ODE Exam 2
Complete Study Guide
Sections 4.4 | 4.6 | 5.1 | 7.1 - 7.6
EXAM PRIORITY GUIDE
• HIGHEST: Laplace Transforms (7.1-7.3) — solving IVPs is THE core skill
• HIGH: Translation Theorems, Unit Step Functions, Dirac Delta (7.3-7.5)
• HIGH: Undetermined Coefficients & Variation of Parameters (4.4, 4.6)
• MEDIUM: Systems of DEs via Laplace (7.6)
• LOWER: LRC Circuits (5.1) — know the formula and setup
Chapter 4.4 — Undetermined Coefficients
The Big Idea
For nonhomogeneous ODEs with CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS, guess the form of a particular solution
based on the right-hand side g(x) and its derivatives.
General Process
1. Solve the homogeneous equation: any(n) + ... = 0. Find yc.
2. Identify g(x) and use Table 4.4.1 to guess the form of yp.
3. CHECK: If any term of yp duplicates yc, multiply by x^n (smallest n to eliminate duplication).
4. Substitute yp into the ODE and solve for coefficients.
5. General solution: y = yc + yp.
Table 4.4.1 — Particular Solution Forms
g(x) contains... Assume yp =
Constant (e.g., 5) A
Polynomial x^n Anx^n + A(n-1)x^(n-1) + ... + A0
e^(ax) Ae^(ax)
sin(bx) or cos(bx) A cos(bx) + B sin(bx)
x^n * e^(ax) (Anx^n + ... + A0)e^(ax)
x^n * sin(bx) (Anx^n + ... + A0)cos(bx) + (Bnx^n +
... + B0)sin(bx)
e^(ax) * sin(bx) e^(ax)[A cos(bx) + B sin(bx)]
CASE 2 — The Overlap Rule (Critical!)
If ANY term of your guessed yp appears in yc, multiply that term by x^n
where n is the SMALLEST positive integer that eliminates the duplication.
Example: if yc = C1*e^x and g(x) = e^x, guess yp = Axe^x (not Ae^x)
Chapter 4.6 — Variation of Parameters
When to Use
Use when the method of undetermined coefficients FAILS — i.e., g(x) is a log, tan x, sec x, negative
power, or inverse trig function.
The Setup
For y'' + P(t)y' + Q(t)y = f(t) (standard form — divide by leading coefficient first!):
Complementary solution: yc = C1*y1(t) + C2*y2(t)
Particular solution: yp = u1(t)*y1(t) + u2(t)*y2(t)
Formulas — MEMORIZE THESE
W W(y1,y2) = | y1 y2 | = y1*y2' - y2*y1'
u1' u1'(t) = -y2(t)*f(t) / W(y1, y2)
u2' u2'(t) = y1(t)*f(t) / W(y1, y2)
Then integrate to find u1 and u2 (no constants of integration needed for particular solution).
yp = u1*y1 + u2*y2
Step-by-Step
6. Write in STANDARD FORM (coefficient of y'' must be 1).
7. Find yc = C1*y1 + C2*y2 from the homogeneous equation.
8. Compute the Wronskian W(y1, y2).
9. Find u1' and u2' using Cramer's Rule formulas above.
10. Integrate u1' and u2' to get u1 and u2.
11. Write yp = u1*y1 + u2*y2, then y = yc + yp.
Chapter 5.1 — LRC-Series Circuits
The Master Equation
LRC ODE L*q'' + R*q' + (1/C)*q = E(t)
Component Reference
Component Symbol Units Voltage Drop
Inductor L henries (h) L * di/dt
Resistor R ohms (Ω) iR
Capacitor C farads (f) (1/C)*q
Key Relationships
• Current and charge: i(t) = dq/dt
• Kirchhoff's Second Law: sum of voltage drops = E(t)
Damping Cases (Discriminant = R^2 - 4L/C)
Overdamped Critically Damped Underdamped
R² - 4L/C > 0 Two R² - 4L/C = 0 Repeated R² - 4L/C < 0 Complex
distinct real roots real roots conjugate roots
Chapter 7.1-7.2 — Laplace Transforms & Inverses
Definition
L{f(t)} F(s) = integral from 0 to inf of e^(-st)*f(t) dt
Essential Transform Table — KNOW ALL OF THESE
f(t) F(s) = L{f(t)}
1 1/s, (s > 0)
t^n (n = 1, 2, 3...) n! / s^(n+1)
e^(at) 1 / (s - a), (s > a)
sin(kt) k / (s² + k²)
cos(kt) s / (s² + k²)
sinh(kt) k / (s² - k²)
cosh(kt) s / (s² - k²)
t^n e^(at) n! / (s-a)^(n+1)
e^(at) sin(kt) k / [(s-a)² + k²]
e^(at) cos(kt) (s-a) / [(s-a)² + k²]
Transform of Derivatives — Apply to Every IVP
L{f'} sF(s) - f(0)
L{f''} s²F(s) - s*f(0) - f'(0)
s^n F(s) - s^(n-1)f(0) - s^(n-2)f'(0) - ... -
L{f(n)}
f^(n-1)(0)
Inverse Transforms — Key Tricks
• Linearity: L^-1{aF(s) + bG(s)} = a*f(t) + b*g(t)
• Partial fractions: always decompose first
• Complete the square: needed when denominator is s² + bs + c
• Example: s² + 6s + 34 = (s+3)² + 25 → use First Translation Theorem
Chapter 7.3 — Operational Properties I
First Translation Theorem
Forward L{e^(at) f(t)} = F(s - a)
Inverse L^-1{F(s-a)} = e^(at) f(t)
Key use: When denominator has (s - a) terms, shift the formula:
• L{e^(at) sin(kt)} = k / [(s-a)² + k²]
• L{e^(at) cos(kt)} = (s-a) / [(s-a)² + k²]
• L{e^(at) t^n} = n! / (s-a)^(n+1)
Unit Step (Heaviside) Function
U(t-a) U(t-a) = 0 if t < a, 1 if t >= a
Second Translation Theorem
Forward L{f(t-a)*U(t-a)} = e^(-as) * F(s)
L{U(t-a)} e^(-as) / s
Corollary L{f(t)*U(t-a)} = e^(-as) * L{f(t+a)}
Rewriting Piecewise Functions
To convert piecewise to step function form:
• f(t) = 0 for t < a, g(t) for t >= a becomes: f(t) = g(t)*U(t-a)
• For multi-piece: use differences of unit steps
• E.g.: f(t) = 1 on [0,4), 0 on [4,5), 1 on [5,inf)
• = 1 - U(t-4) + U(t-5)
Chapter 7.4 — Operational Properties II
Derivative of a Transform
Rule L{t^n f(t)} = (-1)^n * d^n/ds^n [F(s)]
Most common case (n=1): L{t*f(t)} = -F'(s)
• Example: L{t sin(kt)} = -d/ds [k/(s²+k²)] = 2ks/(s²+k²)²
Convolution
(f * g)(t) = integral from 0 to t of f(tau)*g(t-
Definition
tau) dtau
Theorem L{f * g} = F(s) * G(s)
L^-1{F(s)*G(s)} = f * g = integral from 0 to t of
Inverse
f(tau)g(t-tau)dtau
Integral Rule L{integral from 0 to t of f(tau) dtau} = F(s)/s
Properties of Convolution
• Commutative: f * g = g * f
• Associative: f * (g * h) = (f * g) * h
• Distributive: f * (g + h) = f*g + f*h
Chapter 7.5 — Dirac Delta Function
Properties
delta(t - t0) = infinity if t = t0, 0 if t ≠ t0
integral from 0 to inf of delta(t - t0) dt = 1
Models: instantaneous impulse (hammer strike, lightning bolt)
L{delta(t-t0)} e^(-s*t0), (t0 >= 0)
Corollary L{delta(t)} = 1
Solving IVPs with Dirac Delta
• Same method as always — apply Laplace transform to both sides
• Replace delta(t - t0) with its transform e^(-s*t0)
• Solve for Y(s), then take the inverse transform
• The e^(-as) in the inverse will pair with the Second Translation Theorem
Chapter 7.6 — Systems of Linear DEs
Strategy Overview
Step 1: Apply L to BOTH equations using X = L{x(t)}, Y = L{y(t)}
Step 2: Plug in initial conditions. Result is an ALGEBRAIC system in X, Y.
Step 3: Solve the algebraic system for X and Y (substitution or elimination).
Step 4: Apply partial fractions / translation theorems as needed.
Step 5: Take L^-1 of X and Y to get x(t) and y(t).
Key Reminders
• Notation: L{x(t)} = X(s), L{y(t)} = Y(s)
• L{x'} = sX - x(0), L{y'} = sY - y(0)
• Factor carefully after applying Laplace to group X and Y terms
• Partial fractions often needed at the inverse step
Master IVP Workflow — Use Every Time
1 Apply L to both sides. Use L{y'} = sY - y(0) and L{y''} = s²Y - sy(0) - y'(0).
2 Substitute initial conditions immediately.
3 Collect and factor Y(s) terms on one side.
4 Solve for Y(s) algebraically.
5 Simplify using partial fractions or completing the square.
6 Apply L^-1 using the table, Translation Theorems, or Convolution.