1

Fundamental Concepts

Electrons: -ve
Protons : +ve
Neutrons: neutral

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
 Fundamental Concepts continue..
Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons in nucleus or
number of electrons for electrically neutral or complete
atom

Atomic Mass (A): Sum of the masses of protons and

neutrons within nucleus

Number of neutrons (N) may vary for different atoms

of an element. So, some elements may have two or
more atomic masses. “Isotopes”.

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
 Fundamental Concepts continue..
Atomic weight: Weighted average of the atomic masses
of the atom’s naturally occurring isotopes.

Atomic mass unit (amu): 1⁄12 of the atomic mass of the

carbon i.e., A=12.000

A≈ Z + N

One mole: 6.023 x 1023 Atoms or Molecules

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
 Electrons in Atoms
Bohr’s Model
Quantum Mechanics: Set of principles and laws
governing system of atomic and subatomic entities
Bohr’s Atom And Orbitals
Nucleus surrounded by electrons in discrete orbitals
Orbital

Source: William D. Callister 7th edition,

chapter 2 page 18, figure2.1

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
 Electrons in Atoms continue..

Energy Levels/States
•Quantization of energies of electrons. i.e, each
electron has only specific level of energy.

•If energy of an electron changes, it jumps to a lower

or higher level of energy

•Ground state: Lowest possible level of energy.

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
 Electrons in Atoms continue..
Wave Mechanical Model

To overcome deficiencies in Bohr’s Model.

•Electron is both wave-like and particle-like

•Electron is no longer a particle in a discrete orbital

•Electron can be at various locations in a discrete

orbital (uncertainty of location)

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
 Quantum Numbers
•To describe size, shape and distribution of electron-
density

•Four Quantum numbers

•Bohr’s energy levels separate into electron subshells

•Quantum numbers dictate the number of states

within each subshell

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
First or Principal Quantum Number (n)
•Specifies shells Table 2.1
K L M N O P .......
•Integral numbers n 1 2 3 4 5 6 ……
Second Quantum number (l)
•Specific subshells Table 2.2
Subshell s p d f
l s p d f…… Energy state 1 3 5 7

Third Quantum number (ml)

•Number of energy states for each subshell
Fourth (Spin) Quantum number (ms)
Up +1/2
Down -1/2
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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
Quantum numbers continue..

Table 2.3
#1 Principal Shell #2 #3 Number of Electrons
Quantum No. n Subshell l No. of States Per Subshell Per Shell
1 K s 1 2 2
S 1 2
2 L 8
P 3 6
s 1 2
3 M P 3 6 18
d 5 10
4 N s 1 2 32

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
 Quantum numbers continue…
•Smaller n, means smaller energy level

•Within each shell, energy of a subshell level increases

with the value of l

•Overlap in energy of a state in one shell with states in

adjacent shell e.g. 3d>3s

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
 Electron configurations
Pauli exclusion principle:

No two electrons can have all the four Quantum

numbers identical, i.e., at least the spins have to be
opposite (+1/2, -1/2)

s p f d

2 6 10 14 electrons ie, they have pairing

with +1/2 and -1/2

Ground state: All electrons in an atom are at the lowest

energy level.
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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
Electron configurations continue …
Examples of notations:
Hydrogen, H

Table 2.4
He Na
1s2 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
2 (Z*) 11 (Z*)
* Atomic number

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
Electron configurations continue….
Stable electronic configuration: Outermost shell is
completely filled with electrons
Table 2.5: Inert gases
Ne Ar Kr
1s2 2s2 2p6 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6
10 (Z*) 18 (Z*) 36(Z*)

Reason for inertness: No incompletely filled outermost

shell

* Atomic number
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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
The periodic table of elements
•Arranged in order of increasing atomic number
•Seven horizontal rows: periods
•Column(s) or group(s): similar valence electron structure.
Similar chemical and physical properties.
•Across each period
(e.g., left to right) the properties changes gradually and
systematically
•Group 0 (zero): Right-most group
Inert gases: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
 The periodic table of elements continue….
Groups VII A and VI A: Electrons have one and two
electrons deficient from having a stable structure.
Oxygen (O) : 8 1s2 2s2 2p4 : 2 deficient
Fluorine (F) : 9 1s2 2s2 2p5 : 1 deficient
Group VII A: Halogens
Group I A: Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr Alkali
Group II A: Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra Alkaline earth
Group III B and II B: Transition metals
•Partially filled d electron states
•In some cases two electrons in the next higher energy
shell
Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
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The periodic table of elements continue….
For example, Group III B

Sc: 21 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2

Group III A, IV A, V A: Intermediate between metals and

non-metals

Left : Electropositive Right: Electronegative

e.g, Alkalis e.g, Halogens

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
 Atomic bonding in solids
•Net force between two atoms: FN = FA + FR
where: FA: attractive force
FR: repulsive force

•No net force if FA + FR = 0 (state of equilibrium)

•At a state of equilibrium (r0: equilibrium spacing),

the two atoms will counteract any attempt to separate
them by a repulsive force, or to push them together
by an attractive force (E0: equilibrium net potential
energy) 18
Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
Atomic Bounding in solids continue…
Energy, E = ∫ Fdr Where, F= force
r
Net energy, EN = ∫ FN dr
∞
r r
= ∫ FA dr + ∫ FR dr
∞ ∞

= EA + ER
Net energy= Attractive energy + Repulsive energy

Then, Eo=Bonding energy (Energy at minimum point)

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
 Primary Interatomic Bonds
Ionic (Electrovalent Bonds)
•In compounds which have metallic and non-metallic
elements
•Due to transfer of electrons
Na Cl Periodic
IA VII A table
Left extreme Right extreme
Na: 2, 8, 1: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 -1 electron
11 1s2 2s2 2p6 Neon, Ne
Cl: 2, 8, 7: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 +1 electron
17 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 Argon, Ar
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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
 Primary Interatomic Bonds continue…
Attractive Bonding Forces: Coulombic forces
+ve and –ve ions attract each other
Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl-

•Ionic bonding is non-directional (magnitude of the

bond is equal in all directions around the ion)
e.g, Ceramic materials exhibit ionic bonding

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
Primary Interatomic Bonds continue…
Covalent Bonding
•Sharing of electrons between adjacent atoms. e.g, CH4
H
··
H: C : H
··
H

Source: William D. Callister 7th

edition , chapter 2 page 28,figure2.10

C: 4 valence electrons
H: 1 valence electron

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
Primary Interatomic Bonds continue…
Directional: between special atoms; only in the direction
of participation. e.g, H2O, HNO3, HF

N: no. of valence electrons

•An atom can bond with (8-N) other atoms

Cl N=7 8-N=1 Cl + Cl = Cl2

C N=4 8-N=4 carbon can bond with four

hydrogen atoms

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
Primary Interatomic Bonds continue…
Attractive Bonding Forces
•Covalent bonds are strong
e.g, Diamond melting point>3550°C (6400°F)
or, covalent bonds can be weak
e.g, Bismuth melting point: 270°C (518°F)
•Polymers: Covalent bonds
•Partially ionic + partially covalent: possible
•Wider separation in the periodic table: Ionic
•Closer together in the periodic table: Covalent
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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
Metallic Bonds
•Metals have 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons
•Valence electrons are not bound to an atom, but are free
to drift through the entire metal. i.e, forming an “electron
cloud” (-ve)
•Remaining non-valence electrons and the atomic nuclei
form the ionic core (+ve)
•Free valence electrons shield the +ve ion core
•Non-directional
•Free valence electrons hold the ion core together
•Good conductors
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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
Metallic Bonds continue….
•Bonding may be weak.
•e.g, Hg: 6.8 KJ/mole (0.7 ev/atom)
•Bonding may be strong
•e.g, W: 850 KJ/mole (8.8 ev/atom)

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
Secondary or Vander Waal’s bonding
e.g, Hydrogen bond

Fluctuating induced dipole bonds

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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding
Summary
Atomic Structure
•Bohr and wave mechanical models
•Electron energy states
−Quantum number
•Periodic table
Primary Bonds
•Ionic
•Covalent
•Metallic
Secondary Bonds
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Chapter 2: Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding