Stream: Computer Science & Engineering

Subject Name: Circuit Theory & Networks

Subject Code: EE (CSE) 301
Contacts Hour/Week: (3L+0T)
Credit: 3
Total Contact Hours: 34

Course Outline

Subject Name: Circuit Theory & Networks

Subject Code: EE (CSE) 301
Credit Value: 3.0
Length: 34.0 classes
Co requisite: Basic Electrical Engineering, Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics
Contact Hours: (3L + 0T)

Course Objective:

This course is intended for CSE Engineering students to facilitate the student’s development into
computer engineering investigation. The course has been designed to introduce fundamental principles of
electrical circuits as well as the technical skills to analyze such simple circuits. It is a course suitable for
students pursuing computer engineering as well as other related engineering disciplines.

Learning Outcomes:

Upon successful completion of this course, the student will have demonstrated:

1. Define various kinds of sources and their symbols, identify and use Kirchhoff’s Laws and Networks
theorem for simple circuit analyses
2. To introduce the concept of DC & AC transient analysis
3. Deduce expressions and perform calculations relating to the Transient response, Laplace transform,
Two port network and Graph theory
4. The Laplace’s transform students will able to understand initial & final value theorem and its
applications both time & s domain.

1
 5. Ability to solve circuits using node, branch, cutest & tie set and tree
6. Ability to express circuits in terms of Z, Y parameter model solve the circuit

Lecture Schedule:
Module No. Total No. of Topics Applications Book(s) Follow Topics for
No of Lectur Self Study
Lecture e
s
Module-I 3L 1L Continuous & Control, 1. Sudhakar:Circuits Application
Introductio Discrete, Communication & of algorithms
n Fixed & Time s, Signal Networks:Analysis to modify
varying, Processing & Synthesis 2/e signals in a
Linear and TMH New Delhi way to make
Nonlinear, them more
Lumped and 2. Valkenburg M. E. useful.
Distributed Van, “Network
Analysis”, Prentice
Hall

3. Roy Choudhury D.,

“Networks and
Systems”, New Age
1L Passive and International
Active Publishers.
networks and
systems. 4. A. Chakrabarti:
Independent Circuit Theory
& Dependent Analysis &
sources, Step, Synthesis
Ramp,
Impulse
1L Sinusoidal,
Square, Saw
tooth signals

2
Module-II 6L 2L Formulation Analysis of 1. Basic Electrical Network
Network of network various types of Engineering by J.B. theorems
Equations equations, DC voltages Gupta
Source
and circuits
transformatio 2. Principles of
n, Loop forwarded by Electrical
variable resistance Engineering by S.
analysis, elements the Chand and
Node variable voltages across, Company Ltd.
analysis. and the currents
through, every
3. Circuits and
component in Networks Analysis
2L Network
theorem: the network. and Synthesis by
Superposition Sudhakar
, Thevenin’s,
Norton’s & 4. Roy Choudhury D.,
Maximum “Networks and
power Systems”, New Age
transfer International
theorem Publishers.
2L Millman’s
theorem. 5. A. Chakrabarti:
Solution of Circuit Theory
Problems Analysis &
with DC & Synthesis
AC sources.

Module-III 4L 1L Series and Application of 1. Basic Electrical Understandin

Resonance parallel resonance is Engineering by J.B. g series and
circuits resonance- tuning, series Gupta parallel
their resonant is used resonance
frequency as voltage
response, amplifier as 2. Basic Electrical
Impedance well as parallel Engineering by
and resonant is used Edward Hughes
Admittance as current
Characteristic amplifier
s 3. Basic Electrical
2L Quality Engineering by
(Page6 factor, Half T.K. Nagasarkar
0 to Power Points,
Page and 4. Roy Choudhury D.,
61) bandwidth. “Networks and
Phasor Systems”, New Age
diagrams, International
Transform Publishers.
diagrams
1L Practical 5. A. Chakrabarti:

3
 resonant and Circuit Theory
series circuits, Analysis &
Solution of Synthesis
Problems

Module-IV 3L 1L Magnetic Magnetic 1. Basic Electrical Faraday’s

Coupled coupling, circuits Engineering by J.B. laws
circuits polarity of application in Gupta
coils, polarity electrical
of induced equipments
voltage 2. Principles of
1L Concept of Electrical
Self and Engineering by S.
mutual Chand and
inductance, Company Ltd.
Coefficient of
coupling
1L Solution of 3. Basic Electrical
Problems. Engineering by
T.K. Nagasarkar

Module-V 3L 1L Concept of Graph theory is 1. Basic Electrical Graph

Graph of Tree and applied to areas Engineering by J.B. Theory
Network Branch, tree of mathematics, Gupta applications
link, junctions science and in CSE
technology. It is
being actively 2. Basic Electrical
used in field Engineering by
1L Incident communication Oxford
matrix, Tie networks and
set matrix coding theory
1L Determinatio and algorithms 3. Basic Electrical
n of loop Engineering by
current and T.K. Nagasarkar
node voltages

Module-VI 2L 1L DC transients Transient 1. Basic Electrical Ist order and

Circuit in R-L and R- analysis solves Engineering by J.B. 2nd order time
transients C Circuits the complete Gupta and s domain
with and nonlinear
without initial algebraic-
charge, R-L- differential 2. Roy Choudhury D.,
C Circuits equations of a “Networks and
1L AC circuit Systems”, New Age
Transients in International
sinusoidal R- Publishers.
L, R-C and R-
L-C Circuits, 3. A. Chakrabarti:
Solution of Circuit Theory
Problems Analysis &

4
 Synthesis

Module- 8L 2L Concept of Data mining, 1. Basic Electrical Signal

VII Complex machine Engineering by J.B. processing
Laplace frequency , learning. Laplac Gupta
transforms transform of e Transform is
f(t) into F(s) heavily used in
transform of signal 2. Principles of
step, processing Electrical
exponential Engineering by S.
2L Over damped Chand and
surge, Company Ltd.
critically
damped
surge, 3. Basic Electrical
damped and Engineering by
un-damped T.K. Nagasarkar
sine functions
, properties of
Laplace
transform ,
linearity, real
differentiation
, real
integration
2L Initial value
theorem and
final value
theorem ,
inverse
Laplace
transform
2L Application in
circuit
analysis,
Partial
fraction
expansion,
Solution of
problems.

5
Module- 4L 2L Relationship Communication 1. Basic Electrical All
VIII of Two port s, networking Engineering by J.B. Parameters
Two Port network Gupta
Networks variables,
Analysis short circuit
admittance 2. Principles of
parameters, Electrical
open circuit Engineering by S.
impedance Chand and
parameters, Company Ltd.
transmission
parameters 3. Basic Electrical
Engineering by
2L relationship T.K. Nagasarkar
between
parameter
sets, network
functions for
ladder
network and
general
network

6
 MODULE I

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION

LECTURE1

Continuous Signal: A continuous-time signal is a quantity of interest that depends on an independent

variable, where we usually think of the independent variable as time. A continuous-time signal is a
function x( )t of the real variable t defined for −∞ < t < ∞

If the independent variable (t) is continuous, then the corresponding signal is continuous time signal.

Discrete Signal: Discrete signal is well known as Discrete time signal which holds a specific value at a
specific time instant. It can be obtained by sampling a continuous signal.

If the independent variable (t) takes on only discrete values, for example t = ±1, ±2, ±3, ... ,we get a plot
of the dependent signal x(t)

Time Invariant or Fixed Signal: A signal is time-invariant or fixed if the characteristics of the system
do not change with time.

If input f(t) gives output y(t), then after a time delay of t 0 units it is found that the input f(t- t0) provides
the same output y(t-T0) only by a time shift represented in the above figure.

7
Time Varying signals: A signal that changes continuously with time is a time varying [Link]
sinusoidal voltage or current.

Linear System: A system is said to be linear if it follows both the Homogenity and superposition
principles.

Homogenity: If the input is multiplied by a constant, the output shall also be multiplied by the same.

Superposition: If the input is superposed by two signals, the out put shall also be superposition.

The principle of superposition is another name for the additivity property of Linearity:

f(x1+x2)= f(x1)+ f(x2)

[Link] us consider a purely resistive network with a constant DC source. This circuit follows the
principle of homogeneity and additivity. Assuming ideal behaviour of each element in the network, we
say that we will get linear voltage and current characteristic.

Non-linear Systems:

A non linear control system is simply defined as all those system which do not follow the principle of
homogeneity. In practical life all the systems are non-linear system

Eg. A well known example of non-linear system is magnetization curve or no load curve of a DC
machine.

LECTURE2

Lumped Parameter System:

In these types of systems the various parameters (like inductor ,resistor and capacitor) are assumed to be
concentrated at a point. Analysis of such type of system is very easy which includes differential
equations.

8
Distributed Parameter System:
In these systems the various parameters (like resistors inductor and capacitor) are assumed to be
distributed uniformly along the length and that’s why these are called distributed parameter type of
system. Analysis of such type of system is slightly difficult which includes partial differential equations.

Active Network: It is a network which contains one or more than one sources of emf. An active network
consists of an active element like a battery or a transistor.

Passive Network: When the network does not contain any source of emf, it is called passive network. A
passive network consists of resistance, inductance or capacitance as passive elements. A passive network
does not contain any energy source.

LECTURE3

Unit Step Function:

0 t  t0
u (t  to ) 
1 t  t0

Unit Ramp Function:

A unit ramp function is the result of the integration of a unit step function

Unit Impulse Function:

An impulse function is the derivative of a unit step function

0 t  to
 (t  to )   t  to
0 t  to

9
Square Waveform:

3u(t  to )  2u(t  t1 )  u(t  t2 )

Sawtooth Waveform:

Sawtooth Waveform is formed by multiplying the Ramp Function times the Unit Step Function

10
 MODULE II

MODULE II: NETWORK EQUATIONS

LECTURE4

Source transformation is simplifying a circuit solution by transforming a voltage into a current source,
and vice versa.

Conversion of voltage source to current source:

Conversion of current source to voltage source:

Convert the constant current source shown in figure 1.12 to voltage source.

Loop Variable Analysis:

In this method, we set up and solve a system of equations in which the unknowns are loop currents. The
currents in the various branches of the circuit are then easily determined from the loop currents.

Loop analysis is a special application of KVL on a circuit. We use a special kind of loop called a 'mesh'
which is a loop that does not have any other loops inside of it. A mesh starts at a node and traces a path
around a circuit, returning to the original node without encountering any nodes more than once.

Let us consider the following example:

Example 1: Find the current flowing in each branch of this circuit.

11
By observation, we find the number of meshes= 3 .Thus the number of equations will be 3.

Let us assign the direction of the loop currents as shown in figure below.

Applying KVL in each loop we get the following equations:

1I1 + 25(I1- I2) + 50(I1 – I3) = 10 ………………(1)

25(I2-I1) + 30I2 + 1(I2 –I3) = 0 ………………….(2)

50(I3 –I1) +1(I3 –I2) +55I3 = 0 …………………(3)

Rearranging the equations we get:

76I1 – 25I2 – 50 I3 =10………………….(I)

-25I1 +56I2 -I3 = 0 ……………………(II)

-50I1 –I2 +106I3 = 0 ………………….(III)

Solving the equations by elimination process we get :

I1=0.245 Amps , I2=0.111 Amps and I3=0.117 Amps.

LECTURE5

Nodal Analysis:

Nodal Analysis uses the “Nodal” equations of Kirchoff’s first law to find the voltage potentials around
the circuit.

12
A junction point in an electrical circuit is called a node. A potential drop can be measured with respect to
this point and another node acting as reference node. If there are N nodes, then number of independent
KCL equations in nodal analysis is N-1.

At each node point , Kirchoff’s first law equation, is written: “The currents entering a node are exactly
equal in value to the currents leaving the node”

In this method all the branch currents are computed. In writing the current expression the assumption is
made that the node potential is always higher than the other voltages appearing in the equation.

Let us consider a circuit as:

In the above circuit, node D is chosen as the reference node and the other three nodes are assumed to have
voltages, Va, Vb and Vc with respect to node D.

From the circuit we find : VA = 10V, VB =20V

Substituting We in get VB =80/7 [Volts] and I3 =2/7 [ Amps].

Example: Develop the nodal equations for the circuit shown below:

Soultion:

Considering the node voltages as V1,V2,V3,using nodal method we get:

At Node 1 ………..(A)

13
At Node 2,

……………(B)

At Node 3,

………………(C)

Equations (A),(B),(C) give the nodal equations.

LECTURE6

Super Position Theorem:

The superposition theorem states that in any linear bilateral network that consisting of two or more
independent sources, current through (or voltage across) an element is the algebraic sum of the currents
through (voltages across) that element caused by each independent source acting alone with all other
sources is replaced by their internal resistances.

If the circuit consists of N independent sources, it is requires to analyses N circuits, each circuit will
produce a result with respect to each individual source. Finally the individual results are added to get the
whole response of the circuit.

Example:

Using the superposition theorem, determine the voltage drop and current across the resistor 3.3K as
shown in figure below.

Step 1: Replacing the 8V power supply, the circuit is drawn as :

14
Here Resistances 3.3Ω and 2Ω are in parallel, therefore their equivalent resistance will be 3.3Ω II 2Ω
= 1.245 Ω.

Using voltage divider rule voltage across 1.245 Ω will be:

V1= [1.245/(1.245+4.7)]*5 = 1.047 Volts

Step 2: Replacing the 5V power supply is by a short circuit, the circuit is drawn as

It is required to calculate the voltage V2 appearing across 3.3Ω.

It is observed that the resistances 3.3Ω and 4.7Ω are in parallel, therefore equivalent resistance of the
parallel combination will be 3.3 II 4.7 Ω = 1.938Ω

Using voltage divider rule voltage across 1.938Ω will be

V2= [1.938/(1.938+2)]*8 = 3.9377 Volts

Step 3: By the principle of the voltage drop across 3.3K resistor is V1+V2

=1.047+3.9377=4.9847 Volts

Thevenin’s Theorem:

Thevenin’s theorem states that “For Any two terminal bilateral linear circuit consisting of energy sources
and impedances can be replaced with an equivalent circuit consisting of a single Thevenin’s equivalent
voltgage sourceVTH in series with a thevenin’s equivalent resistance R TH in DCcircuits and impedance
ZTH in AC circuits.

Thevenin’s theorem in DC System:

15
Explanation: Let us consider a circuit where It is required to find out the current through load resistance
RL=40Ω

Step 1: To Find the Equivalent Voltage (V TH): The load resistance RL is removed and open circuit
voltage is calculated:

The total resistance in the circuit is 10Ω +20Ω=30Ω

The circuit current I= (20V – 10V)/30 =0.33 amps.

Open circuit voltage VOC=VTH =VAB = 20 - (0.33 X 20Ω) = 13.33 Volts.

Step 2: To Find the Equivalent Resistance (R TH):

To find out RTH it is needed to remove the centre 40Ω load resistor connected across the terminals A-B,
and replace the voltage sources by their internal impedances.

16
 This is done by shorting out all the voltage sources connected to the circuit, that is V = 0.

Voltage sources are replaced by short circuits and current sources are replaced by open circuits.

RTH= 10Ω 11 20Ω = 6.67Ω

Step 3: Formation Of Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

Thus the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit would consist or a series resistance of 6.67Ω and a voltage source
of 13.33V. With the 40Ω load resistor connected back into the circuit we get:

The load current IL= VTH/(RTH +RL)= (13.33)/(6.67 +40) = 0.286 Amps.

The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Thevenin’s Theorem is as follows:
 Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned.
 Find VTH by the usual circuit analysis methods.
 Find RTH by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the current sources.
 Determination of load current IL from Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

LECTURE7

Thevenin’s theorem in AC System:

Example: Find the current through the branch AB of the network

17
Solution:

Step 1: To Find the Equivalent Voltage (V TH): The load resistance of 5 ohm RL is removed and open
circuit voltage is calculated:

Applying KVL in the circuit we get:

I( 5+3+j4)= 10

Step 2: To Find the Equivalent Resistance (Z TH):

18
 ZTH =2.508+j1.252Ω

Step 3: Formation of Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

Norton’s Theorem:

Norton’s theorem states that “Any two terminal bilateral linear circuit consisting of energy sources and
impedances can be replaced with a Norton’s equivalent circuit with a single Norton’s Current source I N in
parallel with a Norton’s resistance RN in DC circuits and Norton’s impedance ZN connected to a load
impedance ZL .

The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Norton’s Theorem is as follows:
1. The load resistance RL must be removed.
2. The Norton’s equivalent resistance RN is to be calculated by shorting all voltage sources or by open
circuiting all the current sources.
3. The Norton’s Equivalent current IN is to be calculated by placing a shorting link on the output
terminals.

19
4. The load current IL flowing through the load resistor RL is to be calculated from Norton’s Equivalent
circuit.
Norton’s equivalent circuit:

Explanation:
Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the
network in the fig.

Solution:

STEP 1: Opening the load terminals, we get the figure as:

STEP 2: Replacing the voltage source by short circuit we get the circuit as:

RN = R1 11 R2 = 3Ω 11 6Ω = 2Ω

STEP 3: Calculation Of IN after shorting the terminals

a,b.

20
 \
From the fig we find that the short-circuit connection between terminals a and b is in parallel with R2 and
for this there will be no current flowing through R 2 IN is the same current as through R1 i.e I1

IN = E/R1=I1 = 9V/3Ω = 3 Amps

STEP 4: Calculation Of load current IL from Norton’s equivalent circuit.

By current division rule we get the value of load current as IL=IN*[(RN)/(RN+RL)].

LECTURE8

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

This theorem is to find the value of load resistance for which there would be maximum amount of power
transfer from source to load.

In DC circuits , the Condition of maximum power transfer is :RL=RTH

In AC circuits, the condition of maximum power transfer is : ZL= = ZTH = RTH - jX TH.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for DC Circuits:

The maximum power transfer theorem states that in a linear, bilateral DC network, maximum power is
delivered to the load when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of a source.

A load will receive maximum power from a network when its resistance is exactly equal to the Thévenin
resistance of the network applied to the load. That is,

RL = RTh

21
Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

The original two terminal circuits are replaced with a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across the variable
load resistance. The current through the load for any value of load resistance is calculated as:

The power delivered from this equivalent source to the load entirely depends on the load resistance R L. To
find the exact value of RL, we apply differentiation to PL with respect to RL and equating it to zero as:

(Proved)

The maximum power delivered to the load is,

22
Power Transfer Efficiency

Total power transferred from source is

PT = IL2 (RTH + RL)

= 2 IL2 RL …………….(2)

Efficiency = (Output) / (Input )× 100= PL/PT x 100

= IL2 RL / 2 IL2 RL × 100 = 50 %

LECTURE9

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem For Ac Circuits:

It can be stated as in an active network, the maximum power is transferred to the load when the load
impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of an equivalent impedance of a given network as viewed
from the load terminals.

Let us consider the following circuit:

Consider the above Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across the load terminals in which the current flowing
through the circuit is given as

The current in the circuit is given as I = VTH / (ZTH + ZL)

23
Where ZL = RL + j XL is the Load impedance

ZTH = RTH + jX TH is the Thevenin’s equivalent impedance of the network

Thus the Load Current, I = VTH / (RL + jXL + RTH + jXTH )

= VTH / ((RL+ RTH) + j(XL + XTH ))

The power delivered to the load, PL = I2 RL

PL = V2TH × RL / ((RL+ RTH)2 + (XL + XTH )2) ……(1)

For maximum power the derivative of the above equation must be zero. For power to be maximized, the
above equation must be differentiated with respect to XL and equates it to zero.

After differentiation we get XL + XTH = 0

or XL = – XTH

Hence, the maximum power will transferred to the load from source, if

RL = RTH and XL = – XTH in an AC circuit. This means that the load impedance should be equal to the
complex conjugate of equivalent impedance of the circuit, ZL = Complex Conjugate
of ZTH = RTH - jXTH.

Example: Find the value of ZL for which maximum power can be delivered?

24
 Let us remove the load ZL .The circuit is drawn as :

The total current supplied by the voltage source is calculated as:

Total current from source is:

The value of IT = 5/( 6+ 3j) Amps

The value of VTH = (- 3j) X [5/(6+3j)] Volts = 5/(2+j) Volts

The Thevenin’s impedance ZTH is calculated as :

From the above circuit, ZTH is calculated as:

25
 Simplifying the above expression, we get ZTH = (1.8 – j2.4 ) Ω

For maximum power, ZL=ZTH* = (1.8+ j2.4) Ω

Millman’s Theorem:

Statement: When a number of voltage sources (V1,V2,…….Vn) are in parallel having internal
resistances(R1,R2,……Rn) respectively, the arrangement can be replaced by a single equivalent series
resistance R as given below:

Explanation: Let us consider three voltage sources connected in parallel:

As per Millman’s theorem: VOUT =

Equivalent Resistance R is given as :

Equivalent voltage and resistance of the network is:

26
Example: Using Millman’s theorem find the current through load resistance R L

Given: V1= 4V, V2 = 2V, V3 =10V, R1= R2 = R3= 4Ω , RL = 10Ω.

Solution:

By Millman’s theorem, we get VOUT = (V1G1 + V2G2 + V3G3) / (G1 + G2 + G3)

= 1 + 0.5 + 2.5 = 4 Volts.

R= (1/4) + (1/4) +( 1/4) = (3/4) Ω

The equivalent network of the circuit is:

The circuit current I = (VOUT)/( RL + R) = (4) / (10 + 3/4) = 0.37209 Amps

27
 MODULE III

MODULE III: RESONANCE CIRCUITS

LECTURE10

Series Resonance:

A sinusoidal voltage V sends a current I through the circuit. The circuit is said to be resonant when the
resultant reactance is zero, (i.e., the circuit is purely resistive or we can say the imaginary
part should be equal to zero).

The impedance Z of the circuit is given by

where

Z and R in ohms
L is in Henrys
C is in Farads

and ω is the angular frequency of the applied voltage in radians/sec.

The current I is calculated as:

At resonance, the imaginary part of Z should be equal to zero

Let ωr is the frequency of resonance in radians/seconds or the resonant

frequency.

So, we get

28
 Or

Effects of Series Resonance:

The following effects of the series resonance condition are given below

 At Resonance condition, XL = XC the impedance of the circuit is minimum and is reduced to the
resistance of the circuit. i.e Zr = R.

 At the resonance condition, as the impedance of the circuit is minimum, the current in the circuit
is maximum. i.e Ir = V/Zr = V/R

 As the value of resonant current Ir is maximum hence, the power drawn by the circuit is also
maximized. i.e Pr = I2Rr

 At the resonant condition, the current drawn by the circuit is very large or we can say that the
maximum current is drawn. Therefore the voltage drop across the inductance L i.e (VL = IXL = I x
2πfrL) and the capacitance C i.e (VC = IXC = I x I/2πfrC) will also be very large.

A series resonant circuit has the capability to draw heavy current and power from the mains; it is
also called as Acceptor Circuit.

Variation of Inductive Reactance Vs Frequency

Inductive reactance XL = 2πfL means inductive reactance is directly proportional to frequency ( X L and
prop ƒ ). When the frequency is zero or, inductive reactance is also zero, the circuit acts as a short circuit;
but when frequency increases; inductive reactance also increases. At infinite frequency, inductive
reactance becomes infinity and circuit behaves as open circuit. It means that, when frequency increases
inductive reactance also increases and when frequency decreases, inductive reactance also decreases. So,
if a graph is plotted between inductive reactance and frequency, it is a straight line linear curve passing
through origin as shown in the figure above.

29
Variation Of Capacitive Reactance Vs Frequency

Capacitive reactance XC = 1 / 2πfC that, frequency and capacitive reactance are inversely proportional to
each other. When frequency is zero, capacitive reactance becomes infinity and circuit behaves as open
circuit and when frequency increases and becomes infinite, capacitive reactance decreases and becomes
zero at infinite frequency, at that point the circuit acts as short circuit, so the capacitive reactance
increases with decease in frequency and if a graph is plotted between capacitive reactance and frequency,
it is an hyperbolic curve as shown in figure above.

Variation of Impedance Vs Frequency

At resonance in series RLC circuit, two reactances become equal and cancel each other. So in resonant
series RLC circuit, the opposition to the flow of current is due to resistance only. At resonance, the total
impedance of series RLC circuit is equal to resistance i.e Z = R, impedance has only real part but no
imaginary part and this impedance at resonant frequency is called dynamic impedance and this dynamic
impedance is always less than impedance of series RLC circuit.

LECTURE11

Resonant Current:

30
In series RLC circuit, the total voltage is the phasor sum of voltage across resistor, inductor and capacitor.
At resonance in series RLC circuit, both inductive and capacitive reactances cancel each other and, so
the voltage across inductor and capacitor is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction and thereby they
cancel each other. So, in a series resonant circuit, voltage across resistor is equal to supply voltage i.e V =
Vr.

Bandwidth of Series Resonant Circuit

The distance between these two points, i.e. ( ƒH – ƒL ) is called the Bandwidth, (BW) and is the range of
frequencies over which at least half of the maximum power and current is provided.

From Figure , the maximum current occurs at the resonant frequency (fr), the current is 0.707 of
maximum current .

Here,
fL is the lower cut – off frequency

fH is the higher cut – off frequency.

Band width is, B.W= fH – fL

Frequencies fL and fH are also called half-power frequencies because the power dissipation in the circuit at
these frequencies is half of the power dissipation at the resonant frequency fr . This may be seen as below:

Taking Imax = I0, we get

31
Quality Factor:

The Quality factor, Q, is a measure of the sharpness (or selectivity) of the resonance peak.
It is the ratio of the resonant frequency to the "bandwidth".

LECTURE12

Parallel Resonance:

Parallel Resonance means when the circuit current is in phase with the applied voltage of an AC circuit
containing an Inductor and a Capacitor connected together in parallel.

Let us consider the figure shown below:

An Inductor of L Henry having some resistance of R ohms is connected in parallel with a capacitor of
capacitance C farads. A supply voltage of V volts is connected across these elements. The circuit current
Ir will only be in phase with the supply voltage when the following condition given below in the equation
is satisfied.

The phasor diagram of the given circuit is shown below:

Phasor Diagram:

32
At some frequency, fr called resonance frequency.

Where,

Substituting IC, IL, sinФL ,we get

33
Effect of Parallel Resonance
At parallel resonance line current Ir = IL cosϕ or

Therefore, the circuit impedance will be given as

The following conclusions are made about Parallel Resonance.

 The circuit impedance is purely resistive because there is no frequency term present in it. If the
value of Inductance, Capacitance and Resistance is in Henry, Farads and Ohm than the value of
circuit impedance Zr will be in Ohms.

 The value of Zr will be very high because the ratio L/C is very large at parallel resonance.

 The value of circuit current, Ir = V/Zr is very small because the value of Zr is very high.

 The current flowing through the capacitor and the coil is much greater than the line current
because the impedance of each branch is quite lower than that of circuit impedance Zr.

Since the parallel resonant circuit can draw a very small current and power from the mains, therefore, it is
also called as Rejector Circuit.

LECTURE13

Problem: The bandwidth of a series resonant circuit is [Link] the resonant frequency is 6000Hz,What
is the value of Q ? If R=10ohm,what is the value of inductive reactance at resonance. Calculate the circuit
inductance and capacitance.

Solution:

BW(Bandwidth)= resonant frequency/Q Factor= 6000/500=12

Also Q= XL/R

34
XL= QR= 12 X 10= 120Ω

XL= 2πfrL

So L= XL/2πfr = 120/(2*6000*π) =3.18 milli henry

We know at resonance, |XL| =|XC|

So XC= 1/(2πfrC)

C= 1/(2π x 6000x 120)= 0.22 µF

Practical Resonance Circuits:

In the power system, at the resonant condition, the excessive voltage is built up across the inductive and
capacitive component of the circuit such as circuit breaker, reactors, etc., may cause damage. Therefore,
the series resonant condition is avoided in the power system. However, in some of the electronics devices
such as antenna circuit of radio and TV receiver, tuning circuit the series resonant condition is used to
increase the signal voltage and current at the desired frequency (fr).

Uses of series resonance circuit:

• As frequency selection circuit in radio and TV tuner circuits.

• As band pass filter circuit.

Uses of parallel resonance circuit:

• As a Band Stop Filter.

• As a tank circuit in Oscillators

35
 MODULE IV

MODULE IV: COUPLED CIRCUITS

LECTURE14

Magnetic flux:

Magnetic flux (ΦB) is the number of magnetic field lines passing through a surface (such as a loop of
wire). The magnetic flux through a closed surface (such as a ball) is always zero. This implies that there
cannot be magnetic charges in classical electromagnetic.
The SI unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb) (in derived units: volt-seconds). The CGS unit is
the Maxwell.
Magnetic flux is sometimes used by electrical engineers designing systems with electromagnets or
designing dynamos. Physicists designing particle accelerators also calculate magnetic flux.
Φ= ʃʃ s [Link]

where

Φ is the magnetic flux

B is the magnetic field
S is the surface area
denotes dot product
dA is the infinitesimal vector

Self-Inductance:
Self-inductance or in other words inductance of the coil is defined as the property of the coil due to which
it opposes the change of current flowing through it. Inductance is attained by a coil due to the self-
induced emf produced in the coil itself by changing the current flowing through it.
If the current in the coil is increasing, the self-induced emf produced in the coil will oppose the rise of
current, that means the direction of the induced emf is opposite to the applied voltage.
You can determine the self-inductance of a coil by the following expression:
𝑑𝑖 𝑑ɸ
E= L 𝑑𝑡 or N𝑑𝑡
Where,
L= inductance
I=Current flowing through coil
ɸ= Magnetic flux
N= No of turns of coil

Mutual Inductance:
• Production of magnetic flux by a current
• The production of voltage by time varying magnetic field
• Current flowing in one coil established flux about that coil and about second coil nearby
• The time varying flux surrounding second coil produces a voltage across the terminals of the
second coil
• This voltage is proportional to time rate of change of current in first coil
• Define coefficient of mutual inductance or simply mutual inductance

d1 d (11  21 )

v1  N1  N1
dt dt

36
 d 2 d (12  22 )
v2  N 2  N2
dt dt

di1 di
v2  M 21 v1  M 12 2
dt dt

M12  M 21  M

LECTURE15

Dot Convention:

• A current entering the dotted terminal of one coil produces an open circuit voltage with positive
voltage reference at the dotted terminal of the second coil
• A current entering the un dotted terminal of one coil provides a voltage that is positively sensed
at the un dotted terminal of the second coil

Coils in series:
The total inductance of two coupled coils in series depend on the placement of the dotted ends of the
coils. The mutual inductances may add or subtract.

Series aiding Connection Series opposing Connection

L=L1+L2+2M L=L1+L2-2M

37
Example: (a) determine v1 if i2 = 5 sin 45t A and i1 = 0;
(b) Determine v2 if i1=−8e−t A and i2 = 0 di2
The current i2 (entering undotted terminal) results in a positive reference for the voltage induced across
the left coil is the undotted terminal

𝑑𝑖2𝑡
Ans: V1(t)= =-450cos45t
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖1𝑡
V2(t)= 𝑑𝑡
= -16 e-t V

Time Domain and Frequency Domain Analysis:

Time Domain Circuit Frequency Domain Circuit

Time Domain
di di
v1  i1 R1  L1 1  M 2
dt dt
di di
v2  i2 R2  L2 2  M 1
dt dt
Frequency Domain
V1  ( R1  j L1 ) I1  j MI 2
V2  j MI1  ( R2  j L2 ) I 2

LECTURE16

Energy in Coupled Circuit:

The total energy w stored in a mutually coupled inductor is:

 Positive sign is selected if both currents ENTER or LEAVE the dotted terminals.
 Otherwise we use Negative sign.
1 2 1
w L1i1  L2i2 2  Mi1i2
2 2

38
Coupling Coefficient:

The Coupling Coefficient k is a measure of the magnetic coupling between two coils 0 ≤ k ≤ 1

0  k 1
M
k
L1 L2

K = 1 perfect coupling

K < 0.5 Loosely Coupling

K > 0.5 Tightly coupling

Example 1:
Determine the coupling coefficient. Calculate the stored energy in the coupled inductors at t=1 s if v=60
cos(4t+30) V.
Ans:
The coupling coefficient is
𝑀 2.5
K= = = 0.56
√𝐿1∗𝐿2 √20
After making mesh analysis we can found out that,
I2=3. 254 160.600 A
I1= -1.2 I2
In the time domain
I1= 3.095cos (4t- 19.40)
I2= 3.254 cos (4t- 199.40)
The total energy stored in the coupled inductors is
1 1
W = L1I12 + L2I22 + MI1I2
2 2
= 20.73 J

39
 MODULE V
MODULE V: GRAPH THEORY

LECTURE17

Graph of a network is a simplest form of electric circuit representation. All the elements ( resistor,
inductor, capacitor)of an electric circuit can be replaced by lines with dots at both ends to form a graph
for a given network.

Basic Terminologies associated with Graph:

Fig 1

Branch: A branch is a line segment representing one network element/ combination of network elements
connected between two points. Fig 1 shows A,B,C,D,E,F are branches.

Node: It is defined as an end point of a line segment that exists at the junction between two branches. Fig.
1 shows 1,2,3,4 are nodes.

Degree of a Node: It is the number of branches incident to it. Fig 1 shows degree of node 2 is 3.

Tree: It is an interconnected open set of branches of a graph which includes all the nodes and should
never contain any loop within it. A tree is formed from a graph by deleting some branches of a graph. Fig
1 shows tree is formed by bold lines.

Twig: It is defined as the branches of a tree. Fig 1 shows A,C,E are twigs.

Tree link/ Chord: It is those branches of a graph that does not belong to that particular tree. Fig 1 shows
B,D,F are links.

Directed or Oriented Graph: A graph is said to be directed when all the branches and nodes are
numbered and branches are assigned with directions (arrows).

Relation between Twigs & Links

Let,

N = No of nodes; B = No of branches of a graph; L = No. of links, T = No. of twigs,

Then,
T = N-1 ; B = T+L

40
So, L = B – N + 1

Properties of a Tree
i. Consists of all the nodes of the graph.
ii. If a tree is obtained from a graph having N branches, then number of twigs will be N-1.
iii. A tree should not have any closed loop.
iv. For a particular graph, different trees can be obtained.

Formation of graph from electric circuit

The basic electrical circuit elements should be replaced as follows:

Resistor – By a shorted line between two nodes.

Inductor - By a shorted line between two nodes.

Capacitor - By a shorted line between two nodes.

Voltage source - By a shorted line between two nodes.

Current Source - By an open circuit.

Illustration:

Fig. 2

LECTURE18

Incidence Matrix

This matrix gives relation between nodes & branches of a graph. It clearly indicates whether a branch is
leaving a node or entering the node.

Formation of Incidence Matrix:

41
Let, N = Number of nodes of graph ; B = Number of branches of graph; Iij = Incidence matrix of N x
B dimension;

i. If branch j is oriented away from node i, the matrix element Iij = 1.

ii. If branch j is oriented towards node i, the matrix element Iij = - 1.
iii. If branch j is not incident at node I, the matrix element Iij = 0.

The complete set of incidence matrix is called augmented incidence matrix.

Note that algebraic sum of the column entries of an incidence matrix is always zero.

Example I: Obtain incidence matrix of the graph shown in figure below:

Fig. 3
Node Branch A B C D E F
 1 0 0 0 1 0
 0 1 0 1 1 0 
Iij   
 0 0 1  1 0  1
 
 1 1 1 0 0 0 

It is observed that column wise algebraic sum is zero. This is because a branch can leave a particular node
and enters a particular node. It is a N x B matrix.

Reduced incidence Matrix:

It is possible to delete any one row from incidence matrix Iij without loosing any information about graph.
The matrix obtained from incidence matrix by deleting one row is known as Reduced incidence matrix.

For a graph having N nodes & B branches, the order of the reduced incidence matrix is (N – 1) x B.

Example II: Obtain reduced incidence matrix of the graph shown in figure below:

Fig. 4

42
 Node Branch A B C D E F
 1 0 0 0 1 0 
 0 1 0 1 1 0 
Iij   
 0 0 1  1 0  1
 
 

Here node 4 (4th row) is deleted to obtain reduced incidence matrix. Note that as column wise algebraic
sum is zero, hence it can easily be understood that what should be 4 th row matrix elements.

LECTURE19

Fundamental Tie Set Matrix or Fundamental Loop Matrix:

A fundamental Tie set is formed by choosing a tree from a given graph. The fundamental loops should
have only one link and other twigs. The number of fundamental loops is equal to number of links.

Formation of Fundamental Tie Set Matrix:

Step I: Choose a tree arbitrarily.

Step II: Form fundamental loops with one link & other twigs.

Step III: Assume direction of loop currents in the direction of links.

Step IV: Form fundamental Tie set Matrix T ij as follows;

i. If branch j is oriented in the direction of loop i, Tij = 1.

ii. If branch j is oriented in opposite direction of loop i, T ij = - 1.
iii. If branch j is not part of loop i, T ij = 0.

Example III: Draw graph for the circuit given below and obtain Tie set matrix.

Here, dotted lines show links and bold lines show twigs. The loop currents are assumed in the direction of
links.

Loop currents Branch a b c d e f

43
 1 0 0 1  1 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
Tij   
0 0 1  1 0 1
 
 

Fundamental Cut Set Matrix:

A fundamental cut set of a graph with respect to a tree is formed by one twig & other links. The number
of cut sets of a graph with respect to a tree is equal to number of twigs.

Formation of Fundamental Cut Set Matrix:

Step I: Choose a tree arbitrarily.

Step II: Form fundamental cut sets with one twig & other links.

Step III: Assume direction of cut sets in the direction of twigs.

Step IV: Form fundamental Cut set Matrix C ij as follows;

i. If branch j has same orientation of cut set i, C ij = 1.

ii. If branch j has opposite orientation of cut set i, Cij = - 1.
iii. If branch j is not part of cut set i, Cij = 0.

Example IV: Obtain cut set matrix of the graph shown in figure below:

Cut Set C1 is formed with Twig A, Links B &D.

Cut Set C2 is formed with Twig C, Links B &D.

Cut Set C3 is formed with Twig E, Links F &D.

Cut set Branch A B C D E F

44
 1 0 0  1 0 1
0 1 0  1  1 0 
Iij   
0 0 1  1 0 1 
 
 

45
 MODULE VI
MODULE VI: CIRCUIT TRANSIENTS

LECTURE20

On completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Understand transient response of basic RC & RL circuits

 First order & Second Order Circuits
 Solve first order RL & RC circuits
 Understand the concepts of Transient & Steady State Response
 Solve RLC circuits in DC stedy state conditions
 Relate the step response of a second order system to its natural frequency and damping ratio
 Understand the transient response of RC, RL, & RLC circuits under AC analysis

What is transient?

The time varying currents and voltages resulting from the sudden application of source, usally due to
switching, are called trnsients. By writing circuit equations, we obtain integral differential equations.

Transient & Stedy State Response

Complete response = Transient Response + Steady State Response

Temporary Part Permanent Part

System Response

In Equilibrium Change in Equilibrium

(Steady State Response) (Transient Response)

46
 Fig1. Transient & Steady State Response

Transient response is the response of a system from rest or equilibrium to steady state.

The values of voltage and current after the transient has died out are known as the
steady state responses.

Basic Elements of the Network:

Resistor

Elements of the
Network

Inductor Capacitor

Resistor: A resistor is a two terminal electronic component. It produces a

voltage across its terminals that is proportional to the current following through
it in accordance with Ohm’s Law:
V = IR

Thus, in resistor, change in current is instantaneous as there is no storage of energy in it, in units of Ohm.

Inductor: An inductor is a passive component that can store energy in a magnetic field created by the
current passing through it. An inductor’s ability to store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance, in

units of Henries. Current in an inductor cannot change instantaneously.

t
d 1
v(t )  L i (t ) i(t )   v( )dt  i(t 0 )
dt L t0

47
Capacitor: The current through a capacitor can be changed instantly, but it takes time
to change the voltage across a capacitor. Units is Farads.

t
d 1
i (t )  C v(t ) v(t )   i ( )dt  v(t0 )
dt C t0

Passive Linear Circuit Elements

Resistor Capacitor Inductor

Current Voltage V = IR dv di
Characteristic iC vL
dt dt
Series Equivalent R1 R2 Ceq  C1  C 2 L1 L2
Req  Leq 
R1  R2 L1  L2
Parallel Equivalent Req  R1  R2 C1C 2 Leq  L1  L2
Ceq 
C1  C 2
Complex Impedance V (s) 1 1 z ( s)  sL  jL
z ( s)  z ( s)  
I ( s) sC jc
Time Constant (With   RC L
Resistor) 
R

Initial Conditions: We need initial conditions to evaluate the arbitrary constants in the general solution
of differential equations. We find the change in selected variables in a circuit when one or more switches
are moved from open to closed positions or vice versa. The representation of initial conditions of RLC
circuit excited by a DC source is shown in table 1

 t = 0- indicated the time just before changing the position of the switch

48
  t = 0 indicated the time when the position of switch is changed
 t = 0+ indicated the time immediately after changing the position of switch

Initial condition for the resistor: For a resistor current and voltage are related by v(t) = Ri(t). The
current through a resistor will change instantaneously if the voltage changes instantaneously. Similarly
the voltage will change instantaneously, if the current changes instantaneously.

Initial condition for the inductor: Voltage across the inductor is proportional to the rate of change of
current. It is impossible to change the current through an inductor by a finite amount in zero time. This
requires an infinite voltage across the inductor.

Initial condition for the capacitor: Current through a capacitor is proportional to the rate of change of
voltage. Due to this change the voltage across a capacitor by a amount in zero time. This requires an finite
current through the capacitor .

Table: representation of initial and final conditions of an RLC circuit excited by a DC source

Circuit Elements at initial conditions at final conditions

t = 0+ t=∞

If there is no current flowing

through an inductor at t=0, the
inductor will act as open circuit
at t = 0+

If there is no voltage across the

capacitor at t=0-, the capacitor
will act as a short at t = 0+

49
Representation of RLC devices in time-domain and s-Domain:

Solution to First Order Differential Equation:

Consider the general Equation

dx(t )
  x(t )  K s f (t )
dt
Let the initial condition be x(t = 0) = x( 0 ), then we solve the differential equation:

dx(t )
  x(t )  K s f (t )
dt

50
The complete solution consists of two parts:

the homogeneous solution (natural solution)

the particular solution (forced solution)

The Natural Response:

Let the general Equation:

dx(t )
  x(t )  K s f (t )
dt

Setting the excitation f (t) equal to zero,

dx n (t ) dx n (t ) x (t ) dx (t ) dt
  x n (t )  0 or  n , n 
dt dt  x n (t ) 
dx n (t ) dt
 x n (t )
  ,

x n (t )   e t / 

Xn(t) is called the natural response.

The Forced Response:

Let the general equation:

dx(t )
  x(t )  K s f (t )
dt

Setting the excitation f (t) equal to F, a constant for t 0

dx f (t )
  x f (t )  K S F
dt
x f (t )  K S F for t  0

Xf(t) is called the forced response

The Complete Response:

Let the general Equation and Solve for ,

for t  0
x(t  0)  x(0)    x()
  x ( 0)  x (  )
51
 dx(t )
  x(t )  K s f (t )
dt
The complete response is:

 the natural response is x  x n (t )  xf (t )

 the forced response is   e t /   K S F

The Complete solution is:   e  t /   x ( )

x(t )  [ x(0)  x()] e t /  x()

[ x(0)  x()] et /

It is called transient response

x ( )
It is called steady state response

Complete response = natural response + forced response

Due to the initial condition Due to the external excitation

LECTURE21

DC Response of an R-L Circuit:

i(t)

R +
+
Vu(t) L VL
_
-

di
Ri  L V
dt
Ldi
 dt
V  Ri

L
 ln( V  Ri )  t  k
R 52
 Integrating both sides to have

L
i (0  )  0, thus k   ln V
R
L
 [ln( V  Ri )  ln V ]  t
R
V  Ri
 e  Rt / L or
V
V V
i   e  Rt / L , for t  0
R R

Where L/R is the time constant

DC Response of an R-C Circuit:

iR + VR -

iC
R
+
Vs C Vc
-

iR  iC
vs  v R dvC
iR  , iC  C
R dt
dvC 1 1
 vR  vs
dt RC RC

The solution will give natural response i R  iC  Ke  t / RC

53
The corresponding voltage drops across the resistor and capacitor can be obtained as
follows:

v R  iR  Ve t / RC

Where RC is a time constant

DC Response of an R-L-C Circuit:

2nd Order System:

54
55
56
 MODULE VII

MODULE VII: LAPLACE TRANSFORM

LECTURE22

The Laplace Transform is a powerful tool that is very useful in Electrical Engineering. The transform
allows equations in the "time domain" to be transformed into an equivalent equation in the Complex S
Domain.

The mathematical definition of the Laplace transform is as follows:

Laplace Domain

The Laplace domain, or the "Complex s Domain" is the domain into which the Laplace transform
transforms a time-domain equation. s is a complex variable, composed of real and imaginary parts:

Fig 3.1 S-plane

The Laplace domain graphs the real part (σ) as the horizontal axis, and the imaginary part (ω) as the
vertical axis. The real and imaginary parts of s can be considered as independent quantities.
LECTURE23

Properties of Laplace Transformer:

Laplace transform of derivative-

Likewise, we can express higher-order derivatives in a similar manner:

For integrals, we get the following:

LECTURE24

Initial Value Theorem

The Initial Value Theorem of the laplace transform states as follows:

57
 N.B-This is useful for finding the initial conditions of a function needed when we perform the
transform of a differentiation operation
LECTURE25

Final Value Theorem:

Similar to the Initial Value Theorem, the Final Value Theorem states that we can find the value of a
function f, as t approaches infinity, in the laplace domain, as such

N.B-This is useful for finding the steady state response of a circuit. The final value theorem may only
be applied to stable systems.
LECTURE26

Laplace transform of different function

58
LECTURE27

Transfer Function:

A transfer function G(s)or H(s) is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of the output C(s) to Laplace
transform of input R(s)

C (S )
G(S ) 
R( S )

Poles & Zeros :

The roots of C(s)(numerator) for which the value of transfer function become zero is known as zeros.

The roots of R(s) (denominator) for which G(s) become infinite is known as poles.

Example

Find the pole-zero representation of the system with the transfer function:

First rewrite in our standard form (note: the polynomials were factored with a computer).

So the pole-zero representation consists of:

 zeros at s=-1 and s=-2, and

 polese at s=-1+j, s=-1-j and s=-3.

LECTURE28

Properties of Laplace Transform:

Property 1. Constant Multiple

If a is a constant and f(t) is a function of t, then

59
Property 2. Linearity Property

If a and b are constants while f(t) and g(t) are functions of t, then

Property 3. Change of Scale Property

Property 4. Shifting Property (Shift Theorem)

LECTURE29

Circuit Elements in S domain

60
 MODULE VIII

MODULE VIII: TWO PORT NETWORK

LECTURE30

When a number of impedances are connected together to form a system that consist of set of
interconnected circuits performing specific function, is called as a network.

One Port Network: A pair of terminals at which a signal may enter or leave a network is called a port
n/w or one port n/w.

Fig 1. One port Network

Two Port Parameters It represented by a black box with four variables, two voltage (V1 , V2 ) and two
currents (I1 , I2 ), which are available for measurements Out of these four variables, which two
variables may be considered ‘independent’ and which two ‘dependent’ is generally decided by the
problem under consideration.

Fig 2. Two port Network

Z – PARAMETERS (Open Circuit Impedance Parameters):

The figure below shows a two port network. The voltages & currents of both ports are shown. The
currents inward to the network are considered as positive.

Fig 3. Two port Network

For a two port network,

[V] = [Z][I]…………………………………………………………………………………..(i)

61
 𝑉 𝑍 𝑍12 𝐼1
[ 1 ] = [ 11 ] [ ]……………………………………………………………………. (ii)
𝑉2 𝑍21 𝑍22 𝐼2

𝑍11 𝑍12
Where, [Z] = [ ] = Impedance Matrix
𝑍21 𝑍22

Equation (ii) can be written as,

V1 = Z11I1+Z12I2 .......................................................................................................................(iii)

V2 = Z21I1+Z22I2 ....................................................................................................................... (iv)

To find

Z11 & Z21, output port should be open circuited, i.e.; I2 = 0,

𝑉
So, from equation (iii), Z11 = [ 1⁄𝐼 ]I2 = 0; Known as Input driving point impedance
1

𝑉
From equation (iv), Z21 = [ 2⁄𝐼 ]I2 = 0 ; Known as forward transfer impedance
1

To find

Z12 & Z22, input port should be open circuited, i.e; I1 = 0,

𝑉
So, from equation (iii), Z12 = [ 1⁄𝐼 ]I1 = 0 ; Known as reverse transfer impedance
2

𝑉
From equation (iv), Z22 = [ 2⁄𝐼 ]I1 = 0 ; Known as Output driving point impedance
2

Z11, Z12, Z21, Z22 all are impedances and unit is ohm.

As Z parameters are obtained by open circuiting any of the two ports and expressed as ratio of voltage &
current, these are known as OPEN CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE PARAMETERS.

Equivalent circuit model of Z parameter representation:

The following circuit diagram shows equivalent circuit model of Z parameters which satisfies
equation (iii) & (iv).

Fig 4. Equivalent circuit model of Z parameter representation

Example I: Find z parameters of the following network shown in fig 5.

62
 Fig 5.

Assuming first that the output is open circuited, 𝐼2 = 0,

Looking back to the network from terminals ab,

𝑅𝑒𝑞1 = [(3 + 5) ‖ 2] +1 = 2.6 Ω.

Let us assume 𝐼1 to be the input current such that,

𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅𝑒𝑞1 = 2.6 𝐼1 volt

𝑉1
And, 𝑍11 = 𝐼1
when 𝐼2 = 0

𝑍11 = 2.6 Ω.

Let us assume the current through 5 Ω resistor be 𝐼𝑥

2 𝐼1
Then, 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼1 * 2+3+5 = 5
A

𝐼1
And, 𝑉2 = * 5 = 𝐼1 Volt
5

𝑉2
This gives, 𝑍21 = 𝐼1
when 𝐼2 = 0

𝑍21 = 1 Ω.

Next assuming the input to be open, 𝐼1 = 0. The equivalent resistance of the network looking back from
the terminal gh is given by

𝑅𝑒𝑞2 = [(3 + 2) ‖ 5] = 2.5 Ω.

Let us assume 𝐼2 to be the input current such that,

𝑉2 = 𝐼2 𝑅𝑒𝑞2 = 2.5 𝐼2 volt

𝑉2
And, 𝑍22 = 𝐼2
when 𝐼1 = 0

𝑍22 = 2.5 Ω.

Let us assume the current through 2 Ω resistor be 𝐼𝑦

63
 5 𝐼2
Then, 𝐼𝑦 = 𝐼2 * = A
2+3+5 2

With terminal a-b open, 𝑉𝑎−𝑏 = 𝑉𝑐−𝑑 , i.e., the voltage across c-d terminal is 𝑉1 too.
𝐼2
Hence, 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑦 * 2 = 2
* 2 = 𝐼2 Volt

𝑉1
This gives, 𝑍12 = 𝐼2
when 𝐼1 = 0

𝑍21 = 1 Ω.

LECTURE31

Example II: Find z parameters of the following network shown in fig 6.

Fig 6.

Let us first assume the output terminal c-d are open circuited and 𝑉1 is applied at a-b terminals (input
port).

Looking back to the network from terminals ab,

35
𝑅𝑒𝑞1 = [(3 + 2) ‖ 1] +5 = 6
Ω.

Let us assume 𝐼1 to be the input current such that,

35
𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅𝑒𝑞1 = 6
𝐼1 volt

𝑉1
And, 𝑍11 = 𝐼1
when 𝐼2 = 0

35
𝑍11 = 6
Ω.

1 𝐼1
Then, 𝐼3 = 𝐼1 * = A
2+3+1 6

Thus drop 𝑉2 across terminal c-d is given by

𝐼1
𝑉2 =𝐼3 * 2 + 𝐼1 * 5 = 6
∗ 2 + 𝐼1 ∗ 5 Volt

64
 𝑉2
This gives, 𝑍21 = 𝐼1
when 𝐼2 = 0

16
𝑍21 = 3
Ω.

Next let us assume the oinput terminal a-b are open circuited and 𝑉2 is applied at c-d terminals (output
port).

19
𝑅𝑒𝑞2 = [(3 + 1) ‖ 2] + 5 = 3
Ω.

Let us assume 𝐼2 to be the input current such that,

19
𝑉2 = 𝐼2 𝑅𝑒𝑞2 = 3
𝐼2 volt

𝑉2
And, 𝑍22 = 𝐼2
when 𝐼1 = 0

19
𝑍22 = Ω.
3

2 𝐼2
Then, 𝐼3 = 𝐼2 * = A
2+3+1 3

𝐼2 16
Hence, 𝑉1 = * 1 + 5𝐼2 = 𝐼2 Volt
3 3

𝑉1
This gives, 𝑍12 = 𝐼2
when 𝐼1 = 0

16
𝑍21 = Ω.
3

LECTURE32

Y – PARAMETERS (Short Circuit Admittance Parameters):

The figure below shows a two port network. The voltages & currents of both ports are shown. The
currents inward to the network are considered as positive.

Fig 7. Two port Network

For a two port network,

[I] = [Y][V]…………………………………………………………………………………..(v)

65
 𝐼 𝑌 𝑌12 𝑉1
[ 1 ] = [ 11 ] [ ]……………………………………………………………………. (vi)
𝐼2 𝑌21 𝑌22 𝑉2

𝑌11 𝑌12
Where, [Y] = [ ] = Admittance Matrix
𝑌21 𝑌22

Equation (ii) can be written as,

I1 = Y11V1+Y12V2 .......................................................................................................................(vii)

I2 = Y21V1+Y22V2 .............................................................................................................................(viii)

To find

Y11 & Y21, output port should be short circuited, i.e; V2 = 0,

𝐼
So, from equation (vii), Y11 = [ 1⁄𝑉 ] V2 = 0 ; Known as Input driving point admittance
1

𝐼
From equation (viii), Y21 = [ 2⁄𝑉 ] V2 = 0 ; Known as forward transfer admittance
1

To find

Y12 & Y22, input port should be short circuited, i.e; V1 = 0,

𝐼
So, from equation (vii), Y12 = [ 1⁄𝑉 ]V1 = 0 ; Known as reverse transfer admittance
2

𝐼
From equation (viii), Z22 = [ 2⁄𝑉 ]V1 = 0 ; Known as Output driving point admittance
2

Y11, Y12, Y21, Y22 all are admittances and unit is mho.

As Y parameters are obtained by short circuiting any of the two ports and expressed as ratio of current
voltage , these are known as SHORTCIRCUIT ADMITTANCE PARAMETERS.

Equivalent circuit model of Y parameter representation:

The following circuit diagram shows equivalent circuit model of Y parameters which satisfies
equation (vii) & (viii).

Fig 8. Equivalent circuit model of Y parameter representation

66
Example III: Find Y parameters of the following network shown in fig 9.

Fig 9.

Let voltage across 2 ohm resistance is V3.

From above figure,

𝑉1 − 𝑉3
I1 = 1

I1 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉3 ……(i)
𝑉2 − 𝑉3
I2 = 3
……(ii)

𝑉3
Applying KCL at Node A, 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 2
……(iii)

Substituting Eqn. (i) and (ii) in Eqn. (iii),

𝑉2 − 𝑉3 𝑉3
𝑉1 − 𝑉3 + 3
= 2

6 2
𝑉3 = 𝑉 + 𝑉 ……(iv)
11 1 11 2

Substituting Eqn. (iv) in Eqn. (i),

6 2
I1 = 𝑉1 − 11 𝑉1 + 11 𝑉2

5 2
𝐼1 = 𝑉 − 𝑉 ……(v)
11 1 11 2

Substituting Eqn. (iv) in Eqn. (ii),

𝑉2 1 6 2
I2 = 3
− 3 (11 𝑉1 + 11 𝑉2 )

2 3
I2 = − 𝑉 + 𝑉
11 1 11 2
……(vi)

Comparing Eqn. (v) and (vi) with Y- parameter equations,

5 2
𝑌 𝑌12 − 11
[ 11 ]= [ 112 ]
𝑌21 𝑌22 −
3
11 11

67
Example IV: Obtain Y parameters of the following network shown in fig 10.

Fig 10.

Let, V3 be voltage at node A.

From figure, we can write,

𝑉1 − 𝑉3
I1 = 2

1 1
I1 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉3 ……(i)
2 2

𝑉2 − 𝑉3
I2 = 2
……(ii)

Applying KCL at Node A, 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 +3 𝑉2 = 0 ……(iii)

Substituting Eqn. (i) and (ii) in Eqn. (iii),

𝑉1 − 𝑉3 𝑉2 − 𝑉3
2
+ 2
+ 3 𝑉2 = 0

1 7
𝑉3 = 2 𝑉1 + 2 𝑉2 ……(iv)

Substituting Eqn. (iv) in Eqn. (i),

1 1 1 7
I1 = 2
𝑉1 − 2
( 2 𝑉1 + 2 𝑉2 )

1 7
𝐼1 = 4 𝑉1 − 4 𝑉2 ……(v)

Substituting Eqn. (iv) in Eqn. (ii),

𝑉2 1 1 7
I2 = 2
− 2 (2 𝑉1 + 2
𝑉2 )

1 5
I2 = − 𝑉
4 1
− 4 𝑉2 ……(vi)

Comparing Eqn. (v) and (vi) with Y- parameter equations,

1 7
𝑌 𝑌12 −4
[ 11 ]= [ 4 1 5]
𝑌21 𝑌22 −4 −4

68
LECTURE33

h – PARAMETERS (Hybrid Parameters):

h – parameter representations are widely used in electronic circuit modelling, especially in transistor
modelling. To find h parameters, both open circuit & short circuit conditions are utilized at input & output
ports respectively, hence it is termed as hybrid parameters.

Fig 11: Two Port Network

For a two port network,

𝑉 ℎ ℎ12 𝐼1
[ 1 ] = [ 11 ] [ ]……………………………………………………………………. (ix)
𝐼2 ℎ21 ℎ22 𝑉2

Equation (ii) can be written as,

V1 = h11I1+h12V2 .........................................................................................................................(x)

I2 = h21I1+h22V2 ..........................................................................................................................(xi)

To find

h11 & h21, output port should be short circuited, i.e; V2 = 0,

𝑉
So, from equation (x), h11 = [ 1⁄𝐼 ] V2 = 0 ; Unit : ohm
1

𝐼
From equation (xi), h21 = [ 2⁄𝐼 ] V2 = 0 ; Unit : None
1

To find

h12 & h22, input port should be open circuited, i.e; I1 = 0,

𝑉
So, from equation (v), h12 = [ 1⁄𝑉 ]I1 = 0 ; Unit :None
2

𝐼
From equation (vi), Z22 = [ 2⁄𝑉 ]I1 = 0 ; Unit : mho
2

69
Equivalent circuit model of h parameter representation:

The following circuit diagram shows equivalent circuit model of Y parameters which satisfies
equation (x) & (xi).

Fig 12. Equivalent circuit model of h parameter representation

LECTURE34

ABCD PARAMETERS (Transmission line or Chin Parameters):

ABCD parameters are widely used in transmission line parameter calculations, hence these are also
known as transmission line parameters.

Fig 13: Two Port Network

It is observed from above figure that, I1 is positive as it is inward to the network, whereas I2 is negative as
it is leaving the network.

For a two port network,

𝑉 𝐴 𝐵 𝑉
[ 1] = [ ] [ 2 ]……………………………………………………………………. (xii)
𝐼1 𝐶 𝐷 −𝐼2

Equation (ii) can be written as,

V1 = AV2 - B I2........................................................................................................................(xiii)

I1 = CV2 – D I2 ..........................................................................................................................(xiv)

To find

A & C, output port should be open circuited, i.e; I2 = 0,

𝑉
So, from equation (xiii), A = [ 1⁄𝑉 ] I2 = 0 ; Unit : None
2

70
 𝐼
From equation (xiv), C = [ 1⁄𝑉 ] I2 = 0 ; Unit : mho
2

To find

B & D, output port should be short circuited, i.e; V2 = 0,

𝑉
So, from equation (xiii), B = [ 1⁄−𝐼 ]V2 = 0 ; Unit :ohm
2

𝐼
From equation (xiv), D = [ 1⁄−𝐼 ] V2= 0 ; Unit : None
2

Example III: Find ABCD parameters of the following network shown in fig 14.

Fig 14.

Applying KVL at left mesh, V1 = 6𝐼1 + 5𝐼2 ………………(i)

Applying KVL at right mesh, V2 = 5𝐼1 + 7𝐼2 ………………(ii)

Hence, 5𝐼1 = V2 − 7𝐼2

1 7
I1 = 5
𝑉2 − 5 𝐼2 ………………(iii)

Substituting Eqn. (iii) in Eqn. (i),

1 7
𝑉1 = 6( 5 𝑉2 − 𝐼
5 2
) + 5𝐼2

6 17
= 5 𝑉2 − 5
𝐼2 ………………(iv)

Substituting Eqn. (iv) in Eqn. (i),

1 1 1 7
I1 = 2
𝑉1 − 2
( 2 𝑉1 + 2 𝑉2 )

1 7
𝐼1 = 4 𝑉1 − 4 𝑉2 ………………(v)

Comparing Eqn. (iii) and (iv) with transmission parameter equations,

6 17
A B
[ ]= [ 51 5
7]
C D
5 5

71