Unit Two: Physical Quantities and Measurement

2.1 Physical Quantities and Units of Measurement

Physics is a measurement science.
• Physical quantities are a characteristic or property of an
object/phenomena that can be measured/sensed or calculated from
other measurements.
• The measurement of a physical quantity is the comparison of the
quantity to be measured with a reference standard of the same kind.
This reference standard is called the unit of the physical quantity.
• The standard unit of measurement is has a fixed value that does not
change from person to person or place to place.

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• For example, ‘second’ is a standard unit of measuring time. Whether a second
is used by one person or another person, whether the second is used in one
country or another country, it always represents exactly the ‘same time
duration’. So, second is a standard unit of measuring time.
• Standard units of measurements is necessary for the sake of uniformity in
measurements.
Fundamental and derived physical Quantities
• Physical quantities that cannot be explained in terms of other physical
quantities are called fundamental quantities. They are the length, mass, time,
electric current, temperature, luminous intensity and the amount of substance.

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• The units used to measure the fundamental quantities are called fundamental
units or basic units;
• The fundamental units are the units of length, mass, time, electric current,
temperature, luminous intensity and amount of substance.
• The quantities which are derived from fundamental quantities are called
derived quantities. e.g. volume, speed etc.
• The units of derived quantities are called derived units and are derived from
fundamental units. e.g. units of density, velocity, force, work etc.
• Example: the physical quantity velocity is derived from the fundamental
quantities length and time, it is a derived quantity and its unit meter/second is
a derived unit.

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Different system of units
• The C.G.S. system of units (Centimetre, Gram, Second system) is a
French system.
• The F.P.S. system of units (Foot, Pound, Second system) is a British
system.
• The M.K.S. system of units (Metre, Kilogram, Second system) was set
up by France.
• The internationally accepted system of unit is known as International
System of Units abbreviated as SI units.

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• According to SI system, there are seven basic or fundamental units and three
supplementary units.
The basic units are:
• the meter (m) for length, The supplementary units are
• the kilogram (kg) for mass, • the radian (rad) for angle,
• the second (s) for time, • the steradian (sr) for solid angle,
• the Kelvin (K) for temperature, • the becquerel (Bq) for radioactivity.
• the ampere (A) for electric current,
• the candela (cd) for luminous
intensity and
• the mole (mol) for the amount of
substance.
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 Fundamental/Basic quantities and their SI units
Sl. No Physical Quantity Unit Symbol for the unit
1Length Metre m
2Mass Kilogram kg
3Time Second s
4Temperature Kelvin K
5Electric Current Ampere A
6Luminous Intensity Candela cd
7Amount of substance Mole mol
Supplementary quantities and their SI units
Sl. No Physical Quantity Unit Symbol for the unit
1Angle Radian rad
2Solid Angle Steradian sr
3Radioactivity Becquerel Bq 6
 Some derived units in SI System
Symbol for the unit and
Sl. No Physical Quantity Unit equivalent Unit in SI system
1Area Square meter 𝑚2
2Volume Cubic meter 𝑚3
3Density kilogram per cubic metre 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
4Velocity metre per second 𝑚/𝑠
5Acceleration metre per second squared 𝑚/𝑠 2
6Force Newton 𝑁 = kg𝑚/𝑠 2
7Work, Energy Joule 𝐽 = kg𝑚2 /𝑠 2
8Power Watt 𝑊 = kg𝑚2 /𝑠 3
9Pressure Newton per square metre 𝑁/𝑚2 = kg/(𝑠 2 𝑚)
10Surface tension Newton per metre 𝑁/𝑚 = kg/𝑠 2
11Torque Newton metre 𝑁𝑚 = kg𝑚2 /𝑠 2
12Electric Charge Coulomb 𝐶 = 𝐴𝑠
13Electric potential Volt 𝑉 = 𝑊/𝐴 = kg𝑚2 /(𝑠 3 𝐴)
14Electric resistance Ohm Ω = 𝑉/𝐴 = kg𝑚2 /(𝑠 3 𝐴2 )
15Magnetic induction Tesla 𝑇 = 𝑘𝑔/(𝑠 −2 𝐴−1 )
16Luminous flux Lumen 𝑙𝑚 = 𝑊 = kg𝑚2 /𝑠 3 7
Dimensions of physical quantities
• Dimensions of physical quantities are the powers (exponents) to which
fundamental units (mass [M], length [L], time [T], etc.) are raised to represent a
quantity.
• They characterize the nature of a quantity regardless of its magnitude, usually
expressed as MaLbTcAdKeJfNh, where symbols represent basic physical units.
• All the derived physical quantities and their units can be expressed in terms of
some combination of seven fundamental or base quantities.
• These base quantities are called the seven dimensions of the physical world,
which are denoted with square brackets [ ]. Thus, length has the dimension [L],
mass [M], time [T], electric current [A], thermodynamic temperature [K],
luminous intensity [J], and amount of substance [N].

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• The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers (or exponents) to
which the base quantities are raised to represent that quantity.
• In mechanics, all the physical quantities can be written in terms of the
dimensions [L], [M] and [T]. A dimension of quantity Q can be written
as:
• 𝑄 = 𝐿𝑎 𝑀𝑏 𝑇 𝑐 , 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐿, 𝑀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇.
• For example, the volume is the product of length, breadth and height,
or three lengths. Hence the dimensions of volume are [L] × [L] × [L]
=[𝐿]3 = [𝐿3 ].
• As the volume is independent of mass and time, it is said to possess
zero dimension in mass [M°], zero dimension in time [T°] and three
dimensions in length.

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• Similarly, force, as the product of mass and acceleration, can be
expressed as Force = mass × acceleration = mass ×
2
(length)/(𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)
• The dimensions of force are 𝑀 𝐿 /[𝑇]2 = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 . Thus, the
force has one dimension in mass, one dimension in length, and –
2 dimensions in time. The dimensions in all other base quantities
are zero.
• Notice that a change in velocity, initial velocity, average velocity,
final velocity, and speed are all equivalent in this context. Since
all these quantities can be expressed as length/time, their
dimensions are [𝐿]/[𝑇] or [𝐿𝑇 −1 ] .
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Derived quantity Symbol SI derived unit Dimension Comments
Acceleration 𝑎Ԧ 𝑚/𝑠 2 L 𝑇 −2 vector
Angular acceleration 𝜔𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2 𝑇 −2
Angular momentum 𝐿 𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 𝑚2 /𝑠 M 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 conserved, bivector
Angular velocity 𝜔 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 𝑇 −1 bivector

Area 𝐴 𝑚2 𝐿2 extensive, bivector or scalar

Area density 𝜌𝐴 𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 𝑚−2 𝑀𝐿−2 intensive

Current density 𝐽Ԧ 𝐴/𝑚2 𝐿−2 I conserved, intensive, vector

Electric charge 𝑄 coulomb (𝐶 = 𝐴 ⋅ 𝑠) 𝑇𝐼 extensive, conserved
Electric charge density ρQ 𝐶/𝑚2 𝐿−3 𝑇 𝐼 intensive
extensive, scalar, assumes
Electrical resistance 𝑅 ohm (Ω = 𝑉/𝐴) 𝑀 𝐿2 𝑇 −3 𝐼−2 linearity
𝑀 𝐿2 𝑇 −3 𝐼−2
Electrical resistivity 𝜌𝑒 ohm-metre (Ω ⋅ 𝑚) extensive, scalar, conserved
𝑀 𝐿2 𝑇 −2
Energy 𝐸 𝐽
Energy density 𝜌𝐸 J⋅𝑚−3 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 intensive
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Force 𝐹Ԧ newton (N = kg⋅m⋅𝑠 2 ) 𝑀 𝐿𝑇 −2 extensive, vector
Unit conversions for some basic Quantities
Quantity From To operation
inch (in) m (inch)x0.0254
Length foot (ft) m (foot)x0.3048
mile(mi) m (mile)x1609.34
pound (lb) kg (pound)x0.4538
mass metric ton (t) kg (tone)x1000
ounce kg (ounce)x0.02835
liter (l) 𝑚3 (liter)x0.001
volume
gallon (ga) 𝑚3 (gallon)x0.00369
Fahrenheit (F) K ((Fahrenheit)-32)x5/9-273.15
Temperature
Celius (C) K (Celsius)x273.15
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2.2. Uncertainty in Measurement and Significant Digits
• Measurement is the foundation of all experimental science and technology.
• The accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how close the measured value
is to the true /accepted value of the quantity.
• Precision is the degree to which repeated measurements under the same
conditions show the same results. Precision is influenced by resolution of the
measuring instrument. The instrument with resolution 0.01 cm is more precise
than the instrument with 0.1 cm.
• The result of every measurement by any measuring instrument contains some
uncertainty. This uncertainty is called error.
• Every calculated quantity which is based on measured values, also has an error.
• Every measurement is approximate due to errors in measurement. In general,
the errors in measurement can be broadly classified as (a) systematic errors
and (b) random errors.

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 Systematic errors
The systematic errors are one directional, either positive or negative.
Some of the sources of systematic errors are :
(a) Instrumental errors
• It arise from the errors due to imperfect design or calibration of the
measuring instrument, zero error in the instrument, etc.
For example,
• the temperature graduations of a thermometer may be inadequately
calibrated (it may read 104 °C at the boiling point of water at STP
whereas it should read 100 °C);
• in a vernier calipers the zero mark of vernier scale may not coincide
with the zero mark of the main scale, or simply an ordinary meter scale
may be worn off. 14
(b) Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure
• To determine the temperature of a human body, a thermometer
placed under the armpit will always give a temperature lower than
the actual value of the body temperature.
• Other external conditions (such as changes in temperature, humidity,
wind velocity, etc.) during the experiment may systematically affect
the measurement.

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(c) Personal errors
• Personal errors arise due to an individual’s bias, lack of proper setting
of the apparatus or individual’s carelessness in taking observations
without observing proper precautions, etc.
• For example, if you, by habit, always hold your head a bit too far to
the right while reading the position of a needle on the scale, you will
introduce an error.
• Systematic errors can be minimized by improving experimental
techniques, selecting better instruments and removing personal bias
as far as possible.
• For a given set-up, systematic errors may be estimated to a certain
extent and the necessary corrections may be applied to the readings.
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 Random errors
• The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are
random with respect to sign and size.
• These can arise due to random and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental
conditions (e.g. unpredictable fluctuations in temperature, voltage supply,
mechanical vibrations of experimental set-ups, etc), personal errors by the
observer taking readings, etc.
• For example, when the same person repeats the same observation, it is very
likely that he may get different readings every time.

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Least count error (LCE)
• The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument
is called its least count.
• All the readings or measured values are good only up to this value.
• The LCE is associated with the resolution of the instrument.
• For example, a vernier callipers has the least count as 0.01cm; a meter
scale may have a least count of 0.1 cm.
• Least count error belongs to the category of random errors but within
a limited size; it occurs with both systematic and random errors. If we
use a meter scale for measurement of length, it may have graduations
at 1 mm division scale spacing or interval. 1mm is the limiting size of
the error.
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• Using instruments of higher precision, improving experimental
techniques, etc., we can reduce the least count error.
• Repeating the observations several times and taking the arithmetic
mean of all the observations, the mean value would be very close to
the true value of the measured quantity.

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Absolute Error, Relative Error and Percentage Error
(a) Suppose the values obtained in several measurements are 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ...., 𝑎𝑛 .
The arithmetic mean of these values is taken as the best possible value of the
quantity under the given conditions of measurement as :
𝑗=𝑛
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3+ ....+ 𝑎𝑛 σ𝑗=1 𝑎𝑗
𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = OR 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
𝑛 𝑛
Individual measurements either overestimate or underestimate the true value of
the quantity.
• The magnitude of the difference between the individual measurement and the
true value of the quantity is called the absolute error of the measurement.
• This is denoted by |∆𝑎 |. In absence of any other method of knowing true
value, we considered arithmetic mean as the true value.

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• The errors in the individual measurement values, ∆a, from the true value are
The ∆ a calculated may be positive in
certain cases and negative in some other
cases. But absolute error |∆a| will always
be positive.

(b) The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is taken as the final
or mean absolute error of the value of the physical quantity a. It is
represented by ∆𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 .
𝑗=𝑛
∆𝑎1 + ∆𝑎2 + ∆𝑎3 + ....+ ∆𝑎𝑛 σ𝑗=1 ∆𝑎𝑗
∆𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = =
𝑛 𝑛
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• If we do a single measurement, the value we get may be in the range:
𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 ± ∆𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 i.e., a = 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 ± ∆𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 OR

(c) Instead of the absolute error, we often use the relative error or the
percentage error (𝛿𝑎). The relative error is the ratio of the mean
absolute error ∆𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 to the mean value 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 of the quantity
measured.
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ∆𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 /𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
When the relative error is expressed in percent, it is called the
percentage error (𝛿𝑎). The percent error is:
∆𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝛿𝑎 = 𝑥100% 22
𝑎
Example
• We measure the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum. In successive
measurements, the readings turn out to be 2.63 s, 2.56 s, 2.42 s, 2.71s and
2.80 s. Calculate the absolute errors, relative error or percentage error.
Answer The mean period of
oscillation of the pendulum: • As the periods are
(2.63 +2.56 + 2.42 + 2.71 + 2.80) s. measured to a resolution
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
5 of 0.01 s, all times are to
13.12 the second decimal; it is
= 𝑠
5 proper to put this mean
= 2.624 𝑠
period also to the second
= 2.62 𝑠
decimal.
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 • The errors in the measurements are:
2.63 𝑠 – 2.62 𝑠 = 0.01 𝑠
2.56 𝑠 – 2.62 𝑠 = – 0.06 𝑠
2.42 𝑠 – 2.62 𝑠 = – 0.20 𝑠
2.71 𝑠 – 2.62 𝑠 = 0.09 𝑠
2.80 𝑠 – 2.62 𝑠 = 0.18 𝑠
The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors (for arithmetic mean, we
take only the magnitudes) is:
[ 0.01 + 0.06 + 0.20 + 0.09 + 0.18 𝑠] 0.54 𝑠
∆𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = = 0.11𝑠
5 5
That means, the period of oscillation of the simple pendulum is (2.62 ±
0.11) 𝑠 i.e. it lies between (2.62 + 0.11) s and (2.62 – 0.11) s or
between 2.73 𝑠 and 2.51 𝑠.
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• As the arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is 0.11 s, there is
already an error in the tenth of a second. Hence there is no point in
giving the period to a hundredth. A more correct way will be to
write:
𝑇 = 2.6 ± 0.1 𝑠
• Note that the last numeral 6 is unreliable, since it may be anything
between 5 and 7. We indicate this by saying that the measurement
has two significant figures. In this case, the two significant figures are
2, which is reliable and 6, which has an error associated with it.
• For this example, the relative error or the percentage error is
0.1
• 𝛿𝑎 = × 100 = 4%
2.6
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Combination of Errors
• If we do an experiment involving several measurements, we must know how
the errors in all the measurements combine.
• For example, mass density is obtained by dividing mass by the volume of the
substance. If we have errors in the measurement of mass and of the sizes or
dimensions, we must know what the error will be in the density of the
substance.
• To make such estimates, we should learn how errors combine in various
mathematical operations.

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(𝑎)Error of a sum or a difference
• Suppose two physical quantities A and B have measured values 𝐴 ± ∆𝐴 , 𝐵 ± ∆𝐵
respectively where ∆𝐴 and ∆𝐵 are their absolute errors. We wish to find the error ∆𝑍 in the
sum
• 𝑍 = 𝐴 + 𝐵.
• We have by addition,
• 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 ± ∆𝐴) + (𝐵 ± ∆𝐵)
• The maximum possible error in Z
• ∆𝑍 = ∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵
• For the difference Z = A – B, we have
• 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 𝐴 ± ∆𝐴 − (𝐵 ± ∆𝐵)
= (A – B) ± ∆𝐴 ± ∆𝐵
or, ±∆𝑍 = ± ∆𝐴 ± ∆𝐵
• The maximum value of the error ∆𝑍 is again ∆𝐴+∆𝐵

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 Hence the rule : When two quantities are added or subtracted, the
absolute error in the final result is the sum of the absolute errors
in the individual quantities.

• Example
• The temperatures of two bodies measured by a thermometer are 𝑡1 =
20 ℃ ± 0.5 ℃and 𝑡2 = 50 ℃ ± 0.5 ℃. Calculate the temperature difference
and the error therein.
• Answer 𝑡 ′ = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 50 ℃ ± 0.5 ℃ − 20 ℃ ± 0.5 ℃
• 𝑡 ′ = 30℃ ± 1℃

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 Examples
The resistance R = V/I
where V = (100 ± 5)V
and I = (10 ± 0.2)A.
Find the percentage
error in R.
Answer
The percentage error in
V is 5% and in I it is
2%. The total error in R
would therefore be 5%
+ 2% = 7%.
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• (c) Error in case of a measured quantity raised to a power
• Suppose 𝑍 = 𝐴2
Example
Find the relative error in
1 3
Z, if 𝑍 = 𝐴4 𝐵 𝐶𝐷 .
3 2

Answer:
∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 1 ∆𝐵 ∆𝐶 3 ∆𝐷
=4 + + + ( )
𝑍 𝐴 3 𝐵 𝐶 2 𝐷

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 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
• Every measurement involves errors.
• The reported result of measurement is a number that includes all digits in the
number that are known reliably plus the first digit that is uncertain.
• The reliable digits plus the first uncertain digit are known as significant digits or
significant figures.
• If we say the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is 1.62 s, the digits 1
and 6 are reliable and certain, while the digit 2 is uncertain. Thus, the measured
value has three significant figures.
• The length of an object reported after measurement to be 287.5 cm has four
significant figures, the digits 2, 8, 7 are certain while the digit 5 is uncertain.
• Clearly, reporting the result of measurement that includes more digits than the
significant digits is misleading since it would give a wrong idea about the
precision of measurement.

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• Significant figures indicate the precision of measurement which
depends on the least count of the measuring instrument.
• A choice of change of different units does not change the number of
significant digits or figures in a measurement.
(1) For example
• The length 2.308 cm has four significant figures. But in different
units, the same value can be written as 0.02308 m or 23.08 mm or
23080 μm.
• All these numbers have the same number of significant figures (digits
2, 3, 0, 8), namely four. This shows that the location of decimal point
is of no consequence in determining the number of significant figures.
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• The example gives the following rules :
• All the non-zero digits are significant.
• All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter where the
decimal point is, if at all.
• If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) on the right of decimal point but to the
left of the first non-zero digit are not significant. [In 0.00 2308, the underlined
zeroes are not significant].
• The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a number without a decimal point are not
significant. [Thus 123 m = 12300 cm = 123000 mm has three significant figures,
the trailing zero(s) being not significant.]
• The trailing zero(s) in a number with a decimal point are significant. [The
numbers 3.500 or 0.06900 have four significant figures each.]
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2) There can be some confusion regarding the trailing zero(s).
(

• Suppose a length is reported to be 4.700 m. It is evident that the

zeroes here are meant to convey the precision of measurement and
are, therefore, significant.
• Now suppose we change units, then 4.700 m = 470.0 cm = 4700 mm
= 0.004700 km
• According to trailing zero(s) rule we have seen the number 4700 mm
has two significant figures, however, it has four significant figures
because change of units cannot change the number of significant
figures.

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• (3) To remove such ambiguities in determining the number of
significant figures, the best way is to report every measurement in
scientific notation (in the power of 10).
• In this notation, every number is expressed as 𝑎 × 10𝑏 , where 𝑎 is a
number between 1 and 10, and 𝑏 is any positive or negative exponent
(or power) of 10.
• Now the confusion mentioned in (a) above disappears :
• 4.700 𝑚 = 4.700 × 102 𝑐𝑚 = 4.700 × 103 𝑚𝑚 = 4.700 × 10−3 𝑘𝑚
• The power of 10 is irrelevant to the determination of
significant figures. However, all zeroes appearing in the
base number in the scientific notation are significant. Each
number in this case has four significant figures.
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(4) The digit 0 conventionally put on the left of a decimal for a
number less than 1 (like 0.1250) is never significant. However,
the zeroes at the end of such number are significant in a
measurement.
(5) The multiplying or dividing factors which are neither
rounded numbers nor numbers representing measured values
are exact and have infinite number of significant digits.
For example in 𝑟 = 𝑑/2 or 𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟, the factor 2 is an exact
number and it can be written as 2.0, 2.00 or 2.0000 as required.
Similarly, in 𝑇 = 𝑡/𝑛, n is an exact number.

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Rules for Arithmetic Operations with Significant Figures
• The result of a calculation involving approximate measured values of quantities
must reflect the uncertainties in the original measured values.
• It cannot be more accurate than the original measured values.
• In general, the final result should not have more significant figures than the
original data from which it was obtained.
• Rules for arithmetic operations with significant figures:
• (1) In multiplication or division, the final result should retain as many
significant figures as are there in the original number with the least significant
figures.
• If mass of object is 4.237 g and its volume is 2.51𝑐𝑚3 , then density is
4.237 𝑔
•𝜌= = 1.69 𝑔𝑐𝑚−3
2.51𝑐𝑚3

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• (2) In addition or subtraction, the final result should retain as many decimal
places as are there in the number with the least decimal places.
• Example: The sum of the numbers: 436.32 g+ 227.2 g + 0.301 g = 663.8 g
because the least precise measurement (227.2 g) has only one decimal place.
• Similarly, the difference in length can be expressed as:
• 0.307 m – 0.304 m = 0.003 m

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 Rounding off the Uncertain Digits
• The result of computation with approximate numbers, which contain more
than one uncertain digit, should be rounded off.
Example: The mean period of oscillation of the pendulum:
(2.63 +2.56 + 2.42 + 2.71 + 2.80) s 13.12
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 𝑠 = 2.624 𝑠
5 5
2.642 s has one more uncertain digit than the original uncertainty. Thus it
should be to be rounded to 2.62 𝑠.
• look only at the number in the place you are rounding to and the number
that follows it.
• If the number to be rounded is followed by 6, 7, 8, or 9, round the
number up. Eg: When 3.267 is rounded to 2 decimal place is 3.27
• If the number to be rounded is followed by 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4, leave as it is.
Eg: When 3.264 is rounded to 2 decimal place is 3.26
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• If the number to be rounded is followed by 5 round the number up if the
number is odd and leave as it is if the number is even.
• Eg. The number 2.745 rounded off to three significant figures becomes 2.74.
and the number 2.735 rounded off to three significant figures becomes 2.74.
• In multi-step calculation, you should retain, in intermediate steps, one digit
more than the significant digits and round off to proper significant figures at
the end of the calculation.
• Exact numbers like 𝜋 have a large (infinite) number of significant figures. The
value of 𝜋 =3.1415926..... You may take the value as 3.142 or 3.14, as required
in specific cases.

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• Example : Each side of a cube is measured to be 7.203 m. What are the total
surface area and the volume of the cube to appropriate significant figures?
• Surface area of the cube = 6(7.203)2 𝑚2 = 311.299254 𝑚2 = 311.3 𝑚2
• Volume of the cube = (7.203)3 𝑚3 = 373.714754 𝑚3 = 373.7 𝑚3
• Example : 5.74 g of a substance occupies 1.2 𝑐𝑚3 . Express its density by
keeping the significant figures in view.
5.74 𝑔 −3 .
• Density = = 4.78333 … . . = 4.8 g𝑐𝑚
1.2𝑐𝑚3

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Rules for Determining the Uncertainty in the Results of Arithmetic Calculations
(1) If a set of experimental data is specified to n significant figures, a result
obtained by combining the data will also be valid to n significant figures.

l = 16.2 ± 0.1 cm The error of the product of two (or more)

= 16.2 cm ± 0.6 %. experimental values, by the combination of
Similarly, the breadth b may errors rule, will be
be written as l b = 163.62 𝑐𝑚2 ± 1.6%
b = 10.1 ± 0.1 cm = 163.62 ±2.6 𝑐𝑚2
= 10.1 cm ± 1 % This leads us to
The measured values and l b = 164 ± 3 𝑐𝑚2
errors have 3 and 1 Here 3 𝑐𝑚2 is the uncertainty or error in
significant digit. It has to be the estimation of area.
maintained in the product.
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• (2) uncertainties in subtraction or addition combine in a different fashion
(smallest number of decimal places rather than the number of significant
figures in any of the number added or subtracted).
• Example: 12.9 g – 7.06 g= 5.8g, not 5.84 g as the least decimal has one decimal
place
• (3) The relative error of a value of number specified to significant figures
depends not only on n but also on the number itself.
• For example, the accuracy in measurement of mass 1.02 g is ± 0.01 g whereas
another measurement 9.89 g is also accurate to ± 0.01 g.
The relative error in 1.02 g is Similarly, the relative error in 9.89 g is
= (± 0.01/1.02) × 100 % = (± 0.01/9.89) × 100 %
= ± 1% = ± 0.1 %
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