but only if the MV of Hex4Digits is in the inclusive interval from 0xD800 to 0xDBFF
HexTrailSurrogate ::
Hex4Digits but only if the MV of Hex4Digits is in the inclusive interval from 0xDC00 to 0xDFFF
HexNonSurrogate ::
Hex4Digits but only if the MV of Hex4Digits is not in the inclusive interval from 0xD800 to 0xDFFF
IdentityEscape[UnicodeMode] ::
[+UnicodeMode] SyntaxCharacter
[+UnicodeMode] /
[~UnicodeMode] SourceCharacter but not UnicodeIDContinue
DecimalEscape ::
NonZeroDigit DecimalDigits[~Sep] opt [lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]
CharacterClassEscape[UnicodeMode] ::
d
D
s
S
w
W
p{ UnicodePropertyValueExpression }
[+UnicodeMode]
P{ UnicodePropertyValueExpression }
[+UnicodeMode]
UnicodePropertyValueExpression ::
UnicodePropertyName = UnicodePropertyValue
LoneUnicodePropertyNameOrValue
UnicodePropertyName ::
UnicodePropertyNameCharacters
UnicodePropertyNameCharacters ::
UnicodePropertyNameCharacter UnicodePropertyNameCharactersopt
UnicodePropertyValue ::
UnicodePropertyValueCharacters

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

LoneUnicodePropertyNameOrValue ::
UnicodePropertyValueCharacters
UnicodePropertyValueCharacters ::
UnicodePropertyValueCharacter UnicodePropertyValueCharactersopt
UnicodePropertyValueCharacter ::
UnicodePropertyNameCharacter
DecimalDigit
UnicodePropertyNameCharacter ::
AsciiLetter
_
CharacterClass[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode] ::
[ [lookahead ≠ ^] ClassContents[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode] ]
[^ ClassContents[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode] ]
ClassContents[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode] ::
[empty]
[~UnicodeSetsMode] NonemptyClassRanges[?UnicodeMode]

[+UnicodeSetsMode] ClassSetExpression
NonemptyClassRanges[UnicodeMode] ::
ClassAtom[?UnicodeMode]
ClassAtom[?UnicodeMode] NonemptyClassRangesNoDash[?UnicodeMode]
ClassAtom[?UnicodeMode] - ClassAtom[?UnicodeMode]
ClassContents[?UnicodeMode, ~UnicodeSetsMode]
NonemptyClassRangesNoDash[UnicodeMode] ::
ClassAtom[?UnicodeMode]
ClassAtomNoDash[?UnicodeMode] NonemptyClassRangesNoDash[?UnicodeMode]
ClassAtomNoDash[?UnicodeMode] - ClassAtom[?UnicodeMode]
ClassContents[?UnicodeMode, ~UnicodeSetsMode]
ClassAtom[UnicodeMode] ::
-
ClassAtomNoDash[?UnicodeMode]
ClassAtomNoDash[UnicodeMode] ::
SourceCharacter but not one of \ or ] or -
\ ClassEscape[?UnicodeMode]
ClassEscape[UnicodeMode] ::
b
[+UnicodeMode] -
CharacterClassEscape[?UnicodeMode]
CharacterEscape[?UnicodeMode]
ClassSetExpression ::
ClassUnion
ClassIntersection
ClassSubtraction
ClassUnion ::
ClassSetRange ClassUnionopt
ClassSetOperand ClassUnionopt
ClassIntersection ::
ClassSetOperand && [lookahead ≠ &] ClassSetOperand
ClassIntersection && [lookahead ≠ &] ClassSetOperand
ClassSubtraction ::
ClassSetOperand -- ClassSetOperand
ClassSubtraction -- ClassSetOperand

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

ClassSetRange ::
ClassSetCharacter - ClassSetCharacter
ClassSetOperand ::
NestedClass
ClassStringDisjunction
ClassSetCharacter
NestedClass ::
[ [lookahead ≠ ^] ClassContents[+UnicodeMode, +UnicodeSetsMode] ]
[^ ClassContents[+UnicodeMode, +UnicodeSetsMode] ]
\ CharacterClassEscape[+UnicodeMode]
ClassStringDisjunction ::
\q{ ClassStringDisjunctionContents }
ClassStringDisjunctionContents ::
ClassString
ClassString | ClassStringDisjunctionContents
ClassString ::
[empty]
NonEmptyClassString
NonEmptyClassString ::
ClassSetCharacter NonEmptyClassStringopt
ClassSetCharacter ::
[lookahead ∉ ClassSetReservedDoublePunctuator] SourceCharacter but not ClassSetSyntaxCharacter
\ CharacterEscape[+UnicodeMode]
\ ClassSetReservedPunctuator
\b
ClassSetReservedDoublePunctuator :: one of
&& !! ## $$ %% ** ++ ,, .. :: ;; << == >> ?? @@ ^^ `` ~~
ClassSetSyntaxCharacter :: one of
( ) [ ] { } / - \ |
ClassSetReservedPunctuator :: one of
& - ! # % , : ; < = > @ ` ~

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Annex B
(normative)

Additional ECMAScript Features for Web Browsers

The ECMAScript language syntax and semantics defined in this annex are required when the ECMAScript host is a web
browser. The content of this annex is normative but optional if the ECMAScript host is not a web browser.

NOTE This annex describes various legacy features and other characteristics of web browser ECMAScript hosts.
All of the language features and behaviours specified in this annex have one or more undesirable
characteristics and in the absence of legacy usage would be removed from this specification. However, the
usage of these features by large numbers of existing web pages means that web browsers must continue to
support them. The specifications in this annex define the requirements for interoperable implementations of
these legacy features.

These features are not considered part of the core ECMAScript language. Programmers should not use or
assume the existence of these features and behaviours when writing new ECMAScript code. ECMAScript
implementations are discouraged from implementing these features unless the implementation is part of a
web browser or is required to run the same legacy ECMAScript code that web browsers encounter.

B.1

Additional Syntax

B.1.1

HTML-like Comments

The syntax and semantics of 12.4 is extended as follows except that this extension is not allowed when parsing source
text using the goal symbol Module:

Syntax

InputElementHashbangOrRegExp ::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator
Comment
CommonToken
HashbangComment
RegularExpressionLiteral
HTMLCloseComment

Comment ::
MultiLineComment
SingleLineComment
SingleLineHTMLOpenComment
SingleLineHTMLCloseComment
SingleLineDelimitedComment

MultiLineComment ::
/* FirstCommentLineopt LineTerminator MultiLineCommentCharsopt */ HTMLCloseCommentopt

FirstCommentLine ::
SingleLineDelimitedCommentChars

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

SingleLineHTMLOpenComment ::
<!-- SingleLineCommentCharsopt

SingleLineHTMLCloseComment ::
LineTerminatorSequence HTMLCloseComment

SingleLineDelimitedComment ::
/* SingleLineDelimitedCommentCharsopt */

HTMLCloseComment ::
WhiteSpaceSequenceopt SingleLineDelimitedCommentSequenceopt -->
SingleLineCommentCharsopt

SingleLineDelimitedCommentChars ::
SingleLineNotAsteriskChar SingleLineDelimitedCommentCharsopt
* SingleLinePostAsteriskCommentCharsopt

SingleLineNotAsteriskChar ::
SourceCharacter but not one of * or LineTerminator

SingleLinePostAsteriskCommentChars ::
SingleLineNotForwardSlashOrAsteriskChar SingleLineDelimitedCommentCharsopt
* SingleLinePostAsteriskCommentCharsopt

SingleLineNotForwardSlashOrAsteriskChar ::
SourceCharacter but not one of / or * or LineTerminator

WhiteSpaceSequence ::
WhiteSpace WhiteSpaceSequenceopt

SingleLineDelimitedCommentSequence ::
SingleLineDelimitedComment WhiteSpaceSequenceopt SingleLineDelimitedCommentSequenceopt

Similar to a MultiLineComment that contains a line terminator code point, a SingleLineHTMLCloseComment is con-
sidered to be a LineTerminator for purposes of parsing by the syntactic grammar.

B.1.2

Regular Expressions Patterns

The syntax of 22.2.1 is modified and extended as follows. These changes introduce ambiguities that are broken by the
ordering of grammar productions and by contextual information. When parsing using the following grammar, each altern-
ative is considered only if previous production alternatives do not match.

This alternative pattern grammar and semantics only changes the syntax and semantics of BMP patterns. The following
grammar extensions include productions parameterized with the [UnicodeMode] parameter. However, none of these ex-
tensions change the syntax of Unicode patterns recognized when parsing with the [UnicodeMode] parameter present on
the goal symbol.

Syntax

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Term[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::

[+UnicodeMode] Assertion[+UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
[+UnicodeMode] Atom[+UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] Quantifier

[+UnicodeMode] Atom[+UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]

[~UnicodeMode] QuantifiableAssertion[?NamedCaptureGroups] Quantifier
[~UnicodeMode] Assertion[~UnicodeMode, ~UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
[~UnicodeMode] ExtendedAtom[?NamedCaptureGroups] Quantifier
[~UnicodeMode] ExtendedAtom[?NamedCaptureGroups]

Assertion[UnicodeMode, UnicodeSetsMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::

^
$
\b
\B
[+UnicodeMode] (?= Disjunction[+UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )
[+UnicodeMode] (?! Disjunction[+UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )

[~UnicodeMode] QuantifiableAssertion[?NamedCaptureGroups]
(?<= Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )
(?<! Disjunction[?UnicodeMode, ?UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )

QuantifiableAssertion[NamedCaptureGroups] ::
(?= Disjunction[~UnicodeMode, ~UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )
(?! Disjunction[~UnicodeMode, ~UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )

ExtendedAtom[NamedCaptureGroups] ::
.
\ AtomEscape[~UnicodeMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
\ [lookahead = c]
CharacterClass[~UnicodeMode, ~UnicodeSetsMode]
( GroupSpecifier[~UnicodeMode] opt
Disjunction[~UnicodeMode, ~UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )
(? RegularExpressionModifiers :
Disjunction[~UnicodeMode, ~UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )
(? RegularExpressionModifiers - RegularExpressionModifiers :
Disjunction[~UnicodeMode, ~UnicodeSetsMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups] )
InvalidBracedQuantifier
ExtendedPatternCharacter

InvalidBracedQuantifier ::
{ DecimalDigits[~Sep] }
{ DecimalDigits[~Sep] ,}
{ DecimalDigits[~Sep] , DecimalDigits[~Sep] }

ExtendedPatternCharacter ::
SourceCharacter but not one of ^ $ \ . * + ? ( ) [ |

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

AtomEscape[UnicodeMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::
[+UnicodeMode] DecimalEscape
[~UnicodeMode] DecimalEscape but only if the CapturingGroupNumber of DecimalEscape is ≤
CountLeftCapturingParensWithin(the Pattern containing DecimalEscape )
CharacterClassEscape[?UnicodeMode]
CharacterEscape[?UnicodeMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
[+NamedCaptureGroups] k GroupName[?UnicodeMode]

CharacterEscape[UnicodeMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::
ControlEscape
c AsciiLetter
0 [lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]
HexEscapeSequence
RegExpUnicodeEscapeSequence[?UnicodeMode]
LegacyOctalEscapeSequence
[~UnicodeMode]
IdentityEscape[?UnicodeMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]

IdentityEscape[UnicodeMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::
[+UnicodeMode] SyntaxCharacter
[+UnicodeMode] /
[~UnicodeMode] SourceCharacterIdentityEscape[?NamedCaptureGroups]

SourceCharacterIdentityEscape[NamedCaptureGroups] ::
[~NamedCaptureGroups] SourceCharacter but not c
[+NamedCaptureGroups] SourceCharacter but not one of c or k

ClassAtomNoDash[UnicodeMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::
SourceCharacter but not one of \ or ] or -
\ ClassEscape[?UnicodeMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]
\ [lookahead = c]

ClassEscape[UnicodeMode, NamedCaptureGroups] ::
b
[+UnicodeMode] -
[~UnicodeMode] c ClassControlLetter
CharacterClassEscape[?UnicodeMode]
CharacterEscape[?UnicodeMode, ?NamedCaptureGroups]

ClassControlLetter ::
DecimalDigit
_

NOTE When the same left-hand sides occurs with both [+UnicodeMode] and [~UnicodeMode] guards it is to control
the disambiguation priority.

B.1.2.1

Static Semantics: Early Errors

The semantics of [Link] is extended as follows:

ExtendedAtom :: InvalidBracedQuantifier

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

It is a Syntax Error if any source text is matched by this production.

Additionally, the rules for the following productions are modified with the addition of the highlighted text:

NonemptyClassRanges :: ClassAtom - ClassAtom ClassContents

It is a Syntax Error if IsCharacterClass of the first ClassAtom is true or IsCharacterClass of the second ClassAtom is
true and this production has a [UnicodeMode] parameter.
It is a Syntax Error if IsCharacterClass of the first ClassAtom is false, IsCharacterClass of the second ClassAtom is
false, and the CharacterValue of the first ClassAtom is strictly greater than the CharacterValue of the second
ClassAtom.

NonemptyClassRangesNoDash :: ClassAtomNoDash - ClassAtom ClassContents

It is a Syntax Error if IsCharacterClass of ClassAtomNoDash is true or IsCharacterClass of ClassAtom is true and

this production has a [UnicodeMode] parameter.
It is a Syntax Error if IsCharacterClass of ClassAtomNoDash is false, IsCharacterClass of ClassAtom is false, and
the CharacterValue of ClassAtomNoDash is strictly greater than the CharacterValue of ClassAtom.

B.1.2.2

Static Semantics: CountLeftCapturingParensWithin and CountLeftCapturingParensBefore

In the definitions of CountLeftCapturingParensWithin and CountLeftCapturingParensBefore, references to “

Atom :: ( GroupSpecifieropt Disjunction ) ” are to be interpreted as meaning “
Atom :: ( GroupSpecifieropt Disjunction ) ” or “ ExtendedAtom :: ( GroupSpecifieropt Disjunction ) ”.

B.1.2.3

Static Semantics: IsCharacterClass

The semantics of [Link] is extended as follows:

ClassAtomNoDash :: \ [lookahead = c]

1. Return false.

B.1.2.4

Static Semantics: CharacterValue

The semantics of [Link] is extended as follows:

ClassAtomNoDash :: \ [lookahead = c]

1. Return the numeric value of U+005C (REVERSE SOLIDUS).

ClassEscape :: c ClassControlLetter

1. Let ch be the code point matched by ClassControlLetter.

2. Let i be the numeric value of ch.
3. Return the remainder of dividing i by 32.

CharacterEscape :: LegacyOctalEscapeSequence

1. Return the MV of LegacyOctalEscapeSequence (see [Link]).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

B.1.2.5

Runtime Semantics: CompileSubpattern

The semantics of CompileSubpattern is extended as follows:

The rule for Term :: QuantifiableAssertion Quantifier is the same as for Term :: Atom Quantifier but with
QuantifiableAssertion substituted for Atom.

The rule for Term :: ExtendedAtom Quantifier is the same as for Term :: Atom Quantifier but with ExtendedAtom
substituted for Atom.

The rule for Term :: ExtendedAtom is the same as for Term :: Atom but with ExtendedAtom substituted for Atom.

B.1.2.6

Runtime Semantics: CompileAssertion

CompileAssertion rules for the Assertion :: (?= Disjunction ) and Assertion :: (?! Disjunction ) productions are
also used for the QuantifiableAssertion productions, but with QuantifiableAssertion substituted for Assertion.

B.1.2.7

Runtime Semantics: CompileAtom

CompileAtom rules for the Atom productions except for Atom :: PatternCharacter are also used for the
ExtendedAtom productions, but with ExtendedAtom substituted for Atom. The following rules, with parameter direction,
are also added:

ExtendedAtom :: \ [lookahead = c]

1. Let A be the CharSet containing the single character \ U+005C (REVERSE SOLIDUS).
2. Return CharacterSetMatcher(rer, A, false, direction).

ExtendedAtom :: ExtendedPatternCharacter

1. Let ch be the character represented by ExtendedPatternCharacter.

2. Let A be a one-element CharSet containing the character ch.
3. Return CharacterSetMatcher(rer, A, false, direction).

B.1.2.8

Runtime Semantics: CompileToCharSet

The semantics of [Link] is extended as follows:

The following two rules replace the corresponding rules of CompileToCharSet.

NonemptyClassRanges :: ClassAtom - ClassAtom ClassContents

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of the first ClassAtom with argument rer.

2. Let B be CompileToCharSet of the second ClassAtom with argument rer.
3. Let C be CompileToCharSet of ClassContents with argument rer.
4. Let D be CharacterRangeOrUnion(rer, A, B).
5. Return the union of D and C.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

NonemptyClassRangesNoDash :: ClassAtomNoDash - ClassAtom ClassContents

1. Let A be CompileToCharSet of ClassAtomNoDash with argument rer.

2. Let B be CompileToCharSet of ClassAtom with argument rer.
3. Let C be CompileToCharSet of ClassContents with argument rer.
4. Let D be CharacterRangeOrUnion(rer, A, B).
5. Return the union of D and C.

In addition, the following rules are added to CompileToCharSet.

ClassEscape :: c ClassControlLetter

1. Let cv be the CharacterValue of this ClassEscape.

2. Let c be the character whose character value is cv.
3. Return the CharSet containing the single character c.

ClassAtomNoDash :: \ [lookahead = c]

1. Return the CharSet containing the single character \ U+005C (REVERSE SOLIDUS).

NOTE This production can only be reached from the sequence \c within a character class where it is not followed
by an acceptable control character.

B.[Link]

CharacterRangeOrUnion ( rer, A, B )

The abstract operation CharacterRangeOrUnion takes arguments rer (a RegExp Record), A (a CharSet), and B (a
CharSet) and returns a CharSet. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If HasEitherUnicodeFlag(rer) is false, then

a. If A does not contain exactly one character or B does not contain exactly one character, then
i. Let C be the CharSet containing the single character - U+002D (HYPHEN-MINUS).
ii. Return the union of CharSets A, B and C.
2. Return CharacterRange(A, B).

B.1.2.9

Static Semantics: ParsePattern ( patternText, u, v )

The semantics of [Link] is extended as follows:

The abstract operation ParsePattern takes arguments patternText (a sequence of Unicode code points), u (a Boolean),
and v (a Boolean). It performs the following steps when called:

1. If v is true and u is true, then

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

a. Let parseResult be ParseText(patternText,

Pattern[~UnicodeMode, ~UnicodeSetsMode, ~NamedCaptureGroups] ).
b. If parseResult is a Parse Node and parseResult contains a GroupName, then
i. Set parseResult to ParseText(patternText,
Pattern[~UnicodeMode, ~UnicodeSetsMode, +NamedCaptureGroups] ).
5. Return parseResult.

B.2

Additional Built-in Properties

When the ECMAScript host is a web browser the following additional properties of the standard built-in objects
are defined.

B.2.1

Additional Properties of the Global Object

The entries in Table 102 are added to Table 6.

Table 102: Additional Well-known Intrinsic Objects

Intrinsic Name Global Name ECMAScript Language Association
%escape% escape The escape function (B.2.1.1)
%unescape% unescape The unescape function (B.2.1.2)

B.2.1.1

escape ( string )

This function is a property of the global object. It computes a new version of a String value in which certain code units
have been replaced by a hexadecimal escape sequence.

When replacing a code unit of numeric value less than or equal to 0x00FF, a two-digit escape sequence of the form
%xx is used. When replacing a code unit of numeric value strictly greater than 0x00FF, a four-digit escape sequence of
the form %uxxxx is used.

It is the %escape% intrinsic object.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Set string to ? ToString(string).

2. Let len be the length of string.
3. Let R be the empty String.
4. Let unescapedSet be the string-concatenation of the ASCII word characters and "@*+-./".
5. Let k be 0.
6. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let C be the code unit at index k within string.
b. If unescapedSet contains C, then
i. Let S be C.
c. Else,
i. Let n be the numeric value of C.
ii. If n < 256, then
1. Let hex be the String representation of n, formatted as an uppercase hexadecimal number.
2. Let S be the string-concatenation of "%" and StringPad(hex, 2, "0", START).
iii. Else,

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

1. Let hex be the String representation of n, formatted as an uppercase hexadecimal number.

2. Let S be the string-concatenation of "%u" and StringPad(hex, 4, "0", START).
d. Set R to the string-concatenation of R and S.
e. Set k to k + 1.
7. Return R.

NOTE The encoding is partly based on the encoding described in RFC 1738, but the entire encoding specified in
this standard is described above without regard to the contents of RFC 1738. This encoding does not reflect
changes to RFC 1738 made by RFC 3986.

B.2.1.2

unescape ( string )

This function is a property of the global object. It computes a new version of a String value in which each escape se-
quence of the sort that might be introduced by the escape function is replaced with the code unit that it represents.

It is the %unescape% intrinsic object.

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Set string to ? ToString(string).

2. Let len be the length of string.
3. Let R be the empty String.
4. Let k be 0.
5. Repeat, while k < len,
a. Let C be the code unit at index k within string.
b. If C is the code unit 0x0025 (PERCENT SIGN), then
i. Let hexDigits be the empty String.
ii. Let optionalAdvance be 0.
iii. If k + 5 < len and the code unit at index k + 1 within string is the code unit 0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER
U), then
1. Set hexDigits to the substring of string from k + 2 to k + 6.
2. Set optionalAdvance to 5.
iv. Else if k + 3 ≤ len, then
1. Set hexDigits to the substring of string from k + 1 to k + 3.
2. Set optionalAdvance to 2.
v. Let parseResult be ParseText(hexDigits, HexDigits[~Sep] ).
vi. If parseResult is a Parse Node, then
1. Let n be the MV of parseResult.
2. Set C to the code unit whose numeric value is n.
3. Set k to k + optionalAdvance.
c. Set R to the string-concatenation of R and C.
d. Set k to k + 1.
6. Return R.

B.2.2

Additional Properties of the [Link] Object

B.2.2.1

[Link] ( start, length )

This method returns a substring of the result of converting the this value to a String, starting from index start and run-
ning for length code units (or through the end of the String if length is undefined). If start is negative, it is treated as
sourceLength + start where sourceLength is the length of the String. The result is a String value, not a String object.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be ? RequireObjectCoercible(this value).

2. Let S be ? ToString(O).
3. Let size be the length of S.
4. Let intStart be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(start).
5. If intStart = -∞, set intStart to 0.
6. Else if intStart < 0, set intStart to max(size + intStart, 0).
7. Else, set intStart to min(intStart, size).
8. If length is undefined, let intLength be size; otherwise let intLength be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(length).
9. Set intLength to the result of clamping intLength between 0 and size.
10. Let intEnd be min(intStart + intLength, size).
11. Return the substring of S from intStart to intEnd.

NOTE This method is intentionally generic; it does not require that its this value be a String object. Therefore it can
be transferred to other kinds of objects for use as a method.

B.2.2.2

[Link] ( name )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be the this value.

2. Return ? CreateHTML(S, "a", "name", name).

B.[Link]

CreateHTML ( string, tag, attribute, value )

[Link] ( size )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let S be the this value.

2. Return ? CreateHTML(S, "font", "size", size).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

B.2.2.9

[Link] ( )

This method performs the following steps when called:

NOTE The property "trimStart" is preferred. The "trimLeft" property is provided principally for compatibility with
old code. It is recommended that the "trimStart" property be used in new ECMAScript code.

The initial value of the "trimLeft" property is %[Link]%, defined in [Link].

B.2.2.16

[Link] ( )

NOTE The property "trimEnd" is preferred. The "trimRight" property is provided principally for compatibility with
old code. It is recommended that the "trimEnd" property be used in new ECMAScript code.

The initial value of the "trimRight" property is %[Link]%, defined in [Link].

B.2.3

Additional Properties of the [Link] Object

B.2.3.1

[Link] ( )

NOTE The getFullYear method is preferred for nearly all purposes, because it avoids the “year 2000 problem.”

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. If t is NaN, return NaN.
5. Return YearFromTime(LocalTime(t)) - 1900𝔽.

B.2.3.2

[Link] ( year )

NOTE The setFullYear method is preferred for nearly all purposes, because it avoids the “year 2000 problem.”

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let dateObject be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(dateObject, ⁠[[DateValue]]).
3. Let t be dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]].
4. Let y be ? ToNumber(year).
5. If t is NaN, set t to +0𝔽; otherwise set t to LocalTime(t).
6. Let yyyy be MakeFullYear(y).
7. Let d be MakeDay(yyyy, MonthFromTime(t), DateFromTime(t)).
8. Let date be MakeDate(d, TimeWithinDay(t)).

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

9. Let u be TimeClip(UTC(date)).
10. Set dateObject.⁠[[DateValue]] to u.
11. Return u.

B.2.3.3

[Link] ( )

NOTE The toUTCString method is preferred. This method is provided principally for compatibility with old code.

The initial value of the "toGMTString" property is %[Link]%, defined in [Link].

B.2.4

Additional Properties of the [Link] Object

B.2.4.1

[Link] ( pattern, flags )

This method performs the following steps when called:

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Perform ? RequireInternalSlot(O, ⁠[[RegExpMatcher]]).
3. If pattern is an Object and pattern has a ⁠[[RegExpMatcher]] internal slot, then
a. If flags is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
b. Let P be pattern.⁠[[OriginalSource]].
c. Let F be pattern.⁠[[OriginalFlags]].
4. Else,
a. Let P be pattern.
b. Let F be flags.
5. Return ? RegExpInitialize(O, P, F).

NOTE This method completely reinitializes the this value RegExp with a new pattern and flags. An implementation
may interpret use of this method as an assertion that the resulting RegExp object will be used multiple times
and hence is a candidate for extra optimization.

B.3

Other Additional Features

B.3.1

Labelled Function Declarations

Prior to ECMAScript 2015, the specification of LabelledStatement did not allow for the association of a statement label
with a FunctionDeclaration. However, a labelled FunctionDeclaration was an allowable extension for non-strict code and
most browser-hosted ECMAScript implementations supported that extension. In ECMAScript 2015 and later, the gram-
mar production for LabelledStatement permits use of FunctionDeclaration as a LabelledItem but 14.13.1 includes an
Early Error rule that produces a Syntax Error if that occurs. That rule is modified with the addition of the highlighted text:

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

It is a Syntax Error if any source text that is strict mode code is matched by this production.

NOTE The early error rules for WithStatement, IfStatement, and IterationStatement prevent these statements from
containing a labelled FunctionDeclaration in non-strict code.

B.3.2

Block-Level Function Declarations Web Legacy Compatibility Semantics

Prior to ECMAScript 2015, the ECMAScript specification did not define the occurrence of a FunctionDeclaration as an
element of a Block statement's StatementList. However, support for that form of FunctionDeclaration was an allowable
extension and most browser-hosted ECMAScript implementations permitted them. Unfortunately, the semantics of such
declarations differ among those implementations. Because of these semantic differences, existing web ECMAScript
source text that uses Block level function declarations is only portable among browser implementations if the usage only
depends upon the semantic intersection of all of the browser implementations for such declarations. The following are
the use cases that fall within that intersection semantics:

1. A function is declared and only referenced within a single block.

2. A function is declared and possibly used within a single Block but also referenced by an inner function definition that
is not contained within that same Block.

One or more FunctionDeclarations whose BindingIdentifier is the name f occur within the function code of an
enclosing function g and that declaration is nested within a Block.
No other declaration of f that is not a var declaration occurs within the function code of g.
There may be occurrences of f as an IdentifierReference within the StatementList of the Block containing the
declaration of f.
There is at least one occurrence of f as an IdentifierReference within another function h that is nested within g
and no other declaration of f shadows the references to f from within h.
All invocations of h occur after the declaration of f has been evaluated.

3. A function is declared and possibly used within a single block but also referenced within subsequent blocks.

One or more FunctionDeclaration whose BindingIdentifier is the name f occur within the function code of an
enclosing function g and that declaration is nested within a Block.
No other declaration of f that is not a var declaration occurs within the function code of g.
There may be occurrences of f as an IdentifierReference within the StatementList of the Block containing the
declaration of f.
There is at least one occurrence of f as an IdentifierReference within the function code of g that lexically follows
the Block containing the declaration of f.

The first use case is interoperable with the semantics of Block level function declarations provided by ECMAScript 2015.
Any pre-existing ECMAScript source text that employs that use case will operate using the Block level function declara-
tions semantics defined by clauses 10, 14, and 15.

ECMAScript 2015 interoperability for the second and third use cases requires the following extensions to the clause 10,
clause 15, clause 19.2.1 and clause 16.1.7 semantics.

If an ECMAScript implementation has a mechanism for reporting diagnostic warning messages, a warning should be
produced when code contains a FunctionDeclaration for which these compatibility semantics are applied and introduce
observable differences from non-compatibility semantics. For example, if a var binding is not introduced because its in-
troduction would create an early error, a warning message should not be produced.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

B.3.2.1

Changes to FunctionDeclarationInstantiation

During FunctionDeclarationInstantiation the following steps are performed in place of step 31:

31. If strict is false, then

a. For each FunctionDeclaration f that is directly contained in the StatementList of any Block, CaseClause, or
DefaultClause x such that code Contains x is true, do
i. Let F be the StringValue of the BindingIdentifier of f.
ii. If replacing the FunctionDeclaration f with a VariableStatement that has F as a BindingIdentifier would not
produce any Early Errors for func and parameterNames does not contain F, then
1. NOTE: A var binding for F is only instantiated here if it is neither a VarDeclaredName, the name of a
formal parameter, or another FunctionDeclaration.
2. If instantiatedVarNames does not contain F and F is not "arguments", then
a. Perform ! [Link](F, false).
b. Perform ! [Link](F, undefined).
c. Append F to instantiatedVarNames.
3. When the FunctionDeclaration f is evaluated, perform the following steps in place of the
FunctionDeclaration Evaluation algorithm provided in 15.2.6:
a. Let fEnv be the running execution context's VariableEnvironment.
b. Let bEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
c. Let fObj be ! [Link](F, false).
d. Perform ! [Link](F, fObj, false).
e. Return UNUSED.

B.3.2.2

Changes to GlobalDeclarationInstantiation

During GlobalDeclarationInstantiation the following steps are performed in place of step 12:

12. Perform the following steps:

a. Let strict be ScriptIsStrict of script.
b. If strict is false, then
i. Let declaredFunctionOrVarNames be the list-concatenation of declaredFunctionNames and
declaredVarNames.
ii. For each FunctionDeclaration f that is directly contained in the StatementList of any Block, CaseClause, or
DefaultClause x such that script Contains x is true, do
1. Let F be the StringValue of the BindingIdentifier of f.
2. If replacing the FunctionDeclaration f with a VariableStatement that has F as a BindingIdentifier would
not produce any Early Errors for script, then
a. If HasLexicalDeclaration(env, F) is false, then
i. Let fnDefinable be ? CanDeclareGlobalVar(env, F).
ii. If fnDefinable is true, then
i. NOTE: A var binding for F is only instantiated here if it is neither a VarDeclaredName nor the
name of another FunctionDeclaration.
ii. If declaredFunctionOrVarNames does not contain F, then
i. Perform ? CreateGlobalVarBinding(env, F, false).
ii. Append F to declaredFunctionOrVarNames.
iii. When the FunctionDeclaration f is evaluated, perform the following steps in place of the
FunctionDeclaration Evaluation algorithm provided in 15.2.6:
i. Let gEnv be the running execution context's VariableEnvironment.
ii. Let bEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
iii. Let fObj be ! [Link](F, false).
iv. Perform ? [Link](F, fObj, false).
v. Return UNUSED.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

B.3.2.3

Changes to EvalDeclarationInstantiation

During EvalDeclarationInstantiation the following steps are performed in place of step 13:

13. If strict is false, then

a. Let declaredFunctionOrVarNames be the list-concatenation of declaredFunctionNames and declaredVarNames.
b. For each FunctionDeclaration f that is directly contained in the StatementList of any Block, CaseClause, or
DefaultClause x such that body Contains x is true, do
i. Let F be the StringValue of the BindingIdentifier of f.
ii. If replacing the FunctionDeclaration f with a VariableStatement that has F as a BindingIdentifier would not
produce any Early Errors for body, then
1. Let bindingExists be false.
2. Let thisEnv be lexEnv.
3. Assert: The following loop will terminate.
4. Repeat, while thisEnv is not varEnv,
a. If thisEnv is not an Object Environment Record, then
i. If ! [Link](F) is true, then
i. Let bindingExists be true.
b. Set thisEnv to thisEnv.⁠[[OuterEnv]].
5. If bindingExists is false and varEnv is a Global Environment Record, then
a. If HasLexicalDeclaration(varEnv, F) is false, then
i. Let fnDefinable be ? CanDeclareGlobalVar(varEnv, F).
b. Else,
i. Let fnDefinable be false.
6. Else,
a. Let fnDefinable be true.
7. If bindingExists is false and fnDefinable is true, then
a. If declaredFunctionOrVarNames does not contain F, then
i. If varEnv is a Global Environment Record, then
i. Perform ? CreateGlobalVarBinding(varEnv, F, true).
ii. Else,
i. Let bindingExists be ! [Link](F).
ii. If bindingExists is false, then
i. Perform ! [Link](F, true).
ii. Perform ! [Link](F, undefined).
iii. Append F to declaredFunctionOrVarNames.
b. When the FunctionDeclaration f is evaluated, perform the following steps in place of the
FunctionDeclaration Evaluation algorithm provided in 15.2.6:
i. Let gEnv be the running execution context's VariableEnvironment.
ii. Let bEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
iii. Let fObj be ! [Link](F, false).
iv. Perform ? [Link](F, fObj, false).
v. Return UNUSED.

B.3.2.4

Changes to Block Static Semantics: Early Errors

The rules for the following production in 14.2.1 are modified with the addition of the highlighted text:

Block : { StatementList }

It is a Syntax Error if the LexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementList contains any duplicate entries, unless
IsStrict(this production) is false and the duplicate entries are only bound by FunctionDeclarations.
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the LexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementList also occurs in the
VarDeclaredNames of StatementList.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

B.3.2.5

Changes to switch Statement Static Semantics: Early Errors

The rules for the following production in 14.12.1 are modified with the addition of the highlighted text:

SwitchStatement : switch ( Expression ) CaseBlock

It is a Syntax Error if the LexicallyDeclaredNames of CaseBlock contains any duplicate entries, unless IsStrict(this
production) is false and the duplicate entries are only bound by FunctionDeclarations.
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the LexicallyDeclaredNames of CaseBlock also occurs in the
VarDeclaredNames of CaseBlock.

B.3.2.6

Changes to BlockDeclarationInstantiation

During BlockDeclarationInstantiation the following steps are performed in place of step [Link].1:

1. If ! [Link](dn) is false, then

a. Perform ! [Link](dn, false).

During BlockDeclarationInstantiation the following steps are performed in place of step [Link]:

iii. Perform the following steps:

1. If the binding for fn in env is an uninitialized binding, then
a. Perform ! [Link](fn, fo).
2. Else,
a. Assert: d is a FunctionDeclaration.
b. Perform ! [Link](fn, fo, false).

B.3.3

FunctionDeclarations in IfStatement Statement Clauses

The following augments the IfStatement production in 14.6:

IfStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

if ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) FunctionDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ~Default] else
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
if ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] else
FunctionDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ~Default]
if ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) FunctionDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ~Default] else
FunctionDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ~Default]
if ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) FunctionDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ~Default]
[lookahead ≠ else]

This production only applies when parsing non-strict code. Source text matched by this production is processed as if
each matching occurrence of FunctionDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ~Default] was the sole StatementListItem of a
BlockStatement occupying that position in the source text. The semantics of such a synthetic BlockStatement includes
the web legacy compatibility semantics specified in B.3.2.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

B.3.4

VariableStatements in Catch Blocks

The content of subclause 14.15.1 is replaced with the following:

Catch : catch ( CatchParameter ) Block

It is a Syntax Error if the BoundNames of CatchParameter contains any duplicate elements.

NOTE The Block of a Catch clause may contain var declarations that bind a name that is also bound by the
CatchParameter. At runtime, such bindings are instantiated in the VariableDeclarationEnvironment. They do
not shadow the same-named bindings introduced by the CatchParameter and hence the Initializer for such
var declarations will assign to the corresponding catch parameter rather than the var binding.

This modified behaviour also applies to var and function declarations introduced by direct eval calls contained within
the Block of a Catch clause. This change is accomplished by modifying the algorithm of [Link] as follows:

Step 3.d.i.2.a.i is replaced by:

i. If thisEnv is not the Environment Record for a Catch clause, throw a SyntaxError exception.

Step [Link].4.a.i.i is replaced by:

i. If thisEnv is not the Environment Record for a Catch clause, let bindingExists be true.

B.3.5

Initializers in ForIn Statement Heads

The following augments the ForInOfStatement production in 14.7.5:

ForInOfStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

for ( var BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[~In, ?Yield, ?Await] in
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

This production only applies when parsing non-strict code.

The static semantics of ContainsDuplicateLabels in 8.3.1 are augmented with the following:

ForInOfStatement : for ( var BindingIdentifier Initializer in Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Statement with argument labelSet.

The static semantics of ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget in 8.3.2 are augmented with the following:

ForInOfStatement : for ( var BindingIdentifier Initializer in Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Statement with argument labelSet.

The static semantics of ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget in 8.3.3 are augmented with the following:

ForInOfStatement : for ( var BindingIdentifier Initializer in Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Statement with arguments iterationSet and « ».

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

The static semantics of IsDestructuring in [Link] are augmented with the following:

BindingIdentifier :
Identifier
yield
await

1. Return false.

The static semantics of VarDeclaredNames in 8.2.6 are augmented with the following:

ForInOfStatement : for ( var BindingIdentifier Initializer in Expression ) Statement

1. Let names1 be the BoundNames of BindingIdentifier.

2. Let names2 be the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.
3. Return the list-concatenation of names1 and names2.

The static semantics of VarScopedDeclarations in 8.2.7 are augmented with the following:

ForInOfStatement : for ( var BindingIdentifier Initializer in Expression ) Statement

1. Let declarations1 be « BindingIdentifier ».

2. Let declarations2 be the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.
3. Return the list-concatenation of declarations1 and declarations2.

The runtime semantics of ForInOfLoopEvaluation in [Link] are augmented with the following:

ForInOfStatement : for ( var BindingIdentifier Initializer in Expression ) Statement

1. Let bindingId be the StringValue of BindingIdentifier.

2. Let lhs be ? ResolveBinding(bindingId).
3. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(Initializer) is true, then
a. Let value be ? NamedEvaluation of Initializer with argument bindingId.
4. Else,
a. Let rhs be ? Evaluation of Initializer.
b. Let value be ? GetValue(rhs).
5. Perform ? PutValue(lhs, value).
6. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(« », Expression, ENUMERATE).
7. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(BindingIdentifier, Statement, keyResult, ENUMERATE, VAR-BINDING, labelSet).

B.3.6

The ⁠[[IsHTMLDDA]] Internal Slot

An [[IsHTMLDDA]] internal slot may exist on host-defined objects. Objects with an ⁠[[IsHTMLDDA]] internal slot behave
like undefined in the ToBoolean and IsLooselyEqual abstract operations and when used as an operand for the
typeof operator.

NOTE Objects with an ⁠[[IsHTMLDDA]] internal slot are never created by this specification. However, the
[Link] object in web browsers is a host-defined exotic object with this slot that exists for web
compatibility purposes. There are no other known examples of this type of object and implementations
should not create any with the exception of [Link].

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

B.3.6.1

Changes to ToBoolean

The following step replaces step 3 of ToBoolean:

3. If argument is an Object and argument has an ⁠[[IsHTMLDDA]] internal slot, return false.

B.3.6.2

Changes to IsLooselyEqual

The following steps replace step 4 of IsLooselyEqual:

4. Perform the following steps:

a. If x is an Object, x has an ⁠[[IsHTMLDDA]] internal slot, and y is either undefined or null, return true.
b. If x is either undefined or null, y is an Object, and y has an ⁠[[IsHTMLDDA]] internal slot, return true.

B.3.6.3

Changes to the typeof Operator

The following step replaces step 12 of the evaluation semantics for typeof:

12. If val has an ⁠[[IsHTMLDDA]] internal slot, return "undefined".

B.3.7

Non-default behaviour in HostMakeJobCallback

The HostMakeJobCallback abstract operation allows hosts which are web browsers to specify non-default behaviour.

B.3.8

Non-default behaviour in HostEnsureCanAddPrivateElement

The HostEnsureCanAddPrivateElement abstract operation allows hosts which are web browsers to specify non-
default behaviour.

B.3.9

Runtime Errors for Function Call Assignment Targets

When a function call (13.3.6) is used as an assignment target in non-strict code, instead of producing an early error, a
ReferenceError exception is thrown during evaluation of the assignment.

NOTE When the assignment target is the LeftHandSideExpression of an AssignmentExpression, the assignment
operator must be = or an AssignmentOperator; in particular, the allowance here does not apply to the logical
assignment operators (??=, &&=, ||=).

See step 1 of AssignmentTargetType for CallExpression : CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead and

CallExpression : CallExpression Arguments .

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Annex C
(informative)

The Strict Mode of ECMAScript

The strict mode restriction and exceptions

implements, interface, let, package, private, protected, public, static, and yield are reserved
words within strict mode code. (12.7.2).
A conforming implementation, when processing strict mode code, must disallow instances of the productions
NumericLiteral :: LegacyOctalIntegerLiteral and DecimalIntegerLiteral :: NonOctalDecimalIntegerLiteral .
A conforming implementation, when processing strict mode code, must disallow instances of the productions
EscapeSequence :: LegacyOctalEscapeSequence and
EscapeSequence :: NonOctalDecimalEscapeSequence .
Assignment to an undeclared identifier or otherwise unresolvable reference does not create a property in the global
object. When a simple assignment occurs within strict mode code, its LeftHandSideExpression must not evaluate to
an unresolvable Reference. If it does a ReferenceError exception is thrown ([Link]). The LeftHandSideExpression
also may not be a reference to a data property with the attribute value { ⁠[[Writable]]: false }, to an accessor property
with the attribute value { ⁠[[Set]]: undefined }, nor to a non-existent property of an object whose ⁠[[Extensible]] internal
slot is false. In these cases a TypeError exception is thrown (13.15).
An IdentifierReference with the StringValue "eval" or "arguments" may not appear as the LeftHandSideExpression
of an Assignment operator (13.15) or of an UpdateExpression (13.4) or as the UnaryExpression operated upon by a
Prefix Increment (13.4.4) or a Prefix Decrement (13.4.5) operator.
Arguments objects for strict functions define a non-configurable accessor property "callee" which throws a
TypeError exception on access ([Link]).
Arguments objects for strict functions do not dynamically share their array-indexed property values with the
corresponding formal parameter bindings of their functions. (10.4.4).
For strict functions, if an arguments object is created the binding of the local identifier arguments to the arguments
object is immutable and hence may not be the target of an assignment expression. (10.2.11).
It is a SyntaxError if the StringValue of a BindingIdentifier is either "eval" or "arguments" within strict mode code
(13.1.1).
Strict mode eval code cannot instantiate variables or functions in the variable environment of the caller to eval.
Instead, a new variable environment is created and that environment is used for declaration binding instantiation for
the eval code (19.2.1).
If this is evaluated within strict mode code, then the this value is not coerced to an object. A this value of either
undefined or null is not converted to the global object and primitive values are not converted to wrapper objects.
The this value passed via a function call (including calls made using [Link] and
[Link]) do not coerce the passed this value to an object ([Link], [Link], [Link]).
When a delete operator occurs within strict mode code, a SyntaxError is thrown if its UnaryExpression is a direct
reference to a variable, function argument, or function name ([Link]).
When a delete operator occurs within strict mode code, a TypeError is thrown if the property to be deleted has the
attribute { ⁠[[Configurable]]: false } or otherwise cannot be deleted ([Link]).
Strict mode code may not include a WithStatement. The occurrence of a WithStatement in such a context is a
SyntaxError (14.11.1).
It is a SyntaxError if a CatchParameter occurs within strict mode code and the BoundNames of CatchParameter
contains either eval or arguments (14.15.1).
It is a SyntaxError if the same BindingIdentifier appears more than once in the FormalParameters of a strict
function. An attempt to create such a function using a Function, Generator, or AsyncFunction constructor is a
SyntaxError (15.2.1, [Link].1).
An implementation may not extend, beyond that defined in this specification, the meanings within strict functions of
properties named "caller" or "arguments" of function instances.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Annex D
(informative)

Host Layering Points

See 4.2 for the definition of host.

D.1

Host Hooks

HostCallJobCallback(...)

HostEnqueueFinalizationRegistryCleanupJob(...)

HostEnqueueGenericJob(...)

HostEnqueuePromiseJob(...)

HostEnqueueTimeoutJob(...)

HostEnsureCanCompileStrings(...)

HostFinalizeImportMeta(...)

HostGetImportMetaProperties(...)

HostGrowSharedArrayBuffer(...)

HostHasSourceTextAvailable(...)

HostLoadImportedModule(...)

HostGetSupportedImportAttributes(...)

HostMakeJobCallback(...)

HostPromiseRejectionTracker(...)

HostResizeArrayBuffer(...)

InitializeHostDefinedRealm(...)

D.2

Host-defined Fields

[[HostDefined]] on Realm Records: See Table 24.

[[HostDefined]] on Script Records: See Table 39.

[[HostDefined]] on Module Records: See Table 43.

[[HostDefined]] on JobCallback Records: See Table 28.

[[HostSynchronizesWith]] on Candidate Executions: See Table 101.

[[IsHTMLDDA]]: See B.3.6.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

D.3

Host-defined Objects

The global object: See clause 19.

D.4

Running Jobs

Preparation steps before, and cleanup steps after, invocation of Job Abstract Closures. See 9.5.

D.5

Internal Methods of Exotic Objects

Any of the essential internal methods in Table 4 for any exotic object not specified within this specification.

D.6

Built-in Objects and Methods

Any built-in objects and methods not defined within this specification, except as restricted in 17.1.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Annex E
(informative)

Corrections and Clarifications in ECMAScript 2015 with Possible Compatibility Impact

[Link].14-[Link].17 Edition 5 and 5.1 used a property existence test to determine whether a global object property cor-
responding to a new global declaration already existed. ECMAScript 2015 uses an own property existence test. This
corresponds to what has been most commonly implemented by web browsers.

[Link]: The 5th Edition moved the capture of the current array length prior to the integer conversion of the array index
or new length value. However, the captured length value could become invalid if the conversion process has the side-ef-
fect of changing the array length. ECMAScript 2015 specifies that the current array length must be captured after the
possible occurrence of such side-effects.

[Link]: Previous editions permitted the TimeClip abstract operation to return either +0𝔽 or -0𝔽 as the representation
of a 0 time value. ECMAScript 2015 specifies that +0𝔽 always returned. This means that for ECMAScript 2015 the time
value of a Date is never observably -0𝔽 and methods that return time values never return -0𝔽.

[Link]: If a UTC offset representation is not present, the local time zone is used. Edition 5.1 incorrectly stated that a
missing time zone should be interpreted as "z".

[Link]: If the year cannot be represented using the Date Time String Format specified in [Link] a RangeError ex-
ception is thrown. Previous editions did not specify the behaviour for that case.

[Link]: Previous editions did not specify the value returned by [Link] when the time value is
NaN. ECMAScript 2015 specifies the result to be the String value "Invalid Date".

[Link], [Link].1: Any LineTerminator code points in the value of the "source" property of a RegExp instance must
be expressed using an escape sequence. Edition 5.1 only required the escaping of /.

[Link], [Link]: In previous editions, the specifications for [Link] and

[Link] was incorrect for cases where the pattern argument was a RegExp value whose
global flag is set. The previous specifications stated that for each attempt to match the pattern, if lastIndex did not
change, it should be incremented by 1. The correct behaviour is that lastIndex should be incremented by 1 only if the
pattern matched the empty String.

[Link]: Previous editions did not specify how a NaN value returned by a comparator was interpreted by
[Link]. ECMAScript 2015 specifies that such as value is treated as if +0𝔽 was returned from
the comparator. ECMAScript 2015 also specifies that ToNumber is applied to the result returned by a comparator. In
previous editions, the effect of a comparator result that is not a Number value was implementation-defined. In practice,
implementations call ToNumber.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Annex F
(informative)

Additions and Changes That Introduce Incompatibilities with Prior Editions

6.2.5: In ECMAScript 2015, Function calls are not allowed to return a Reference Record.

[Link]: In ECMAScript 2015, ToNumber applied to a String value now recognizes and converts BinaryIntegerLiteral and
OctalIntegerLiteral numeric strings. In previous editions such strings were converted to NaN.

9.3: In ECMAScript 2018, Template objects are canonicalized based on Parse Node (source location), instead of across
all occurrences of that template literal or tagged template in a Realm in previous editions.

12.2: In ECMAScript 2016, Unicode 8.0.0 or higher is mandated, as opposed to ECMAScript 2015 which mandated
Unicode 5.1. In particular, this caused U+180E MONGOLIAN VOWEL SEPARATOR, which was in the
Space_Separator (Zs) category and thus treated as whitespace in ECMAScript 2015, to be moved to the Format
(Cf) category (as of Unicode 6.3.0). This causes whitespace-sensitive methods to behave differently. For example,
"\u180E".trim().length was 0 in previous editions, but 1 in ECMAScript 2016 and later. Additionally, ECMAScript
2017 mandated always using the latest version of the Unicode Standard.

12.7: In ECMAScript 2015, the valid code points for an IdentifierName are specified in terms of the Unicode properties
“ID_Start” and “ID_Continue”. In previous editions, the valid IdentifierName or Identifier code points were specified by
enumerating various Unicode code point categories.

12.10.1: In ECMAScript 2015, Automatic Semicolon Insertion adds a semicolon at the end of a do-while statement if the
semicolon is missing. This change aligns the specification with the actual behaviour of most existing implementations.

[Link]: In ECMAScript 2015, it is no longer an early error to have duplicate property names in Object Initializers.

13.15.1: In ECMAScript 2015, strict mode code containing an assignment to an immutable binding such as the function
name of a FunctionExpression does not produce an early error. Instead it produces a runtime error.

14.2: In ECMAScript 2015, a StatementList beginning with the token let followed by the input elements LineTerminator
then Identifier is the start of a LexicalDeclaration. In previous editions, automatic semicolon insertion would always in-
sert a semicolon before the Identifier input element.

14.5: In ECMAScript 2015, a StatementListItem beginning with the token let followed by the token [ is the start of a
LexicalDeclaration. In previous editions such a sequence would be the start of an ExpressionStatement.

14.6.2: In ECMAScript 2015, the normal result of an IfStatement is never the value EMPTY. If no Statement part is eval-
uated or if the evaluated Statement part produces a normal completion containing EMPTY, the result of the IfStatement
is undefined.

14.7: In ECMAScript 2015, if the ( token of a for statement is immediately followed by the token sequence let [ then
the let is treated as the start of a LexicalDeclaration. In previous editions such a token sequence would be the start of
an Expression.

14.7: In ECMAScript 2015, if the ( token of a for-in statement is immediately followed by the token sequence let [
then the let is treated as the start of a ForDeclaration. In previous editions such a token sequence would be the start of
an LeftHandSideExpression.

14.7: Prior to ECMAScript 2015, an initialization expression could appear as part of the VariableDeclaration that pre-
cedes the in keyword. In ECMAScript 2015, the ForBinding in that same position does not allow the occurrence of such
an initializer. In ECMAScript 2017, such an initializer is permitted only in non-strict code.

14.7: In ECMAScript 2015, the result of evaluating an IterationStatement is never a normal completion whose ⁠[[Value]] is
EMPTY. If the Statement part of an IterationStatement is not evaluated or if the final evaluation of the Statement part
produces a normal completion whose ⁠[[Value]] is EMPTY, the result of evaluating the IterationStatement is a normal
completion whose ⁠[[Value]] is undefined.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

14.11.2: In ECMAScript 2015, the result of evaluating a WithStatement is never a normal completion whose ⁠[[Value]] is
EMPTY. If evaluation of the Statement part of a WithStatement produces a normal completion whose ⁠[[Value]] is EMPTY,
the result of evaluating the WithStatement is a normal completion whose ⁠[[Value]] is undefined.

14.12.4: In ECMAScript 2015, the result of evaluating a SwitchStatement is never a normal completion whose ⁠[[Value]]
is EMPTY. If evaluation of the CaseBlock part of a SwitchStatement produces a normal completion whose ⁠[[Value]] is
EMPTY, the result of evaluating the SwitchStatement is a normal completion whose ⁠[[Value]] is undefined.

14.15: In ECMAScript 2015, it is an early error for a Catch clause to contain a var declaration for the same Identifier
that appears as the Catch clause parameter. In previous editions, such a variable declaration would be instantiated in
the enclosing variable environment but the declaration's Initializer value would be assigned to the Catch parameter.

14.15, [Link]: In ECMAScript 2015, a runtime SyntaxError is thrown if a Catch clause evaluates a non-strict direct
eval whose eval code includes a var or FunctionDeclaration declaration that binds the same Identifier that ap-
pears as the Catch clause parameter.

14.15.3: In ECMAScript 2015, the result of a TryStatement is never the value EMPTY. If the Block part of a
TryStatement evaluates to a normal completion containing EMPTY, the result of the TryStatement is undefined. If the
Block part of a TryStatement evaluates to a throw completion and it has a Catch part that evaluates to a normal comple-
tion containing EMPTY, the result of the TryStatement is undefined if there is no Finally clause or if its Finally clause
evaluates to an EMPTY normal completion.

15.4.5 In ECMAScript 2015, the function objects that are created as the values of the ⁠[[Get]] or ⁠[[Set]] attribute of ac-
cessor properties in an ObjectLiteral are not constructor functions and they do not have a "prototype" own property. In
the previous edition, they were constructors and had a "prototype" property.

[Link]: In ECMAScript 2015, if the argument to [Link] is not an object it is treated as if it was a non-ex-
tensible ordinary object with no own properties. In the previous edition, a non-object argument always causes a
TypeError to be thrown.

[Link]: In ECMAScript 2015, if the argument to [Link] is not an object an attempt

is made to coerce the argument using ToObject. If the coercion is successful the result is used in place of the original ar-
gument value. In the previous edition, a non-object argument always causes a TypeError to be thrown.

[Link]: In ECMAScript 2015, if the argument to [Link] is not an object an attempt is

made to coerce the argument using ToObject. If the coercion is successful the result is used in place of the original argu-
ment value. In the previous edition, a non-object argument always causes a TypeError to be thrown.

[Link]: In ECMAScript 2015, if the argument to [Link] is not an object an attempt is made to
coerce the argument using ToObject. If the coercion is successful the result is used in place of the original argument
value. In the previous edition, a non-object argument always causes a TypeError to be thrown.

[Link]: In ECMAScript 2015, if the argument to [Link] is not an object it is treated as if it was a
non-extensible ordinary object with no own properties. In the previous edition, a non-object argument always causes a
TypeError to be thrown.

[Link]: In ECMAScript 2015, if the argument to [Link] is not an object an attempt is made to coerce the
argument using ToObject. If the coercion is successful the result is used in place of the original argument value. In the
previous edition, a non-object argument always causes a TypeError to be thrown.

[Link]: In ECMAScript 2015, if the argument to [Link] is not an object it is treated as if it

was a non-extensible ordinary object with no own properties. In the previous edition, a non-object argument always
causes a TypeError to be thrown.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

[Link]: In ECMAScript 2015, if the argument to [Link] is not an object it is treated as if it was a non-extens-
ible ordinary object with no own properties. In the previous edition, a non-object argument always causes a TypeError
to be thrown.

[Link]: In ECMAScript 2015, the ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot of a bound function is set to the ⁠[[GetPrototypeOf]] value of
its target function. In the previous edition, ⁠[[Prototype]] was always set to %[Link]%.

[Link]: In ECMAScript 2015, the "length" property of function instances is configurable. In previous editions it was
non-configurable.

[Link]: In ECMAScript 2015, the ⁠[[Prototype]] internal slot of a NativeError constructor is the Error constructor. In pre-
vious editions it was the Function prototype object.

21.4.4 In ECMAScript 2015, the Date prototype object is not a Date instance. In previous editions it was a Date instance
whose TimeValue was NaN.

[Link] In ECMAScript 2015, the [Link] function must treat Strings that are
canonically equivalent according to the Unicode Standard as being identical. In previous editions implementations were
permitted to ignore canonical equivalence and could instead use a bit-wise comparison.

[Link] and [Link] In ECMAScript 2015, lowercase/upper conversion processing operates on code points. In pre-
vious editions such the conversion processing was only applied to individual code units. The only affected code points
are those in the Deseret block of Unicode.

[Link] In ECMAScript 2015, the [Link] method is defined to recognize white space code
points that may exist outside of the Unicode BMP. However, as of Unicode 7 no such code points are defined. In previ-
ous editions such code points would not have been recognized as white space.

[Link] In ECMAScript 2015, If the pattern argument is a RegExp instance and the flags argument is not undefined, a
new RegExp instance is created just like pattern except that pattern's flags are replaced by the argument flags. In previ-
ous editions a TypeError exception was thrown when pattern was a RegExp instance and flags was not undefined.

22.2.6 In ECMAScript 2015, the RegExp prototype object is not a RegExp instance. In previous editions it was a
RegExp instance whose pattern is the empty String.

22.2.6 In ECMAScript 2015, "source", "global", "ignoreCase", and "multiline" are accessor properties defined on
the RegExp prototype object. In previous editions they were data properties defined on RegExp instances.

25.4.15: In ECMAScript 2019, [Link] has been renamed to [Link] to prevent confusion
with [Link].

[Link], [Link]: In ECMAScript 2019, the number of Jobs enqueued by await was reduced, which could create an
observable difference in resolution order between a then() call and an await expression.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Bibliography
1. IEEE 754-2019: IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, New
York (2019)

NOTE There are no normative changes between IEEE 754-2008 and IEEE 754-2019 that affect the ECMA-
262 specification.

2. The Unicode Standard, available at <[Link]

3. Unicode Technical Note #5: Canonical Equivalence in Applications, available at <[Link]
4. Unicode Technical Standard #10: Unicode Collation Algorithm, available at <[Link]
5. Unicode Standard Annex #15, Unicode Normalization Forms, available at <[Link]
6. Unicode Standard Annex #18: Unicode Regular Expressions, available at <[Link]
7. Unicode Standard Annex #24: Unicode Script Property, available at <[Link]
8. Unicode Standard Annex #31, Unicode Identifiers and Pattern Syntax, available at
<[Link]
9. Unicode Standard Annex #44: Unicode Character Database, available at <[Link]
10. Unicode Technical Standard #51: Unicode Emoji, available at <[Link]
11. IANA Time Zone Database, available at <[Link]
12. ISO 8601:2004(E) Data elements and interchange formats — Information interchange — Representation of dates
and times
13. RFC 1738 “Uniform Resource Locators (URL)”, available at <[Link]
14. RFC 2396 “Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax”, available at <[Link]
15. RFC 3629 “UTF-8, a transformation format of ISO 10646”, available at <[Link]
16. RFC 7231 “Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP/1.1): Semantics and Content”, available at
<[Link]

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Colophon
This specification is authored on GitHub in a plaintext source format called Ecmarkup. Ecmarkup is an HTML and
Markdown dialect that provides a framework and toolset for authoring ECMAScript specifications in plaintext and pro-
cessing the specification into a full-featured HTML rendering that follows the editorial conventions for this document.
Ecmarkup builds on and integrates a number of other formats and technologies including Grammarkdown for defining
syntax and Ecmarkdown for authoring algorithm steps. PDF renderings of this specification are produced using a print
stylesheet which takes advantage of the CSS Paged Media specification and is converted using PrinceXML.

Prior editions of this specification were authored using Word—the Ecmarkup source text that formed the basis of
this edition was produced by converting the ECMAScript 2015 Word document to Ecmarkup using an automated
conversion tool.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Copyright & Software License

Ecma International
Rue du Rhone 114
CH-1204 Geneva
Tel: +41 22 849 6000
Fax: +41 22 849 6001
Web: [Link]

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

This draft document may be copied and furnished to others, and derivative works that comment on or otherwise ex-
plain it or assist in its implementation may be prepared, copied, published, and distributed, in whole or in part,
without restriction of any kind, provided that the above copyright notice and this section are included on all such
copies and derivative works. However, this document itself may not be modified in any way, including by removing
the copyright notice or references to Ecma International, except as needed for the purpose of developing any docu-
ment or deliverable produced by Ecma International.

This disclaimer is valid only prior to final version of this document. After approval all rights on the standard are re-
served by Ecma International.

The limited permissions are granted through the standardization phase and will not be revoked by Ecma
International or its successors or assigns during this time.

This document and the information contained herein is provided on an "AS IS" basis and ECMA INTERNATIONAL
DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO ANY WARRANTY
THAT THE USE OF THE INFORMATION HEREIN WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY OWNERSHIP RIGHTS OR ANY
IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.

1/8/25, 6:08 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

Software License
All Software contained in this document ("Software") is protected by copyright and is being made available under the
"BSD License", included below. This Software may be subject to third party rights (rights from parties other than Ecma
International), including patent rights, and no licenses under such third party rights are granted under this license even if
the third party concerned is a member of Ecma International. SEE THE ECMA CODE OF CONDUCT IN PATENT
MATTERS AVAILABLE AT [Link] FOR INFORMATION
REGARDING THE LICENSING OF PATENT CLAIMS THAT ARE REQUIRED TO IMPLEMENT ECMA
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS.

Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following
conditions are met:

1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following
disclaimer.
2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following
disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
3. Neither the name of the authors nor Ecma International may be used to endorse or promote products derived from
this software without specific prior written permission.

THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE ECMA INTERNATIONAL "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED
WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL ECMA INTERNATIONAL BE
LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
(INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY,
WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN
ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

ECMAScript® 2022 Language Specification
No ratings yet
ECMAScript® 2022 Language Specification
490 pages
Ecma 262 PDF
No ratings yet
Ecma 262 PDF
798 pages
Ecma 262
No ratings yet
Ecma 262
798 pages
Ecma 262
No ratings yet
Ecma 262
764 pages
Understanding ECMAScript 6 Features
No ratings yet
Understanding ECMAScript 6 Features
18 pages
Understanding ECMAScript and JavaScript
No ratings yet
Understanding ECMAScript and JavaScript
3 pages
JavaScript Overview and ECMAScript Guide
No ratings yet
JavaScript Overview and ECMAScript Guide
170 pages
JavaScript Fundamentals Guide
100% (4)
JavaScript Fundamentals Guide
206 pages
Understanding ECMAScript Standards
No ratings yet
Understanding ECMAScript Standards
15 pages
Comprehensive JavaScript Handbook
No ratings yet
Comprehensive JavaScript Handbook
319 pages
Modern Web Development PDF
100% (1)
Modern Web Development PDF
412 pages
JavaScript Handbook Overview
100% (1)
JavaScript Handbook Overview
171 pages
Slides
No ratings yet
Slides
70 pages
ECMA-262 3rd Edition Overview
No ratings yet
ECMA-262 3rd Edition Overview
188 pages
Status Report: Specifying Javascript With ML: David Herman Cormac Flanagan
No ratings yet
Status Report: Specifying Javascript With ML: David Herman Cormac Flanagan
6 pages
Exploring
100% (1)
Exploring
20 pages
Exploring Es6
No ratings yet
Exploring Es6
630 pages
Exploring Es6
100% (10)
Exploring Es6
555 pages
ECMAScript 2020 Language Specification
No ratings yet
ECMAScript 2020 Language Specification
860 pages
ECMAScript 6: Enhancements & Evolution
No ratings yet
ECMAScript 6: Enhancements & Evolution
40 pages
Ecmascript 201 8 Language Specification: Ecma-262
No ratings yet
Ecmascript 201 8 Language Specification: Ecma-262
805 pages
JavaScript Overview and Basics
No ratings yet
JavaScript Overview and Basics
12 pages
JavaScript Essentials: ES2025 Guide
No ratings yet
JavaScript Essentials: ES2025 Guide
447 pages
Overview of ECMAScript Features
No ratings yet
Overview of ECMAScript Features
10 pages
Exploring Es6
No ratings yet
Exploring Es6
641 pages
JavaScript Development History and Standards
No ratings yet
JavaScript Development History and Standards
6 pages
Js Book
No ratings yet
Js Book
405 pages
Ebook Understanding ECMAScript 6 The Definitive Guide For Javascript Developers 1st Edition Nicholas C. Zakas
No ratings yet
Ebook Understanding ECMAScript 6 The Definitive Guide For Javascript Developers 1st Edition Nicholas C. Zakas
184 pages
JavaScript Features and Evolution 2024
100% (5)
JavaScript Features and Evolution 2024
1,163 pages
JavaScript: Overview and Benefits
No ratings yet
JavaScript: Overview and Benefits
4 pages
Comprehensive Guide to Javascript
No ratings yet
Comprehensive Guide to Javascript
15 pages
JavaScript and Mobile Programming Course
No ratings yet
JavaScript and Mobile Programming Course
85 pages
Mastering Vanilla JavaScript Guide
No ratings yet
Mastering Vanilla JavaScript Guide
372 pages
Javascript Notes
No ratings yet
Javascript Notes
34 pages
Impatient-Js-Book 2022-01-03 - Axel Rauschmayer
No ratings yet
Impatient-Js-Book 2022-01-03 - Axel Rauschmayer
641 pages
(Ebook) JavaScript: The Definitive Guide by Flanagan, David ISBN 9780596000486, 0596000480 Latest PDF 2025
No ratings yet
(Ebook) JavaScript: The Definitive Guide by Flanagan, David ISBN 9780596000486, 0596000480 Latest PDF 2025
92 pages
JavaScript Language Specification
No ratings yet
JavaScript Language Specification
110 pages
JavaScript Interview Essentials Guide
No ratings yet
JavaScript Interview Essentials Guide
7 pages
Introduction to JavaScript Basics
No ratings yet
Introduction to JavaScript Basics
37 pages
Understanding JavaScript Basics and Security
No ratings yet
Understanding JavaScript Basics and Security
2 pages
Javascript: The First 20 Years: Allen Wirfs-Brock, Brendan Eich
No ratings yet
Javascript: The First 20 Years: Allen Wirfs-Brock, Brendan Eich
189 pages
Tutor Joe's JavaScript Notes
No ratings yet
Tutor Joe's JavaScript Notes
8 pages
Get Your Understanding ECMAScript 6 The Definitive Guide For JavaScript Developers 1593277571 Digital
100% (9)
Get Your Understanding ECMAScript 6 The Definitive Guide For JavaScript Developers 1593277571 Digital
207 pages
JavaScript Overview: Features & Uses
No ratings yet
JavaScript Overview: Features & Uses
61 pages
Understanding JavaScript Fundamentals
No ratings yet
Understanding JavaScript Fundamentals
2 pages
Understanding JavaScript Basics and Security
No ratings yet
Understanding JavaScript Basics and Security
2 pages
Mastering JavaScript Design Patterns
No ratings yet
Mastering JavaScript Design Patterns
312 pages
Javascript Micro Project RM
No ratings yet
Javascript Micro Project RM
38 pages
Intro To JavaScript
No ratings yet
Intro To JavaScript
5 pages
JavaScript Basics: Key Concepts Explained
No ratings yet
JavaScript Basics: Key Concepts Explained
33 pages
Future Trends in Web Development
No ratings yet
Future Trends in Web Development
12 pages
JavaScript Security Presentation
No ratings yet
JavaScript Security Presentation
89 pages
ECMA-262 1st Edition June 1997
No ratings yet
ECMA-262 1st Edition June 1997
110 pages
Understanding ECMAScript 6 The Definitive Guide For JavaScript Developers 1593277571 Ready To Read
100% (11)
Understanding ECMAScript 6 The Definitive Guide For JavaScript Developers 1593277571 Ready To Read
176 pages
Understanding JavaScript Basics and Security
No ratings yet
Understanding JavaScript Basics and Security
2 pages
Es6 Tutorial
100% (1)
Es6 Tutorial
435 pages
JavaScript for Impatient Programmers
100% (3)
JavaScript for Impatient Programmers
872 pages
Algorithms and Data Structures Guide
No ratings yet
Algorithms and Data Structures Guide
51 pages
Speedtronic Mark Vie Training Course Section 8
100% (3)
Speedtronic Mark Vie Training Course Section 8
31 pages
Introduction to Python Programming
No ratings yet
Introduction to Python Programming
41 pages
Install WAMP Server and PHP Basics
No ratings yet
Install WAMP Server and PHP Basics
69 pages
Flutter Dart Programming Basics Guide
No ratings yet
Flutter Dart Programming Basics Guide
37 pages
PL/SQL Exception Handling Exam Review
No ratings yet
PL/SQL Exception Handling Exam Review
327 pages
Django Template Tags and Filters Guide
No ratings yet
Django Template Tags and Filters Guide
15 pages
3 Pattern DSA Tcs NQT
No ratings yet
3 Pattern DSA Tcs NQT
35 pages
Python Programming Basics and Data Types
No ratings yet
Python Programming Basics and Data Types
20 pages
Handling Non-Null Variables in WordPress
No ratings yet
Handling Non-Null Variables in WordPress
85 pages
25-Java String Pool Equals Types
No ratings yet
25-Java String Pool Equals Types
21 pages
Intelligent Time Table Generator Report
No ratings yet
Intelligent Time Table Generator Report
114 pages
Python Basics Worksheet Quiz
No ratings yet
Python Basics Worksheet Quiz
3 pages
Arduino Control Structures Overview
No ratings yet
Arduino Control Structures Overview
28 pages
Roblox API Proxy Documentation
No ratings yet
Roblox API Proxy Documentation
17 pages
Cambridge IGCSE™: Computer Science 0478/23
No ratings yet
Cambridge IGCSE™: Computer Science 0478/23
19 pages
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis To Program Design 8th Edition Edition D.S. Malik Newest Edition 2025
100% (16)
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis To Program Design 8th Edition Edition D.S. Malik Newest Edition 2025
156 pages
Java Programs for Number Checks
No ratings yet
Java Programs for Number Checks
12 pages
Linux Backdoor Incident of 2003
No ratings yet
Linux Backdoor Incident of 2003
17 pages
Boolean Operations in Python 3
0% (1)
Boolean Operations in Python 3
3 pages
Essential Python Cheat Sheets Guide
No ratings yet
Essential Python Cheat Sheets Guide
19 pages
XRIO User Manual
No ratings yet
XRIO User Manual
38 pages
Synchronous Design in VLSI Systems
No ratings yet
Synchronous Design in VLSI Systems
6 pages
Programming Language Fundamentals
No ratings yet
Programming Language Fundamentals
81 pages
JavaScript Basics for C# Developers
100% (1)
JavaScript Basics for C# Developers
31 pages
DevTest 8.0 Custom Extensions Guide
No ratings yet
DevTest 8.0 Custom Extensions Guide
57 pages
Introduction to Python Programming
No ratings yet
Introduction to Python Programming
178 pages
VCL Image Utilities and Color Constants
No ratings yet
VCL Image Utilities and Color Constants
104 pages
GXC Library Documentation
No ratings yet
GXC Library Documentation
30 pages
MCQs Chapter - Python Revision Tour PDF
No ratings yet
MCQs Chapter - Python Revision Tour PDF
19 pages

Java Script

Uploaded by

Java Script

Uploaded by

1/8/25, 0:21 ECMAScript® 2026 Language Specification

About this Specification

This document is available as a single page and as multiple pages.

Contributing to this Specification

GitHub Repository: [Link]

© Ecma International 2025

© Ecma International 2025

© Ecma International 2025

2.1 Example Normative Optional Clause Heading

Example clause contents.

2.2 Example Legacy Clause Heading

Example clause contents.

© Ecma International 2025

NORMATIVE OPTIONAL, LEGACY

2.3 Example Legacy Normative Optional Clause Heading

Example clause contents.

IEEE 754-2019, IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic.

The Unicode Standard.

ECMA-404, The JSON Data Interchange Format.

© Ecma International 2025

4.1 Web Scripting

4.2 Hosts and Implementations

It must return either a normal completion or a throw completion.

© Ecma International 2025

4.3 ECMAScript Overview

© Ecma International 2025

Figure 1: Object/Prototype Relationships

CF implicit prototype link

4.3.2 The Strict Variant of ECMAScript

© Ecma International 2025

4.4 Terms and Definitions

an implementation-defined facility is defined in whole or in part by an external source to this specification

NOTE Editorially, see clause 4.2.

set of data values as defined in clause 6

4.4.5 primitive value

member of the type Object

© Ecma International 2025

function object that creates and initializes objects

object that provides shared properties for other objects

4.4.9 ordinary object

4.4.10 exotic object

NOTE Any object that is not an ordinary object is an exotic object.

4.4.11 standard object

object whose semantics are defined by this specification

4.4.12 built-in object

object specified and supplied by an ECMAScript implementation

4.4.13 undefined value

4.4.14 Undefined type

type whose sole value is the undefined value

4.4.15 null value

© Ecma International 2025

4.4.16 Null type

type whose sole value is the null value

4.4.17 Boolean value

member of the Boolean type

4.4.18 Boolean type

type consisting of the primitive values true and false

4.4.19 Boolean object

4.4.20 String value

4.4.21 String type

set of all possible String values

4.4.22 String object

4.4.23 Number value

4.4.24 Number type

© Ecma International 2025

4.4.25 Number object

Number value that is the positive infinite Number value

Number value that is an IEEE 754-2019 NaN (“not a number”) value

4.4.28 BigInt value

primitive value corresponding to an arbitrary-precision integer value

4.4.29 BigInt type

set of all possible BigInt values

4.4.30 BigInt object

4.4.31 Symbol value

primitive value that represents a unique, non-String Object property key

4.4.32 Symbol type