Contents

Computer Introduction
Why Computers?
Advantages of Computers
WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
CAPABILITIES OF COMPUTERS
Uses of Computers
LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS
History and Classification of Computers
Characteristics
Software Packages
What is a Software package
Relationship between Software and
Hardware
Functions of System software package
Major functions of Operating Systems
Specific Purpose Application Software
Packages
Computer Architecture:
 Execution of instructions by CPU

Computer Introduction
Man's continuous search for fast and accurate calculating devices
ultimately brings us to the modern age that can be rightly called as the
Computer Age . The computer – a package of metal, plastic and wires is
truly an amazing machine. This machine is creating sweeping and
dramatic changes in all spheres of our present life and working
environment. It has transformed and is transforming the ways in which
we do our businesses; we learn; we conduct scientific and engineering
probes; we play and entertain ourselves. It is said that this machine will
improve world's culture by allowing people not only to be more
productive but to have more free time to create.

Why Computers?
Two major factors that stimulate development in any field are the
following:

Demand of users and potential users

Available technology

Prior to the industrial revolution computers were only used for scientific
research. Their potential was first recognized by the US Army during
the world war. They were used to keep track of the movement of arms
and ammunition. Following the industrial revolution, people felt that
computers could also be used for commercial purpose. For example, in
the banks to maintain efficient banking system , in industrial and
business houses to maintain their inventory for accounts management,
sales and budgeting, production and planning.
At the same time dramatic development in the Electrical, Electronic and
Communication Engineering together with software expertise has
enabled many of these demands to be met. One such engineering
technology is the Information Technology, popularly known as IT,
which brought computers to our homes and offices. This led to a
revolution in the IT industry, keeping in mind the need of the modern
era that believed in the speedy, storage and retrieval of information, at
any point of time. This resulted in an effective and efficient working
environment. Thus, the modern age is rightly called the 'Computer
Age', making computers indispensable. Current growth in the
Information Technology is leading to the concept of Paperless Offices.

Advantages of Computers

Perform repetitive tasks

More accurate while dealing with large numbers

Work at constant efficiency

Are used in almost every field

Process millions of instructions in a fraction of a

second

Effective and efficient data storage and retrieval

WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
The word "computer" comes from the word ‘ compute’ , which
means to calculate. So a computer is normally considered to be a
calculating device. In fact the original objective for inventing the
computer was to create a fast calculating machine. But more than 90%
of the work done by computers today is of non-mathematical or non-
numerical nature. Hence, to define a computer merely as calculating
device is to ignore over 90% of its work.
More accurately, a computer may be defined as a device that operates
upon information or data. Data can be anything like bio-data of various
applicants when the computer is used for recruiting personnel, or the
marks obtained by various students in various subjects when the
computer is used to prepare results, or the details (name, age, sex etc. )
of various passengers when the computer is employed for making
airline or railway reservations, or numbers of different types in case of
application of computers for scientific research problems, etc. Thus
Computer can be defined as an electronic device for processing data
that takes data input from its user, stores, processes data and
generates the required output as per the processing instructions given
to it by the user.
The fact that computers process data is so fundamental that many
people have started calling it a data processor . The name data
processor is more inclusive because modern computers not only
compute in the usual sense but also perform other functions with the
data that flow to and from them. For example, data processor may

gather data from various sources;

merge (process of mixing or putting together) them all;
sort (process of arranging in some sequence-ascending or
descending) them;
Print them in desired format.
Thus computers not only can add, subtract, multiply and divide
numbers but can also do certain logical operations;

can remember (i.e. store and recall information); can

communicate with operators;
can direct themselves in a predetermined manner;
can process a large volume of data effortlessly;
can interpret massages from remote locations.
Computers undertake repetitive and boring tasks, relieving us
for more critical, creative activities.
Computers offer unmatched speed, performance, and accuracy
in data processing.
Computers work at constant efficiency and perform tasks
repeatedly without errors, avoiding the fatigue, that affect
human beings.
Computers can be used in almost every field and for almost
every purpose.
Computers allow society to undertake new activities in various
fields and to function more efficiently.
Computers are impartial. They offer a mean of data processing
unaffected by social, religious or cultural bias and prejudice.
Computers offer effective and efficient data storage and
retrieval, highest degree of integrity and reliability.
 Figure 1: Computer System
Computers come in many varieties, including the personal computer,
tiny computers built into appliances and automobiles, and mainframe
machines used by many people simultaneously to run a business.
Despite their differences in size and use, all these
computers are part of a system. A complete computer system consists of
four parts: hardware, software, people, and data (see Figure 1)

1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Computers are not just adding machines; they are capable of doing
complex activities and operations. They can be programmed to do
complex, tedious and monotonous tasks. All computers have certain
common characteristics irrespective of their type and size. The
following are the important characteristics which took together, enable a
computer to surpass its performance in some tasks in which the human
beings cannot perform efficiently:
1. Speed: A computer is a very fast device capable of data processing
at unbelievable speed. It can perform in a few seconds the amount of
work that a human being may not be able to do in an entire year even if
he works day and night and does nothing else. Computers can process
millions of instructions per second thus carrying out even the complex
tasks in fractions of seconds without any mistake. While talking about
the speed of a computer, we do not talk in terms of seconds or even
milliseconds (10-3). Our units of speed are the microseconds (10-6), the
nanoseconds (10-9), and even the picoseconds (10-12). A powerful
computer is capable of performing about 3 to 4 million simple
arithmetic operations per second (MIPS).
2. Accuracy: In addition to speed, the computer has high accuracy in
computing. The accuracy of a computer is consistently high and the
degree of accuracy of a particular computer depends upon its design.
But for a particular computer, each and every calculation is performed
with the same accuracy. Errors can occur in a computer, but these are
mainly due to human rather than technological weakness. The errors in
computer are due to errors in programming and operation by human and
due to inaccurate data.
3. Versatility: A computer is a very versatile machine. Versatility is
one of the most wonderful features of the computer in the sense that
they are not only capable of handling complex arithmetical problems,
but can do equally well other number of jobs. They can perform
activities ranging from simple calculations to performing complex CAD
modeling and simulations to navigating missiles and satellites. In other
words, computers can be programmed to perform any task that can be
reduced to a series of logical steps. Computers can communicate with
other computers and can receive and send data in various forms like
text, sound, video, graphics, etc. We, now, live in a connected world
and all this is because of computers and other related technologies.
4. Diligency: Unlike human beings, a computer is free from
monotony, tiredness, lack of concentration etc. and hence can work for
hours together without creating any error and without grumbling. Due
to this property computers obviously score over human beings in doing
routine type of jobs, which require greater accuracy. They will perform
the tasks that are given to them - irrespective of whether it is interesting,
creative, monotonous or boring; irrespective of whether it is the first
time or the millionth time - with exactly the same accuracy and speed.
5. Storage Capability: Computers have their main memory and
auxiliary memory systems. A computer can store a large amount of data.
With more and more auxiliary storage devices, which are capable of
storing huge amounts of data, the storage capacity of a computer is
virtually unlimited. The factor that makes computer storage unique is
not that it can store vast amount of data, but the fact that it can retrieve
the information that the user wants in a few seconds. Every piece of
information can be retained as long as desired by the user and can be
recalled as and when required. Even after several years, the information
recalled is as accurate as on the day when it was fed to computer. A
computer forgets or looses certain information only when it is asked to
do so. So it is entirely up to the user to make a computer retain or forget
particular information.
6. Reliability: Reliability of the computers is indeed very high.
Modern electronic components have long failure free lives. A
microprocessor chip is said to have a life of 40 years even under
adverse conditions and much before it fails, it will become obsolete.
Computers are also designed in modular form so as to make
maintenance easy; when a component fails, it can be replaced or
repaired at a minimal cost.
7. Automation: The level of automation achieved in a computer is
phenomenal. It is not a simple calculator where you have to punch in
the numbers and press the equal to sign to get the result. Once a task is
initiated, computers can proceed on its own till its completion.
Computers can be programmed to perform a series of complex tasks
involving multiple programs. Computers will perform these things
flawlessly. They will execute the programs in the correct sequence, they
will switch on/off the machines at the appropriate time, they will
monitor the operational parameters, and they will send warning signals
or take corrective actions if the parameters exceed the control level, and
so on. Computers are capable of these levels of automation, provided
they are programmed correctly.

CAPABILITIES OF COMPUTERS
Stepping down from the domains of technical people such as scientists
and engineers; computer, today, is a very familiar household word. In
1950's computers were special purpose machines, which only huge
institutions such as governments and universities could afford. In the
1960's modern computer began to revolutionize the business world and
today it has become popular with all kinds of people from business to
employees, from doctors to lawyers and from players to school going
children. Today, computers are
directly or indirectly influencing every aspect of our lives. Wherever
human intellect and technology meet, we will find computers.
Computers of all sizes and shapes are used for every purpose
imaginable - from selling railway tickets to running washing machines;
from stock market analysis to playing games; from publishing a new
letter to designing a building… They can perform activities ranging
from simple calculations to performing complex CAD modeling and
simulations to navigating missiles and satellites. Computers can
communicate with other computers and can receive and send data in
various forms like text, sound, video, graphics, etc. This ability of
computer to communicate to one another has led to the development of
computer networks, Internet, WWW and so on. Today, we can send e-
mail to people all around the world. We, now, live in a connected world
and all this is because of computers and other related technologies.

Uses of Computers
During the last four decades, computers have revolutionized almost all
disciplines of our life. Computers have made possible many scientific,
industrial and commercial advances that would have been impossible
otherwise. Computers are being used in many areas of application viz.
business, industry, scientific research, defence, space, communications,
medicine, education and so on. The utilisation of computers in different
fields is summarized in Table 1-1

Table 1-1 Roles of Computers in Various Fields

Application Area Use of Computers

Scientific Used to resolve complex scientific problems
Research accurately in a short time
Business Used in banks, airports, share markets, hotels,
export houses, Government offices and others for
rising business applications like MIS, Payroll,
Inventory, Financial Accounting etc.
Defense Used to computerize warplanes, ships, radars and
many advanced weapons
Space Used to design computerized space satellites,
rockets and related technology
Data Used to computerize geo-graphically separated
Communication offices through networking
Telecommunicati Used in ISDN, E-mail, Internet, Intranet, VSAT,
on Videoconferencing, Paging, Cellular phones etc.
Medicine Used in hospitals and nursing homes/clinics for
maintaining medical records, prescription writing,
diagnostic applications and computerized
scanning(CAT Scanning)
Education Used in development of CBT (Computer Based
Teaching)/ CAT (Computer Aided Teaching)
programs for education
 Law & Order Used to records data of vehicles
Libraries Used to develop Library Management Systems
Publishers Used for Desk Top Publishing (DTP) for
designing & printing of books
Engineering Used CAD (Computer Aided Designing)/CAM
(Computer Aided Manufacturing) by engineering
companies
Emerging Used in Artificial Intelligence (Expert Systems,
Technologies Robotics etc. ) and Virtual Reality

1.4.1 COMPUTERS IN BUSINESS

Computers have completely altered the structure of business. They are
reshaping the basics of business. Customer service, operations, product
and marketing strategies, and distribution are heavily, or sometimes
even entirely, dependent on computer-enabled applications. The
computers that support these functions can be found on the desk, on the
shop floor, in the store, even in briefcases. Computers have become an
everyday part of business life.
Computer systems perform three vital roles in any type of organization:

Support of Business Operations

Support of Managerial Decision-Making
Support of Strategic Competitive Advantage

Let's take a retail store as an example to illustrate these important roles.

As a consumer, we have to deal regularly with the computer-based
information systems that support business operations at many retail
stores where we shop. For example, most retail stores now use
computer-based information systems to help them record customer
purchases, keep track of inventory, pay employees, buy new
merchandise, and evaluate sales trends. Store operations would grind to
a halt without the support of such information systems. (figure 1.2)
Figure 1.2 A Computer-based Sales Processing System that
supports Sales Transaction Processing, Employee Inquiries and
Responses, and the Access and Updating of Business Databases

Computer-based information systems also help store managers make

better decisions and attempt to gain a strategic competitive advantage.
For example, decisions on what lines of merchandise need to be added
or discontinued, or on what kind of investment they require, are
typically made after an analysis provided by computer-based
information systems. This not only supports the decision making of
store managers but also helps them look for ways to gain an advantage
over other retailers in the competition for customers.

[Link]
Gaining a strategic advantage over competitors requires innovative use of
computers and information technology. For example, store managers might
make a decision to install computerized touch-screen catalog ordering systems
in all of their stores, tied in with computer-based telephone ordering systems
and an Internet-based computer shopping network. This might attract new
customers and lure customers away from competing stores because of the ease
of ordering provided by such innovative information systems. Thus,
computer-based strategic information systems can help provide strategic
products and services that give a business organization competitive advantage
over its competitors.

LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS
There is no doubt that computers surpasses human being in many aspects and
can perform certain tasks better, faster and cheaper. But it cannot substitute
man. The words of John F Kennedy are also 100% true "Man is still the most
extraordinary Computers
of all". The Computer, being an electronic device, has certain limitations,
which can be summarized as follow:
No IQ: A computer is not a magical device. It can only perform tasks
that a human being can. The difference is that it performsthese tasks
with unthinkable speed and accuracy. It possesses no intelligence of
its own. Its IQ is zero, at least till today. Hence, only the user can
determine what tasks a computer will perform. A computer cannot
take its own decision in this regard. Unlike the human brain, a
computer cannot think on its own, but has to be given very explicit,
step-by-step instructions to make it perform a task.

No Feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. They have no

feelings and no instincts because they are machine. Although men
have succeeded in building a memory for the computer, but no
computer possesses the equivalent of human heart and soul. Based on
our feelings, taste, knowledge, and experience, we often make certain
judgments in our day-to-day life. But computers cannot make such
judgments on their own. Their judgments are based on the instructions
given to them in the form of programs that are written by us. They are
 only as good as man makes and uses them. They do not learn from
experiences.

It is said for computers, "Garbage In Garbage Out (GIGO)". Many of the

problems with computers occur because the computer can't tell the difference
between doing something sensible versus something ridiculous. Erasing all its
stored data is no different to a computer from adding two numbers. Computers
operate logically, but they are incapable of acting prudently and rationally.
Thus a computer is not intelligent: it is a fast, rule-following idiot. Fast
because it works at electronic speeds; rule-following because it needs to be
given very detailed and complete instructions before it can do even the
simplest task; and an idiot because it will unhesitatingly follow instructions
even when to us it would be obvious that they were nonsense.

1.6 CAREERS IN COMPUTERS

Computers are growing in popularity very rapidly. Computers are running
almost everything we can of think: from organizing records to directing
traffic. The Information Technology (IT) industry is growing at an incredible
rate. The impact of computers on
our everyday lives is monumental, though taken for granted. Every time we
make a bank deposit, purchase items on a credit card, pay an insurance
premium or rent a video movie, innumerable computer operations are
involved. Making all these operations happen, behind the scenes, is the work
of a vast array of professionals: computer programmers, programmer analysts,
systems analysts, hardware and software engineers, database managers, etc.
As our society becomes more computerized and technologically sophisticated,
the need for highly skilled computer professionals increases accordingly.
1.6.1 Career Options
The computer technology industry on the whole encompasses many fields of
professional involvement and advancement. In broad terms, here are some of
the career options that one can consider
1. Computer Science Jobs
Computer scientists are involved in designing computer systems and in
researching ways to enhance the practical applications of such designs.
Computer scientists address highly theoretical and complex problems
associated with making new technology beneficial to all segments of society:
academia, the military, civilian businesses, end-user consumers, etc. Included
in this group of computer scientists are computer engineers, database
administrators, computer support analysts, and other technically specialized
professionals.
2. Systems Development Jobs
People working in this field analyze the informational needs within an
organization and the ways by which various computer systems should
properly relate to each other to enhance the overall operation of the
organization. Systems analysts ensure that the functional areas of the
organization - accounting, marketing, sales etc .- communicate properly with
each other. To accomplish this task, systems analysts study and modify the
capabilities of the computer hardware and software to meet the changing
demands of an evolving organization.
3. EDP Auditor Jobs
This is a challenging career option for professionals who have keen interests
and skills in computers as well as in accounting and finance. The fundamental
goal of EDP (Electronic Data Processing) auditing is to ensure the accuracy,
efficiency, and integrity of a company's computer system, which is at the heart
of all its business operations. EDP auditors are concerned, in part, with the
accuracy of computer input and output as this accuracy relates to the
possibility of financial impropriety, security leaks, or fraud. Along with
knowledge of computer systems, programming languages, and various
applications, EDP auditors need a good understanding of business and
financial management. In fact, many EDP auditors hold MBA degrees and/or
CA certification.
4. Consulting Jobs
One who aspires to become computer consultant can follow a number of
career paths. Some computer consultants are motivated by strong
entrepreneurial instincts. With several years of industry experience, they
choose the route of freelance consulting, often as stepping-stones for starting
their own companies to carve their niches in the computer market. Talented
young professionals may also consider a career with combined-practice
companies, such as the prestigious consulting firms, or with major hardware/
software suppliers, or with international consulting firms that offer computer
consulting as part of turnkey business services. Other rewarding computer
careers include sales/marketing support, technical writing and instruction,
quality assurance, network engineering, management information systems,
and so forth.
5. Teaching Jobs
One can make career in computer teaching at both under graduate and post
graduate
levels.

1.6.2 Computers in Non-IT Professions

Even if we are not interested in becoming a computer professional, it is a must
that we have basic knowledge of computers and the commonly used
applications. It is imperative that we become a computer savvy professional-a
person who can use computers with ease to perform routine tasks like
composing a letter or memo, send and receive e-mail, surf the Internet, make
computer presentations, etc. Because in today's information age-where
computers hold the center stage - computer proficiency is a must for our
survival and success.
The workers and professionals of the world will soon be divided into two
distinct groups: those who will control computers and those who will be
controlled by computers. It would be best for you to be in the former group.
Lewis D Eigen

History and Classification of Computers

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The development of computers is the story of man’s continuous search for better and
faster ways to count, write and communicate. Although modern electronic computers
are only a recent phenomenon, the ideas and devices leading to the advent of
computers date for back in the history. Early man, when started to live a settled life
in the stone age, used pebbles and stone for counting items, and used marking on the
walls for storing the counts. The discovery of zero by Indian mathematician laid the
foundation stone of the number system. We can identify three distinct stages in the
evolution of computers from these simple ideas and devices to the complex and
sophisticated devices as they are now:
 Early Computing Devices

Early Electronic Computers

Modern Computers

2.2 EARLY COMPUTING DEVICES

The earliest device that qualifies, as a digital computer is the Abacus also known as
Soroban This device permits the user to represent number by the position of beads
on a rack. Simple addition and subtraction can be carried by out rapidly and
efficiently by positioning the beads appropriately. Although, the Abacus was
invented around 600 BC, it is interesting to note that it is still used in the Far East
and its users can calculate at amazing speeds.
Another manual calculating device was Napier's Bones , designed by John Napier ,
a Scottish scientist. It used a set of eleven rods called ‘bones’ with numbers carved
on them. It was designed in early 17th century and its upgraded versions were in use
even around 1890.
Pascaline , designed by Blaise Pascal in 1642, was the first mechanical calculating
machine. Pascaline used a system of gears, cogwheels and dials for carrying out
repeated additions and subtractions.
Later in 1671, Baron Gottfried von Leibitz of Germany developed a similar
mechanical calculator that could also perform multiplication and divisions. In 1820,
a similar key – driven mechanical calculator, called Thomas Arithmometer, met
with commercial success. It was developed by Charles Xavier Thomas of France.
19th century witnessed major advances in computing technology. An important
breakthrough in the development of computing was the concept of stored program to
control calculations. In the early 19th century a Frenchman, Joseph Jacquard
invented a loom that used punched cards to automatically control the manufacturing
of patterned cloth. Jacquard's idea of storing a sequence of instructions on the cards
is also conceptually similar to modern computer programs.
The year 1822 could be considered a golden year in the history of Computer Science.
It was in the year 1822, when an Englishmen, Charles Babbage , a Professor of
Mathematics at Cambridge University, developed and demonstrated a working model
of a mechanical computer called Difference Engine. It could do complex algebraic
equations and was built on the principal of gearing wheels of earlier era. It was also
able to produce mathematical and statistical tables correct up to 20 digits.
Encouraged by success of Difference Engine; Babbage, in 1833, came out with his
new idea of Analytic Engine . It could store 1000 numbers of 50 decimals each. It
was to be capable of performing the basic arithmetic function for any mathematical
problem and it was to do so at an average speed of 60 additions per minute.
Unfortunately, he was unable to produce a working model of this machine mainly
because the precision engineering required to manufacture the machine was not
available during that period. However, his efforts established a number of principles,
which have been shown to be fundamental to the design of any digital computer.
There were many features of the Engine - punched card instructions, internal
memory and an arithmetic unit to perform calculation – that were incorporated in the
early computer, designed a 100 year later. Many people today credit Charles Babbage
with the real father of computers .
His disciple, a brilliant mathematician, Lady Ada Lovelace , the daughter of the
famous English poet Lord Byron , developed the binary number system for
Bandage's machine. She is widely considered as the first programmer in the world,
and programming language ADA is named after her. Babbage’s Engines were more
closely related to modern computers than any of their predecessors.
Keyboard machines originated in the United State around 1880 and are extensively
used even today. Around this period only, Herman Hollerith came up with the
concept of punched cards , which are extensively used as input media in modern
digital computers. Business machines and calculators made their appearance in
Europe and America towards the end of the nineteenth century.
In 1880's the Census Bureau of the United States appointed Harman Hollerith to
develop a technique for speeding up the processing of census data. It was the major
breakthrough of 19th century when the developed a machine which used punched
cards to store the census data. This innovation reduced the time of processing from 8
years to less than 3 years.
In 1890's many other countries like Canada, Australia, and Russia also used
Hollerith Machine for processing their census data. Later many other large
organizations like Insurance Company used Hollerith Machine to speed up their
processing activity. In 1890's Hollerith left the Census Bureau and started the
Tabulating Machine Company, which, in 1911, merged with several other firms to
form International Business Machine (IBM) Corporation.
During the early part of the 20th century there was a flurry of activities in the
computing field. Due to the onset of World War II, there was a great need for
devices, which can produce ballistic tables very quickly.
The world's first electro-mechanical computer was developed by Dr Howard Aiken
of Harvard University and produced by IBM in the year 1944. This computer used
more than 3000 relays, was 50 feet long and 8 feet high and was named as
Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator also called Mark-1. It was a quit fast
machine and could add two numbers in 0.3 seconds and multiple two number in 4.5
seconds. This computer may be regarded as the first realization of Babbage's
Analytical Engine. IBM went on to develop Mark –II through IV.

2.3 EARLY ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS

2.3.1 Atanasoff-Berry Computer(1939-42)
This electronic machine was developed by Dr John Atanasoff to solve certain
mathematical equations. It was called Atanasoff-Berry Computer , or ABC, after
its inventor’s name and his assistant, Clifford Berry . It used 45 vacuum tubes for
internal logic and capacitors for storage.
2.3.2 ENIAC(1943-46)
The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) was the first all
electronic computer. It was constructed at the Moore School of Engineering of the
University of Pennsylvania, USA by a design team led by Professors J. Presper
Eckert and John Mauchly .
ENIAC was developed as a result of military need. It took up the wall space in a 20 x
40 square feet room and it used 18,000 vacuum tubes. The addition of two numbers
was achieved in 200 microseconds, and multiplication in 2000 microseconds.
Although, much faster in speed as compared to Mark I computer, ENIAC had two
major shortcomings: it could store and manipulate only very limited amount of
information, and its programs were wired on boards. These limitations made it
difficult to detect errors and to change the programs. Hence its use was limited.
However, whatever be the shortcomings of ENIAC, it represented an impressive feat
of electronic engineering and was used for many years to solve ballistic problems.
2.3.3 EDVAC(1946-52)
The operation of ENIAC was seriously handicapped by the wiring board. This
problem was later overcome by the new concept of stored program developed by
Dr John V Neumann . The basic idea behind the stored program concept is that a
sequence of instructions as well as data can be stored in the memory of the computer
for the purpose of automatically directing the flow of operations. The stored program
feature considerably influenced the development of modern digital computers and
because of this feature we often refer to modem digital computers as stored program
digital computers.
The Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) was designed on
stored program concept. Von Neumann has also got a share of the credit for
introducing the idea of storing both instructions and data in the binary form instead
of the decimal numbers or human readable words.
2.3.4 EDSAC(1947-49)
Almost simultaneously with EDVAC of USA, the Britishers developed Electronic
Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC). The machine executed its first
program in May 1949. In this machine, addition operation was accomplished in 1500
microseconds, and multiplication operation in 4000 microseconds. The machine was
developed by a group, of scientists headed by Professor Maurice Wilkes of the
Cambridge University.
2.3.5 MANCHESTER MARK-I (1948)
This computer was a small experimental machine based on the stored program
concept. It was designed at Manchester University by a group of scientists heated by
Professor M H A Newman . Its storage capacity was only 32 words, each of 31
binary digits. This was too limited to store data and instructions. Hence, the
Manchester Mark I was hardly of any practical use.
2.3.6 UNIVAC -1(1951)
The Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) was the first digital computer, which
was not "one of a kind". Many UNIVAC machines were produced, the first of which
was installed in the Census Bureau in 1951 and was used continuously for 10 years.
The first business use of a computer, a UNIVAC-I, was by General Electric
Corporation in 1954. In 1952, the International Business Machines (IBM)
Corporation introduces the 701 commercial computers.
In rapid succession, improved models of the UNIVAC I and other 700-series
machines were introduced. In 1953, IBM produced the IBM-650 and sold over 1000
of these computers. The commercially available digital computers that could be used
for business and scientific applications had arrived.
During the period of late 1940's and early 1950’s many other stored program
computers like ILLIAC, JOHNIAC, MANIAC etc. were developed. With these
developments in the computing field and advancement in technology, the stage was
set for modern computers.

2.4 THE MODERN COMPUTERS

Early electronic computers were exclusively used for the military, experimental and
engineering purposes. In the early 1950's computers began to be sold commercially.
The development of commercial computer industry was really the beginning of the
computer revolution.
The modern computers era can be divided into four generations distinguished by the
basic electronic component within the computer. Each new logic unit has led to
computers that are faster in speed, smaller in size, more reliable and less expensive
than their predecessors. Modern computers came in a variety of shapes, sizes and
costs.
2.4.1 The Computer Generations
“Generation” in computer talk is a step in technology. It provides a framework for
the growth of the computer industry. Originally, the term “generation” was used to
distinguish between varying hardware technologies. But nowadays, it has been
extended to include both the hardware and the software together that make up an
entire computer system.
The custom of referring to the computer era in terms of generations came into wide
use only after 1964. There are totally five computer generations known till today.
Although there is a certain amount of overlapping between the generations, the
approximate dates shown against each are normally accepted.

Figure 3-1 Electronic Devices used for Manufacturing Computers of Different

Generations

[Link] First-Generation Computers (1942-1955)

First-generation computing involved massive computers using hundreds or thousands
of vacuum tubes for their processing and memory circuitry. These large computers
generated enormous amounts of heat; their vacuum tubes had to be replaced
frequently. Thus, they had large electrical power, air conditioning, and maintenance
requirements. First-generation computers had main memories of only a few thousand
characters and millisecond processing speeds. They used magnetic drums or tape for
secondary storage. Examples of some of the popular first generation computers
include ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC-I, IBM-701, IBM-650, and IAS Machine.
Characteristics:
a. Fastest calculating device of their time
b. Too bulky in size, requiring large rooms for installation
c. Thousands of vacuum tubes used which emitted lots of heat and burnt out
frequently.
d. Proper air conditioned environment
e. Each vacuum tube consumed half a watt of power. Power consumption was
more
f. Vacuum tube used filaments, so had a limited life
g. Due to low mean time between failures, computers required almost constant

maintainence

h. Manual assembling of components

i. Commercial production was difficult and costly
j. Difficult to program and use, therefore limited commercial use.
 Figure 3-2 Three Stages of Development

[Link] Second-Generation Computers (1955-1964)

Second-generation computing used transistors and other solid-state, semiconductor
devices that were wired to circuit boards in the computers. Transistorized circuits
were much smaller and much more reliable, generated little heat, were less
expensive, and required less power than vacuum tubes. Tiny magnetic cores were
used for the computer's memory, or internal storage. Many second-generation
computers had main memory capacities of less than 100 kilobytes and microsecond
processing speeds. Removable magnetic disk packs were introduced, and magnetic
tape emerged as the major input, output, and secondary storage medium for large
computer installations. Examples of some of the popular second-generation
computers include IBM-1620, IBM-7094, CDC-1604, CDC-3600, UNIVAC-1108,
PDP-I and NCR-304.
Characteristics:

a. More than ten times faster than first-generation computers

b. Smaller than first generation computer, occupy less space
c. Heat dissipiation was less
d. Consumed less power than first generation computers
e. More reliable and less prone to hardware failures than first-generation
computers
f. Faster and larger primary and secondary storage than first-generation
computers
g. Much easier to program and use than first-generation computers
h. Thousands of individual transistors had to be assembled manually on
functioning circuits. Therefore commercial production was difficult and costly

[Link] Third-Generation Computers (1964-1975)

Third-generation computing saw the development of computers that use integrated
circuits , in which thousands of transistors and other circuit elements are etched on
tiny chips of silicon. Main memory capacities increased to several megabytes and
processing speeds jumped to millions of instructions per second (MIPS) as
telecommunications capabilities became common. This made it possible for
operating system programs to come into widespread use that automated and
supervised the activities of many types of peripheral devices and processing by
mainframe computers of several programs at the same time, frequently involving
networks of users at remote terminals. Integrated circuit technology also made
possible the development and widespread use of small computer called
minicomputers in the third computer generation.
Examples of some of the popular third-generation computers include IBM-360
Series, IBM-370 Series, HCL-2900 Series, Honeywell-6000 Series, PDP-8 and VAX.
Characteristics:

a. Much more powerful than second gen. computers

b. Perform 1 MIPS
c. Much smaller than second gen. computers
d. Heat dissipation was less than second gen. computers but require proper air
conditioned rooms
e. Consume less power and less prone to hardware failures
f. Maintenance cost was low
g. Faster and larger primary and secondary storage
h. Was general purpose machine
i. Reduced human labor as manual assembling of components was not
required
j. Commercial production was easier and cheaper

[Link] Fourth-Generation Computers (1975-2000)

Fourth-generation computing relies on the use of LSI ( large-scale integration ) and
VLSI ( very-large-scale integration ) technologies that cram hundreds of thousands
or millions of transistors and other circuit elements on each chip. This enabled the
development of microprocessors, in which all of the circuits of a CPU are contained
on a single chip with processing speeds of millions of instructions per second. Main
memory capacities ranging from a few megabytes to several gigabytes can also be
achieved by memory chips that replaced magnetic core memories. Microcomputers,
which use microprocessor CPUs and a variety of peripheral devices and easy-to-use
software packages to form small personal computer (PC), systems or
client/server networks of linked PCs and servers, are a hallmark of the fourth
generation of computing, which accelerated the downsizing of computing systems.
Examples of some of the popular fourth-generation computers include DEC-10,
STAR-1000, PDP-II, CRAY-I (Supercomputer), CRAY-X-MP (Supercomputer),
CRAY-2 and IBM PC/AT.
Characteristics:

a.
PCs were smaller and cheaper
b.
More powerful than third gen. computers
c.
 No air conditioning was required
d.
Consumed less power
e.
More reliable and less prone to hardware failures
f.
Had faster and larger primary and secondary storage
g.
GUI enabled for quick learning
h.
Use standard high-level programming languages
i.
Commercially used

[Link] Fifth-Generation Computers (2000-…)

Computer scientists and engineer s are now talking about developing fifth -
generation computers, which can ‘think’. The emphasis is now shifting from
developing reliable, faster and smaller but ‘dumb’ machines to more ‘intelligent’
machines. Fifth-generation computers will be highly complex knowledge processing
machines. Japan, USA and many other countries are working on systems, which use
Artificial Intelligence. Automatic Programming, Computational Logic Pattern
Recognition and Control of Robots are the processes, which are used in these
computers. The speed of the computers will be billions of instructions per second,
and will have unimaginable storage capacities. These computers will be interactive.
Main characteristics:

a.
will be able to do multip1e tasks, simultaneously
b.
will have a parallel structure as compared to the serial structure of
fourth generation
c.
will not be algorithmic
d.
will be knowledge processing and not data processing and
architecture
e.
will be KIPS (Knowledge Information Processing System)
f.
applications will be based on Expert Systems
g.
 will interact with user in human language
h.
very cheap, super speeds
i.
decision-making capabilities

Figure 2-3 Major Trends in Computer System Capabilities

Figure 2-3 highlights trends in the characteristics and capabilities of computers.

Notice that computers continue to become smaller, faster, more reliable, less costly to
purchase and maintain, and more interconnected within computer networks. In terms
of the analogy with the automobile industry, if the automobile industry had grown
like the computer industry, the cost of a Rolls Royce would be around Rs 80 and
would run a million miles on a litre of petrol but the size would be that of a match
box. Even though computers in the last 50 years have become very fast, reliable and
inexpensive, the basic logical structure proposed by Von Neumann has not changed.
The basic block diagram of a CPU, memory and I/O is still valid today. With the
improvements in integrated circuit technology, it is now possible to get specialized
VLSI chips at a low cost. Thus an architecture, which makes use of the changes in
technology and allows an easier and more natural problem solving, is being sought.

2.5 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

The various generations of computers actually show the development in the
computers from the early stages. But, even today, all the computers are not of the
same type. Computers come in many different sizes and ranges of power, and
different types of computer systems have varying capabilities. Computers can be
divided into following categories by functional criteria (data representation):

Digital Computers

Analog Computers

Hybrid Computers

[Link] Digital computers

A digital computer, as the name suggests, works with digits. In other words, a digital
computer is a counting device. All the expressions are coded into binary digits (0’s
and 1’s ) inside the computers and it maintains and manipulates them at a very fast
speed. A digital computer can perform only one operation i.e. addition. The other
operations of subtraction, multiplication and division are performed with the help of
addition operation. The digital computer circuits are designed and fabricated by the
manufacturers and are quite complicated ones. A digital computer manipulates data
according to the instructions (program) given to it in a certain language. The
instructions and data are fed to the computer in the form of discrete electrical signals.
Digital computers are further divided into two categories:
1.
General Purpose Computers: These computers are designed for use
in different types of applications in different areas. They can be used to prepare
pay bills, manage inventories, print sales or can be used to solve mathematical
equations. When one job is over another job can be loaded into the memory for
processing. They are versatile; hence most businesses today use general-purpose
computers.

2.
Special Purpose Computers: The digital computers, which are made
to meet requirements of a particular task or job, are called special purpose
computers. For example: computers used for weather forecasting or for space
applications. They are also known as dedicated computers. The typical special
purpose computers are:
 Word Processor: This computer is most versatile for office automation
purposes and replaces the typewriters. It is widely used for the production of
office documents, letters, contracts, pay bills etc. It is a computer that has to
deal with the bulk of input, in production of bulk of printed output, not
involving too many calculations or connecting programs. It also works as a
duplicating machine with a very high speed and facilitates seeing through
the old and other connected documents as and when desired.

Hidden Computers: Such computers are designed to control particular

process or job and as such are installed inside the machine being
automatised. These are digital computers with hybrid applications. LAN and
WAN, using the electronic message switching systems employ such
computer robots in intensive care units and other hospital instruments.
Automatic washing machines, digital clocks, Hot shot camera use these
computers.

Optical Computers: These are under process of design and development.

Here the concept of application of quadral logic in place of binary logic and
use of optical fibre technology is being used.

Hand Held and Pocket Computers : These are very small in size with
memory of 4 to 16 Kb. They are used for personal and scientific computing.

Knowledge Information Processing Systems (KIPS): They process

information and not data. They incorporate artificial intelligence, (ability of
reasoning, thinking and decision making). In such computers, hardware and
software will work in parallel memory operations having capabilities of 100
million to a billion lips (logical interferences per second). A lip is equal to
100 to 1000 instructions per second.

Dedicated Word Processor: It is used for office automation. It is widely

used for production of office documentation, letters, memos, contracts, pay
bills etc.

[Link] Analog Computers

Analog computers represent numbers by a physical quantity i.e. they assign numeric
values by physically measuring some actual property, such as the length of an object,
or the amount of voltage passing through a point in an electric circuit. Analog
computers derive all their data from some form of measurement. Though effective
for some applications, this method of representing numbers is a limitation of the
analog computers. The accuracy of the data used in an analog computer is directly
related to the precision of its measurement. Speedometers, Volmeters, Pressure
Gauges, Slide Rules, Flight Simulators for training pilots and Wall Clocks are some
examples of analog computers
[Link] Hybrid Computers
Hybrid computers combine the best features of analog and digital computers. They
have the speed of analog computers and accuracy of digital computers. They are
usually used for special problems in which input data derived from measurement is
converted into digits and processed by computer. Hybrid computers for example,
control National Defense and Passenger flight radars.
Consider the Hybrid computer system in a hospital Intensive Care Unit (ICU). The
analog device may measure a patient heart function, temperature and other signs.
These measurements may, then, be converted into numbers and supplied to a digital
device, which may send as immediate signal to a nurse’s station if any abnormal
readings are detected.
To take another example of Hybrid computer, consider the system used in producing
iron ore pellets for steel making. It controls manufacturing and prepares production
data on inventory and costs. The computer accepts data both from sensors within the
production area and from conventional Input/Output devices. Using the production
data, the computer plans for future manufacturing and distributes existing inventories
to activities that require the computer to act as digital computer. The computer can
act like an analog computer converting measurements into numeric numbers. It can
act as a digital computer processing stored data for management.
We can also classify the computer systems into following categories by using the
capacity performance criteria (size, cost, speed and memory):

Supercomputers

Mainframe computers

Minicomputers, or Midrange computers

Workstations

Microcomputers, or Personal computers

All of these computers can be connected to form networks of computers, but each
individual computer, whether or not it is on a network, falls into one of these five
categories. As we will see, some of these categories-especially microcomputers-can
be divided into subcategories, some of which are growing rapidly enough to become
major categories in their own right.
[Link] Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the most powerful computers made, and physically they are
some of the largest. These systems are built to process huge amounts of data, and the
fastest supercomputers can perform more than trillion calculations per second. Some
supercomputers such as the Cray T-90 system; can house thousands of processors.
This speed and power make supercomputers ideal for handling large and highly
complex problems that require extreme calculating power such as numerical whether
prediction, design of supersonic aircraft, design of drugs and modeling of complex
molecules.
Recently the use of supercomputers has expanded beyond scientific calculations.
They are now used to analyse large commercial databases, produce animated movies
and play games such as chess.
Super computers can cost tens of million of dollars and consume enough electricity
to power dozens of homes. They are often housed in protective rooms with special
cooling systems, power protection, and other security features. Because of their size
and cost, supercomputers are relatively tare, used only by large corporations,
universities, and government agencies that can afford them. Supercomputing
resources are often shared to give researchers access to these precious machines.
[Link] Mainframe Computers
The largest type of computer in common use is the mainframe. Mainframe computers
are used in large organizations like insurance companies and banks where many
people need frequent access to the same data, which is usually organized into one or
more huge databases.
Mainframes are being used more and more as specialized servers on the World Wide
Web, enabling companies to offer secure transactions with customers over the
Internet. If we purchase an air line ticket over the Web, for example, there is a good
chance that our transaction is being handled by a mainframe system. In this type of
application, the mainframe system may be referred to as an enterprise server or an
electronic commerce (e-commerce) server.
In a traditional mainframe environment, each user works at a computer terminal. A
terminal is a monitor and a keyboard (and sometimes a pointing device, such as a
mouse) wired to the mainframe. There are basically two types of terminals used with
mainframe systems. A dumb terminal does not have its own CPU or storage devices;
these components are housed in the mainframe's system unit and are shared by all
users.
Each dumb terminal is simply an input/output (I/O) device that functions as a
window into a computer located somewhere else. An intelligent terminal, on the
other hand, has its own processor and can perform some processing operations.
Intelligent terminals, however, do not usually provide any storage. Many enterprises
are now connecting personal computers and personal computer networks to their
mainframe systems. This connection gives users access to mainframe data and
services and also enables them to take advantage of local storage and processing, as
well as other features of the PC or network
A mainframe system can house an enormous volume of data, containing literally
billions of records. Large mainframe systems can handle the input and output
requirements of several thousand terminals. The IBM S/390 mainframe, for example,
can support 50,000 users simultaneously while executing more than 1,600,000,000
instructions per second. It used to be common for mainframe computers to occupy
entire rooms or even an entire floor of a high-rise building. Typically, they were
placed inside glass offices with special air conditioning to keep them cool and on
raised floors to accommodate all the wiring needed to connect the system. This setup
is not used much anymore. Today, a typical mainframe computer looks like an
unimposing file cabinet-or a row of file cabinets-although it may still require a
somewhat controlled environment.
[Link] Mini Computers
First released in the 1960s, minicomputers got their name because of their small size
compared to other computers of the day. The capabilities of minicomputer are
between that of mainframes and personal computers. (For this reason, minicomputers
are increasingly being called midrange computers). Like mainframes, minicomputers
can handle much more input and output than personal computers can.
Although some "minis" are designed for a single user, most are designed to handle
multiple terminals in a network environment that handle the data sharing needs of
other computers on the network. The most powerful minicomputers can serve the
input and output needs of hundreds of users at a time. Single-user minicomputers are
commonly applied to sophisticated design tasks such as animation and video editing.
[Link] Workstations
Somewhere between multi-user midrange computers and personal computers are
workstations. Workstations are specialized, single-user computers with many of the
features of a personal computer but with the processing power of a minicomputer.
These powerful machines are popular among scientists, engineers, graphic artists,
animators, and programmers-users that need a great deal of number-crunching
power. Workstations typically use advanced processors and feature more RAM and
storage capacity than personal computers. Workstations often have large, high-
resolution monitors and accelerated graphics-handling capabilities, making them
perfect for advanced design, modeling, animation, and video editing. Although
workstations are often found in single user applications, they are more and more used
as servers on personal computer networks and as Web servers.
Until a few years ago, the term workstation implied certain differences in terms of
chip design and operating system, making it distinct from a personal computer. (The
term workstation is also used to describe a single computer on a network. In this
context; a workstation is usually a personal computer.) Today, the differences
between minicomputers, workstations, and personal computers are becoming
blurred. Low-end minicomputers and high-end workstations are now similar in
features and capabilities. The same is true for low-end workstations and high-end
personal computers. Some manufacturers of workstations are Silicon Graphics (SIG),
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), IBM, SUN Microsystems and Hewlett
Packard (HP). The standard Operating System in workstations is UNIX and its
derivatives such as AIX (IBM), Solaris (SUN) and HP-UX (HP).
[Link] Microcomputers or Personal Computers
The terms microcomputer and personal computer are interchangeable, but PC, which
stands for personal computers- sometimes, has a more specific meaning. In 1981,
IBM called its first microcomputer the IBM–PC. Within a few years, many
companies were copying the IBM design, creating “clones” or “compatibles” that
were meant to function like the original, for the reason, the term PC has come to
mean the family of computers that includes IBMs and IBM compatibles. The vast
majority of microcomputers sold today are part of this family.
One source of the PC’s popularity is the rate at with improvements is made in its
technology. Microprocessors, memor y chips, and storage devices make continual
gains in speed and capacity, while physical size and price remain stable – or in some
cases are reduced. For example, compared to the typical PC of ten years ago, a
machine of the same price today will have about ten times as much RAM, about 100
times more storage capacity, and a microprocessor at least 100 times as fast. What’s
more, many analysts believe that this pace of change will continue for another 10 or
20 years. The microcomputer category has grown tremendously in the past decade.
There are now several specific types of microcomputers, each with its own
capabilities, features, and purposes. Within each subcategory of microcomputer, we
can find dozens or even hundreds of unique systems. This range of options makes the
microcomputer “the computer for the masses” and explains why so many systems
have appeared in offices, homes, briefcases, and even pockets over the past few
years. Microcomputers include the following types:
1. Desktop Models including tower models
2. Notebook Computers, also called Laptop Computers
3. Network Computers
4. Handheld Personal Computers (H/PCs) of all types

Software Packages

3.1 Introduction

Software is a set of programs, procedures and associated documents which

describe the program and how they are to be used. Its objective is to enhance
the capabilities of the hardware.

Software is a set of programs, documents, procedures and routines associated

with the operation of a computer system for specific application/task. It is the
essential complement to computer hardware. Software usually refers to a set
of advanced computer modules that allow the user to plan efficient surveys,
organize and acquire satellite navigation data, verify and download data,
process and analyze measurements, perform network adjustments, and report
and archive the final results. These are the written coded commands that tell a
computer what tasks to perform. The term software has acquired several
meanings in computer literature but essentially, it describes the ‘Soft’ portion
of the computer installation, that is the computer programs, which when
executed operate the hardware. For example, Word, PhotoShop, Picture Easy,
and Photo Deluxe are software programs.
Software is a sequence of instructions that can be executed by a computer
(CPU) that performs a certain task intentioned by the programmer. Within
software actions are defined that should be executed by a computer. These
actions are put in a predefined order: a logical path.
Software may also be referred to as the specific set of instructions, programs,
procedures, rules, and any associated documentation pertaining to the
operation of a system that tells the computer hardware precisely what to do.
The entire set of programs, procedures, and related documentation associated
with a computer system controls the operation of a computer and are
distinguished from the actual hardware of the computer. Hence, a series of
instructions for the computer that performs a particular task is called software.
Now we can define software as:
Software is a program, procedure or set of logical instructions which
when fed into the memory of computer system, enables the computer
hardware to perform the desired task of the user.
What is a Software package?
A software package is a special method for the distribution and installation of
software on computer systems. It is the written programs or procedures or
rules and associated documentation pertaining to the operation of a computer
system and that are stored in read/write memory. In simple words, software
package is a program with its associated files, archived and compressed into a
single file along with any necessary scripts or information to aid in managing
the installation, upgrade, and removal of those files.
Software package is a group of programs which solve a specific problem or
perform specific type of job.
Software packages have evolved from stand alone software programs and
notes based information systems to more integrated web enabled packages
which have even the potential of working across the 'value network' of
internal teams and management, customers, suppliers and sometimes
competitors.
Relationship between Software and Hardware:
To produce useful output, systems hardware and software must work together.
Nothing useful can be done with the computer hardware on its own and
software can not be utilized without supporting hardware.
1) Both hardware and software are necessary to do useful job.
2) Both are complementary to each other
3) Same hardware can be loaded with different software so that system can
perform different jobs
4) Except for upgrades (increasing memory, hard disk etc) hardware is
onetime expenses, where as software is continuing expense.

3.2 Types of Software Packages

Software Packages are often divided into two major categories:
(1) System software Package
(2) Application software. Package

(1) System software Package:

A System Software Package is a collection of programs designed to operate,

control and extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. This
software operates the computer itself and is made up of control programs.
System software packages are generally prepared today by computer
manufacturers and by independent software suppliers. Some important system
software packages found in almost all computer installations are the operating
system and all utility programs that manage computer resources at a low level.
Others are compilers, interpreters and assemblers.
System software package is required to support the production or execution of
application software but which is not specific to any particular application.
Examples of system software package would include the operating system,
compilers, loaders, linkers, debuggers, editors, sorting programs and all the
other utilities that enable the computer to function. A system software package
may be further classified as follows:

Operating System
Language Translators
Utilities
Communication software

Functions of System software package:

a) Supports development of other application software
b) Supports execution of other application software
c) Monitors effective use of hardware resources, CPU, memory etc
d) Communicates with aand controls operation of peripheral devices. Ex:
printers tapes etc

A) Operating system
Operating system is the most important program that runs on a computer
system. It is an organized collection of software that controls the overall
operations of a computer and provides an environment for execution of
programs. It acts as an interface between user and the hardware of a computer
system. Every general-purpose computer must have this important system
software package to run other programs. The operating system permits the
computer to supervise and manage its resources. It performs the basic tasks,
such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display
screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, and controlling
peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers. Operating system calls the
application programs, translates the special service programs and manages
data needed to produce the output as desired by users. User is not bothered
about hardware functioning which is silently taken care by the operating
system.
For large systems, the operating system has even greater responsibilities and
powers. It is like a traffic cop and makes sure that different programs and
users running at the same time do not interfere with each other. The operating
system is also responsible for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not
access the system.
Operating systems can be classified as follows:

Single User O.S.: Allows only one user at a time. Most popular
single user O.S. is MS-DOS.
Batch O.S.: Allows processing in the form of groups of similar
jobs consisting of programs, data, and appropriate system
commands.
Multi-programming O.S.: Allows the instruction and data from
two or more separate processes to reside in primary memory
simultaneously
Multi-user O.S.: Allows two or more users to run programs at
the same time. Some operating systems permit hundreds or even
thousands of concurrent users.
Multiprocessing O.S.: Supports running a program on more than
one CPU.
Multitasking O.S.: Allows more than one program to run
concurrently.
Multithreading O.S.: Allows different parts of a single program
to run concurrently.
Real time O.S.: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose
operating systems, such as DOS and UNIX, are not real-time.
Network O.S.: Supports the existence of multiple computers and
users can log into remote machines and copy files from one
machine to another machine.
Distributed O.S.: acts as a virtual uniprocessor but not as a
collection of distinct machines. Users are not aware of where there
programs are being run or where there files are residing.

Operating systems provide a software platform on top of which other

programs, called application programs, can run. The application programs
must be written to run on top of a particular operating system. For PCs, the
 most popular operating systems are DOS, OS/2, and Windows, but others are
available, such as Linux.

The user normally interacts with the operating system through a set of
commands. For example, the DOS operating system contains commands such
as COPY and RENAME for copying files and changing the names of files,
respectively. The commands are accepted and executed by a part of the
operating system called the command processor or command line interpreter.
Graphical user interfaces allow to enter commands by pointing and clicking at
objects that appear on the screen.
Major functions of Operating Systems:
a)Process Management
Takes care of creation, deletion of processes, scheduling various system
resources to different processes etc.
b)Memory Management
Takes care of allocation de-allocation of memory space to various
programs
c)File Management
Takes care of file related activities like naming, sharing, storing,
organization of files etc
d)Security
Protects resources and information form destruction or unauthorized users
e)Command Interpretation
Takes care of interpreting user commands, directing system resources to
handle the requests etc.

B) Language Translators
Language translators are those program tools which translate the programs
written in other computer languages to machine codes. These are the methods to
"translate" source code into computer understandable language. Because
programs written in a high level language are not directly understood by
computers, they need a software tool to convert these programs into machine
level language. The software packages available for this purpose are like
COBOL compiler, C compiler etc. These are mainly of three types:

Interpreter
Compiler
 Assembler

Interpreter: Interpreter is the oldest type of computer program that executes

instructions that are written in the form of a program. The trick of an interpreter
is that it loads the source code and translates the instruction into executable
machine language line by line. And it does it over and over again any time that
program is run. In order to run a program first (e.g. "load BASIC") the
interpreter has to loaded into the memory of the computer, then the source code
and then type "run to execute the program. An interpreter is unique for each high
level language. It is relatively slow. Another disadvantage is that mostly these
interpreters are expensive. Also to the designer of the program this can be a
disadvantage. He or she will just give away its trade secrets and have no longer
control over his own program, the distribution or avoid unwanted adaptations.
Compiler: Compiler is a computer program that translates source code written
in high level language into machine language. First the source code is read into
the computer's memory and then it is translated in to a kind of object code. A
compiler creates a unique object program i.e. once a source program is compiled
there is no need of that source program because output can be obtained by
executing that object program. For each high level language the machine
requires a separate compiler which is personal for that language. Compilers are
somewhat more compact and run, in some extend, faster.
Basically the functions of compilers and interpreters are same, the only
difference is that a compiler provides a separate object program, but the
interpreter does not. In case of interpreter, every time the source code is required
for the execution of program whereas compiler uses the object code developed
by compilation of the source code. Another difference is that interpreter
translates the source program line wise i.e. it will not execute the next line unless
the first one has no error but compiler translates the whole program at a single
time and produce an object code for the execution purpose.
Assembler: An assembler is a program that translates an assembly language
program (i.e. symbolic instructions) to its machine language equivalent. A
programmer did no longer have to work with one's and zero's when using an
assembly language. He or she can use symbols (e.g. STO = store) instead. These
symbols are called mnemonics and each mnemonic stands for one single
machine instruction. But an assembler still works on a very low level with the
machine. So the assembler has to take these non machine language instructions
(mnemonic name instructions) prepared by a programmer and convert them into
a form that may be used by the computer. Examples of assemblers for Intel
8086/8088 Assembly are MASM (Macro Assembler) 5.0/6.0, TASM (Turbo
Assembler), etc.
C) Utilities

Utility software (also known as utilities) performs a very specific task, usually
related to managing system resources. Operating systems contain a number of
utilities for managing disk drives, printers, and other devices. Utility software
may be considered as system software which is used quite often in developing,
writing, debugging and documenting programs. It differs from application
software mostly in terms of size, complexity and function. For example, word
processors, spreadsheet programs, and database applications are considered
application software because they are large programs that perform a variety of
functions not directly related to managing computer resources.
In simple words, Utility software supports the operations, management, and
users of a computer system by providing a variety of support services. This
software is sometimes installed as memory-resident program and may include
file conversion, data compression; data transfer utility, text editor, real time clock
utility and so on. In real sense, utility software is developed to perform
operations on files containing data and be used for transferring data from one
storage device to another. Utility software can be divided into two parts:

First, file management utilities which are parts of operating system

and help the programmers in copying, printing, deleting and renaming
files.
second, program development utilities to help users in writing and
testing programs.

Some of the utility programs are discussed as follows:

Editor: These are the interactive programs which allow programmers to enter,
modify and store a source code
File Manager: These programs allow programmers to create copy, update or
delete files on the storage device.
Loader: This program loads the machines codes of a program into the memory
of the computer system.
Locator: This program allocates specific memory addresses for each machine
code of a program which is to be loaded into the system memory.
Linker: This program links smaller programs (modules) to form a single
program.

(2) Application software Package:

Application software package comprises programs that help people accomplish
specific tasks. These packages are designed for all types of applications such as
business applications, home applications, engineering designs, teaching aids etc.
If an end user who controls the particular task at hand desires to use application
software he or she has to define his/her own specific requirements for which the
application program may be developed so as to produce the specific required
results. These packages are often written by users to meet their own specific
needs in high level language and are under the complete control of the operating
system. An application software package may be classified into the following
two categories:

• General Purpose Application Software Package

• Specific Purpose Application Software Package

A) General Purpose Application Software Package

These packages help in increasing the productivity of computer and are

commonly used in day-to-day operations performed by the end users. So this
type of application software is also known as program productivity tool or
productivity package. Some of the general purpose application software
packages which enable a user to effectively utilize a computer are:

Word Processing Software

Desktop Publishing Software
Spreadsheet Software
Data Base Management Software
Personal Assistance Software
Education Software
Enteratinment Software
Graphics Software
Data Communication Software

Word Processing Software: Of all computer applications, word processing

is the most common. A word processor enables the user to create a document,
store it electronically on a disk, display it on a screen, modify it by entering
commands and characters from the keyboard, and print it on a printer. In
contrast to data processing where the focus is generally on numerically data,
in word processing the main concern is with text. The main productivity
improvement comes from the ease and rapidity with which document can be
modified. Word processing is designed to enable the user to create, edit, and
print documents conveniently using a computer instead of using a typewriter.
So the great advantage of word processing over using a typewriter is that the
user can make changes without retyping the entire document. The user can
correct the mistakes, delete a paragraph without leaving a trace, and insert a
word, sentence, or paragraph in the middle of a document. Word processors
also make it easy to move sections of text from one place to another within a
document, or between documents. The user can send the file with all the
changes made to a printer to get a hardcopy or can save the file in a storage
device. Mail-merge is also one of the popular features of word processors.
Now-a-days
Word Processors for languages other than English are also available e.g.
Akshar in Hindi.

Desktop Publishing Software: The line dividing word processors from

desktop publishing systems is constantly shifting. In general, though, desktop
publishing applications support finer control over layout, and more support for
full-color documents. Combining the functions of a traditional typesetter and a
layout artist, a desktop publishing program merges the output of word
processor and graphics programs to produce professional-looking pages that
are ready for the printer. Although many word processors can do this to some
extent, desktop publishing programs have many more sophisticated features.
Businesses use them to create advertisements and sales catalogs. Publishers
use them to lay out news papers, bulletins, magazines, books etc. Examples of
some desktop publishing packages are Corel’s Ventura, Adobe’s Page Maker,
Quark Inc.’s Quark XPress, Microsoft Publisher, Akruti Publisher etc.
Spreadsheet Software: A spreadsheet is simply a sheet of paper with rows
and columns in which one can enter data in the form of numbers, formulae
and text for analysis. In spreadsheet software, screen is used in place of paper.
Spreadsheet applications (sometimes referred to simply as spreadsheets) are
computer programs that display a large grid of rows and columns that allow
users to quickly create, manipulate and analyze data organized in these
spreadsheets electronically. These are very helpful where large tabulated
computations are used. In a spreadsheet application, a table of values is
arranged in rows and columns and each value can have a predefined
relationship to the other values. Each value sits in a cell. The user can define
what type of data is in each cell and how different cells depend on one
another. The relationships between cells are called formulas, and the names of
the cells are called labels. The user can also modify selected values to see how
all the other values change accordingly. This enables the user to study various
what-if scenarios.
Spreadsheet packages are widely used in accounting, sales, inventory control,
and a number of business and non business problems. There are a number of
spreadsheet applications in the market, Lotus 1-2-3 and Excel being among
the most famous. The more powerful spreadsheet applications support
graphics features that enable the user to produce charts and graphs from the
data to show the relationships among numbers more vividly. Most spreadsheet
applications are multidimensional, meaning that the user can link one
spreadsheet to another. A three-dimensional spreadsheet, for example, is like a
stack of spreadsheets all connected by formulas. A change made in one
spreadsheet automatically affects other spreadsheets.
Data Base Management Software: This software was developed to handle
the problems of maintaining and integrating large volumes of data on
computers. It extends the ability to organize collections of data stored in
computer and provides features that help in finding subsets of the data
selected through specified criteria.
Data Base Management programs are nothing else but a collection of data
combined with a sophisticated management program to retrieve and process
all this data to create information for the users. Data Base Management
Software (DBMS) is a collection of programs that enables the user to store,
modify, and extract information from a database. It is very simple and easy to
use. DBMS provides a very high level language interface which is command
oriented. DBMS helps in making queries by arranging or sorting data in some
logical order such as alphabetically by name and generating reports based on
the data files. There are many different types of DBMSs, ranging from small
systems that run on personal computers to huge systems that run on
mainframes. Examples of database applications include computerized library
systems, automated teller machines, flight reservation systems, computerized
parts inventory systems and so on.
Graphics Software: There is a general saying that one picture is worth a
thousand words as graphical or pictorial form is easier to understand than a
tabular form of information. The graphics Software offers the use of
computers for manipulating (creating, editing, viewing, storing, retrieving and
printing) images, designs, drawings, pictures, graphs and anything else that
can be drawn in the traditional manner. While spreadsheet and database
packages are very useful in doing analysis, the output of such analysis is
generally tables of numbers. Graphics Software Package is used to convert the
data in a graphic form on the screen as well as on the paper using printers or
plotters.
Now-a-days business organizations use presentation graphics application
software packages which help in creating professional looking visual aid such
as computer images, paper printouts, or photo transparencies for an audience.
These are specialized type of graphics software to present data in the form of
charts and graphs. These packages facilitate the users to quickly convert
tabular data to graphical form. Sophisticated graphs and complex drawings
can be drawn in multicolor by pressing a few keys of computer keyboard. The
user can orchestrate images and even sounds to produce automated “slide
shows”. A graphics software package can also be used in text publishing. A
desktop publishing software includes graphics to produce pictures and other
forms of graphics in the text where needed. One more advantage of graphic
software is the use of multimedia, a type of application that incorporates
images, text, sound, computer animation, and video and the programs that
create multimedia are known as multimedia authoring software.
Another important application of graphics software is Computer Aided Design
(CAD) software. CAD software is often used by the architects and engineers
to draw designs of buildings or products before the actual construction or
manufacturing gets under way. Engineering is such an area where graphics
software contributes a lot in the form of engineering drawings and different
types of graphs.
Data Communication Software: Data communication software is that
software which put one computer in touch with others and provides facility of
transferring data from one machine to other. In this way more than one
computer using a modem may communicate with each other with the help of
this communication software. Network Software is another type of data
communication software which allows users to share data by creating a group
of connected computers i.e. network of computers. Most popular network
communication software, which are almost considered as a necessity for
business computing are Novell Netware and Microsoft’s Windows NT.
Other data communication software may include fax software for computers
to work as a fax machine and the software distributed by the online service
providers, such as CompuServe, America Online, and Microsoft Network.
Personal Assistance Software: It allows use PC for storing and retrieving
personal information, planning schedules contacts etc
Education Software: It allows computer systems to be used as teaching and
learning tool
Entertainment Software: It allows computers to be used as entertainment
tool example video games.
Specific Purpose Application Software Packages

These software packages are not generalized but are only meant for
performing uncommon applications. Application-specific software packages
may be further classified as follows:

Business Application Package

Scientific Application Package
On line Application Package
Customized Application Package

Business Application Package: This software is nothing but packages

designed for a specific purpose such as account receivable, billing, inventory
control etc. These packages are written by users generally in high level
language to meet their own specific needs. Some of the Business Application
Specific Packages are as follows:

Payroll: This is designed for calculation of wages and salaries. The

extended information like relationship of total wage costs to job in
hand, total costs to date, individual jobs costing etc. make it easier
for management to improve its efficiency.
Management Information System: MIS provides comprehensive
and up to date information to the management. With the help of
this software the decision making process becomes easy and more
reliable. Forecasting in advance helps the decision maker to plan
his activities accordingly.
Library Management System: It maintains the list of books, books
borrowed, new arrivals, remainder for overdue books etc. It is also
helpful in classifying the books for easy reference.

Scientific Application Package: Such a package is specific only for the

scientific purposes. This type of software facilitates the designing and drafting
of complex images and analysis of data. Examples of these packages are
Computer Aided Designing and Computer Aided Manufacturing
(CAD/CAM), Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), Statistical
Analysis Software (SAS) and so on.

On line Application Package: In an online application data is transmitted

directly from its point of origin to the computer, and results are sent directly to
 the location where they are required. The response time of the computer can
be specified with certain limits. No intermediate data preparation or data
transmittal steps are necessary. The online application software facilitates
different users in different locations to use the same computer and this
computer will respond to all enquiries answering promptly. Examples of
Online application are Satellite communication, Air Line Reservation Systems
etc.

Customized Application Package: When pre-written software packages do

not meet the specific requirements of a user, either partially of fully, it
becomes necessary to develop a customized software package to satisfy the
specific requirements. These types of software are either developed in-house
or by placing order to some professional organization. This trend has geared
up with the development of non-procedural 4GLs and will continue to grow as
the development in multimedia, graphics, artificial intelligence, networking
solutions enhance.

3.3 Summary
Software is a program or set of logically arranged electronic instructions that
direct the computer to accomplish certain tasks. When the computer is using a
particular program, it is referred to as running or executing the program. The
entire set of programs, procedures, and related documentation associated with a
computer system controls the operation of a computer and are distinguished from
the actual hardware of the computer.
A software package is a special method for the distribution and installation of
software on computer systems. It is a program with its associated files, archived
and compressed into a single file along with any necessary scripts or information
to aid in managing the installation, upgrade, and removal of those files. Software
Packages fall in two major categories: (1) System software Package, and (2)
Application software. Package
System software packages are for the own specific requirements such as
controlling or supervision of computer system and may include operating
system, language translators and utilities. The operating system tells the
computer how to interact with the user and how to use the hardware devices
attached to the computer. Language translators convert computer languages other
than machine level language to machine codes. They include
compilers/interpreters and assemblers. Compilers/interpreters convert high level
language programs into machine level language and assemblers convert
programs written in assembly language into machine level language. Utilities are
the programs that support the operations, management and users of a computer
system by providing a variety of support services.
Application software packages are developed for the specific requirements of a
user or any organization. Application software packages are mainly of two types:
General purpose software and Specific purpose software. General purpose
software includes word processors, spreadsheets, data base management
software, graphics software and data communication software. This type of
software packages are also known as program productivity tools because without
doing any programming and through simple commands the users can perform
the desired tasks. The specific purpose or application specific software may
include business applications like inventory control, billing, MIS etc., scientific
application like SPSS, CAD/CAM etc., online applications like Airline
Reservation Systems, and customized applications are also referred to as
application specific software package.

Computer Architecture:
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A computer is basically a tool for data processing- converting the data into
information that is useful to people. Any computer - regardless of its type - is
controlled by programmed instructions, which give the machine a purpose and tell it
what to do.
Computers come in many varieties, including the personal computer, tiny computers
built into appliances and automobiles, and mainframe machines used by many
people simultaneously to run a business. Despite their differences in size and use, all
these computers are part of a system and operate on the same fundamental
principles. In this lesson we will understand the computer as a system.
Understanding the computer as a system is vital to the effective use and management
of computers. We should be able to visualize any computer this way, from a
microcomputer to a large computer system whose components are interconnected by
a telecommunications network and spread throughout a building or geographic area.
4.2 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM
A system is a group of integrated parts that have the common purpose of achieving
some objective(s). So, the following three characteristics are key to a system: a
system has more than one element all the elements of a system are logically related,
all the elements of a system are controlled in such a way that the system goal is
achieved
Even though the size, shape, performance, reliability and cost of computers have
been changing over the years, basic logical structure as proposed by van Neumann
has not changed. Since a computer is made up of integrated components (input and
output devices, storage, CPU) that work together to perform the basic system
function of:
1. Inputting: The process of entering data and instructions into the computer
system.
2. Storing: Saving data and instructions so that they are available for initial or for
additional processing as and when required.
3. Processing: Performing arithmetic and logical operations on data in order to
convert them in to useful information.
4. Outputting: The process of producing useful information or results-such
printed reports, or visual display- for the user.
5. Controlling: Managing the manner and sequence in which all of the above
functions are performed.
All the components of a computer system (to be discussed shortly) are integrated and
interacting. The Input or Output units cannot function until they receive signals from
the CPU. Similarly, the Storage unit or the CPU alone is of no use. So the usefulness
of each unit depends on other units and can be realized only when all units are put
together (integrated) to form a system.
The internal architecture of computer differs from one system to another. However,
basic organization remains the same for all computer systems.
Basic Block diagram/ Von Neumann Architecture (Dotted arrows represents
control executed by CPU, Bold arrows represents flow of instructions and data)
4.3 COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
A complete computer system consists of four parts: hardware, software, people, and
data
4.3.1 Hardware
The mechanical devices that make up the computer are called hardware. In other
words, hardware is any part of the computer we can touch. Hardware consists of
interconnected electronic devices that we can use to control the computer's
operation, input and output.
Figure 4-1 The Computer System

Computer hardware consists of:

Input Devices: The input devices of a computer system include keyboards, touch
screens, trackballs, joysticks, digital cameras, microphones, pens, electronic mice,
optical scanners, and so on. They convert data into electronic machine-readable form
for direct entry or through telecommunication links into a computer system.
Table 2-1 highlights major trends in input devices of a computer system
Table 4-1

First Generati Second Third Fourth Fifth

on Generati Generati Generati Generation
on on on
Input Punched Punched Key to Key Voice
Media Cards tape/ Disk boards, Recognition
/ Pointing , Touch
Metho Devices, Devices,
d optical Handwritin
Scanning g
Recognition

Trend: Towards Direct Input Devices that are more Natural and Easy to use
Output Devices: The output devices of a computer system include video display
units, printers, audio response units, and so on. They convert electronic information
produced by the computer system into human-intelligible form for presentation to
end-users.
Table 4-2 highlights major trends in output devices of a computer system
Table 4-2
First Generati Second Third Fourth Fifth
on Generati Generatio Generati Generatio
on n on n
Outpu Punched Cards, Punched Printed Video Video
t Printed Reports and Cards, Reports Displays, Displays,
Medi Documents Printed and Audio Hyperlinke
a/ Reports Document Response d
Meth and s, Video s, Printed Multimedi
od Document Displays Reports a
s and Documents
Document , Voice
s Responses

Trend: Towards Direct Output Methods that communicate Naturally, Quickly and
Clearly
Storage Devices: The storage function of a computer system takes place in the
storage circuits of the computer's primary storage unit, or memory, and in secondary
storage devices such as magnetic disk and tape units. These devices store data and
program instructions needed for processing. Various secondary storage devices
include tape drives, optical drives, removable hard drives, DVDs floppy disks, and
different kinds of compact disks such as CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW.
Table 4-3 highlights major trends in storage devices of a computer system
Table 4-3
First Generati Second Third Fourth Fifth
on Generati Generati Generation Generation
on on
Prim Magnetic Drum Magnetic Magnetic LSI VLSI
ary Core Core Semiconduc Semiconduc
Stora tor Memory tor Memory
ge

Trend: Towards Large Capacities Using Smaller Microelectronic Circuits

 First Generati Second Third Fourth Fifth
on Generati Generati Generati Generati
on on on on
Secondar Magnetic Tape, Magnetic Magnetic Magnetic Magnetic
y Storage Magnetic Drum Tape, Tape, Disk, Disk
Magnetic Magnetic Optical Optical
Disk Disk Disk Disk

Trend: Towards Massive Capacities Using Magnetic and Optical Media

Central Processing Unit (CPU): The central processing unit (CPU) is the main
processing component of a computer system. (In microcomputers, it is the main
microprocessor) The electronic circuits of the arithmetic-logic unit, one of the CPU's
major components, perform the arithmetic and logic functions required in computer
processing.
4.3.2 Software
Software is a set of electronic instructions consisting of complex codes (also known
as programs) that make the computer perform tasks. In other words, software is the
non-tangible component of the computer system that tells the computer what to do.
They are generally in the form of electric or magnetic impulses.
Computer software consists of:
System Software: These programs exist primarily for the computer's use and help
the computer perform and manage its own tasks. System software has its orientation
more towards the operation of the hardware components of the computer system.
DOS, UNIX, Windows 2000 etc. are some examples of system software.
Application Software: These programs exist primarily for the user and enable the
computer to perform tasks, such as creating documents or drawing pictures. Thus,
application software has its orientation more towards performing user tasks. Payroll
System, Airline Reservation System etc. are some examples of application software.

Table 4-4 highlights major trends in software of a computer system

Table 4-4

First Generati Second Third Fourth Fifth

on Generati Generati Generation Generatio
 on on n
Trend: Towards Easy-to-Use Multipurpose Network- Enabled Application
Packages for Productivity and Collaboration
Softw User written Packaged Operatin DBMS, Natural
are Programs, Machine Programs g Fourth and Object
trends Language , Systems, Generation Oriented
Symbolic Highleve languages, Languages
Languag l Microcompu ,
e Languag ter Packages Multipurp
e ose
Graphic
Interface,
Network
Enabled,
Expert As
sisted
Packages
Trend: Towards Visual or Conversational Programming Languages and Tools

4.3.3 People
People are the personnel involved in using and maintaining the computer system.
People are
Users: who actually uses the computer system
Trained Professionals: who design, build, program, repair and maintain the
computer system.
4.3.4 Data
Data consists of raw facts, which the computer stores and reads in the form of
numbers. The computer manipulates data according to the instructions contained in
the software and then forwards it for use by people or another computer. Data can
consist of letters, numbers, sounds, or images. No matter what kind of data is entered
into a computer, however, the computer converts it to numbers. Consequently,
computerized data is digital, meaning that it has been reduced to digits, or numbers.
Within the computer, data is organized into files. A computer file is simply a set of
data or program instructions that has been given a name. A file that the user can open
and use is often called a document. Although many people think of documents
simply as text, a computer document can include many kinds of data. For example, a
computer document can be a text file (such as a letter), a group of numbers (such as
a budget), a video clip (which includes images and sounds), or any combination of
these items. Programs are organized into files as well, but because programs are not
considered data, they are not document files.
4.4 BASIC COMPUTER ORGANISATION
The capacity, size, cost and internal architectural design of computers differ from
one model to another. However, the basic organisation remains the same for all
computer systems. A block diagram is shown in Figure 4-2, which displays the five
basic building blocks or functional units, of a digital computer system. These five
units correspond to the five basic operations performed by all computer systems. The
function of each of these units is described below.

Figure 4-2 Basic Organisation of Computer System

4.4.1 INPUT UNIT
Data and instructions must enter the computer system before any computation can be
performed on the supplied data. The input unit that links the external environment
with the computer system performs this task. Data and instructions enter input units
in forms that depend upon the particular device used. For example, data is entered
from a keyboard in a manner similar to typing, and this differs from the way in
which data is entered through a card reader which is another type of input device.
However, regardless of the form in which they receive their inputs, all input devices
must provide a computer with data that are transformed into the binary codes that the
primary memory of a computer is designed to accept. This transformation is
accomplished by units called input interfaces. In put interfaces are designed to match
the unique physical or electrical characteristics of input devices to the requirements
of the computer system.
In short, an input unit performs the following functions:

It accepts (or reads) the list of instructions and data from the outside world.
It converts these instructions and data in the computer acceptable form.
It supplies the converted instructions and data to the complete system for
further processing.

4.4.2 OUTPUT UNIT

The job of an output unit is just the reverse of that of an input unit. It supplies
information and results of computation to the outside world. Thus, it links the
computer with the external environment. As computers work with binary code, the
results produced are also in the binary form. Hence, before supplying the results to
the outside world, it must be converted to human acceptable (readable) form. This
task is accomplished by units call output interfaces. Output interfaces are designed to
match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of output devices (terminals,
printers, etc. ) to the requirements of the external environmental.
In short, an output unit performs the following functions:

It accepts the results produced by the computer, which are in coded form and
hence cannot be easily understood by us.
It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form.
It supplies the converted results to the outside world.

4.4.3 STORAGE UNIT

The data and instructions that are entered into the computer system through input
units have to be stored inside the computer before the actual processing starts.
Similarly, the results produced by the computer after processing must also be kept
somewhere inside the computer system before being passed on to the output units.
Moreover, the intermediate results produced by the computer must also be preserved
for ongoing processing.
The storage unit at the primary/main storage of a computer system is designed to
cater to all these needs. It provides space for storing data and instructions; space for
intermediate results; and also space for the final results.

[Link]
A computer memory can be thought of as an array of letterboxes, each
holding a single character (a string of 0s and 1s). We can put information
into the RAM and tak e informatio n out of it when we need to. The ROM
on the other hand is like a letterbox covered with glass. We can see what is
inside but we cannot touch or change the content
In short the specific functions of the storage unit are to hold (store):

All the data to be processed and the instructions required for

processing (received from input devices\)
Intermediate results of processing.
Final results of processing before these results are released to an
output device.

Two Kinds of Memory

a) Primary memory (main memory)
b) Secondary memory

[Link] Primary memory:

Holds pieces of program instruction and data, intermediate results of
processing, recently produced results of processing if job. These pieces of
information are represented electronically in main memory chip’s circuit
and while it is in main memory, CPU can access it directly at very fast
speed.

However primary storage can hold information only while computer is on.
As soon as system is off or reset, information in primary storage disappears.
Therefore primary storage has limited capacity and is very expensive.
Memory capacity is stated in terms of kilobytes (KB) 1024 (210) bytes
The main memory, housed inside the computer unit, is built from two
different kinds of memory chip:
a) ROM (read only memory), has permanently built into information and
instructions the computer needs to know in order to operate properly. It
is a non volatile memory chip, in which data is stored permanently.
Infact storing data permanently into this memory is called “burning in
data”. Data stored in ROM can only be read and used-cannot be
changed. Therefore data is not lost, when power is off
b) RAM (random access memory), holds the program and other
information typed in at the keyboard. The RAM is a 'read and write'
memory. This means we can store, or 'write', information into this
memory and later recall it, or 'read' it out again. Mother board is
designed in a manner that its memory capacity can be easily enhanced by
adding more memory chips.
The ROM, on the other hand, can only be read; we cannot write
information into it. This ensures that we do not destroy the vital information
held in ROM by over-writing it.
c) Programmable Read-only Memory (PROM)
It is of two types: Manufactured programmable read only memory and
User programmed read only memory. Manufactured is one in which data
is burnt in by the manufacturer of electric equipment. User programmed
is one which the user can load and store “read only” programs and data,
 i.e. is is possible for a user to “customize” a system by converting his/her
own program to micro-programs and store them inuser programmed
ROM chips
d) Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)
Once information is stored in ROM chip or PROM chip, it cannot be
deleted. EPROM overcomes this problem. Chip can be reprogrammed to
store more information.
[Link] Secondary memory:
Also known as auxiliary storage, it used to take care of limitations of
primary [Link] is used to supplement the limited storage capacity and
volatile characteristics of primary storage. Secondary storage is much
cheaper than primary storage and it can retain information even when
system is off or reset. System software is used tro hold programinstructions,
data and information of those jobs on which system is not working
currently, but needs to hold them for programming later. Most commonly
used secondary storage medium is magnetic disk.
[Link] Cache memory
It is used for minimizing the memory processor speed mismatch. It is
extremely fast, small memory between CPU and main memory whose
access time is closer to the processing speed of CPU. It act as high speed
buffer between CPU and main memory and is used to temporally store very
active data and instructions during processing.
4.4.4 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
The Arithmetic Logic Unit and the Control Unit of a computer system are
jointly known as the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU is the brain
of any computer system. In a human body, the brain takes all major
decisions and the other parts of the body function as directed by the brain.
Similarly in a computer system, all major calculations and comparisons are
made inside the CPU and the CPU is also responsible for activating and
controlling the operations of other units of a computer system.
It manages and coordinates the input and output units. It obtain instructions
from program stored in main memory. interprets instructions, issue signals
which causes other units of system to execute them.

Memory address (MAR): Holds address of active memory location

Memory Buffer (MBR): Holds information on its way to and from
memory
Program Control Buffer (PCB): holds address of next instructions to be
executed
Accumulator (A): Accumulates results and data to be operated upon
Instruction (I): holds instruction while it is being executed
I/O register: communicates with I/O devices
Execution of instructions by CPU:
a) Control Unit takes address of instruction to be executed from Program
control register, and reads instructions from corresponding memory
 address into the instruction register of CPU
b) Control unit sends the operation part and address part of instructions
to decoder and memory address register
c) Decoder interprets the instructions and according to control unit sends
signals to appropriate unit
d) As each instruction is executed, address of next instruction to be
executed is automatically loaded into program control register.
e) Steps from a) to d) are repeated
4.4.5 ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT
The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where
the actual execution of the instructions takes place during the processing
operation. To be more precise all calculations are performed and all
comparisons (decisions) are made in the ALU. The data and instructions
stored in the primary storage prior to processing, are transferred as and
when needed to the ALU where processing takes place. No processing is
done in the primary storage unit. Intermediate results generated in the ALU
are temporarily transferred back to the primary storage until needed at a
later time. Data may, thus, move from primary storage to ALU and back
again to storage many times before the processing is over. After the
completion of processing the final results, which are stored in the storage
unit, are released to an output device.
The type and number of arithmetic and logic operations that a computer can
perform is determined by the engineering design of the ALU. However
almost all ALU's are designed to perform the four basic arithmetic
operations (add, subtract, multiply, divide) and logic operations or
comparisons such as less than, equal to, or greater than.
4.4.6 CONTROL UNIT
How does the input device know that it is time for it to feed data into the
storage unit? How does the ALU know what should be done with the data
once they are received? And how is it that only the final results are sent to
the output device and not the intermediate result? All this is possible
because of the Control Unit of the computer system. By selecting,
interpreting, and seeing to the execution of the program instructions, the
Control Unit is able to maintain order and direct the operation of the entire
system. Although, it does not perform any actual processing on the data, the
Control Unit acts as a central nervous system for the other components of
the computer. It manages and coordinates the entire computer system. It
obtains instructions from the program stored in main memory, interprets the
instructions, and issues signals that cause other units of the system to
execute them.
4.5 HOW DOES A COMPUTER WORK?
The working of a computer can best be illustrated by an example. Suppose
we have a routine clerical task to carry out and are given a willing helper
who can follow instructions but who is new to the job. How would we
proceed?
Firstly, we would sit our helper at a desk and provide him with an 'in'-tray
for material coming in (the input ) and an 'out'-tray for material that had
been processed (the output )
If the work involved calculations, we would also provide a desk calculator
to help with the arithmetic, and a pad of paper for working things out. Next,
we would put in our helper's 'in'-tray all the figures and information, such
as prices and orders placed, needed as the 'raw material' to work on. This is
the data .
Our willing helper is now ready to start work - processing the data - but
first needs to be told what to do. He knows nothing about the job and so the
instructions we give him will have to be very detailed and precise. Such a
set of instructions is called a program . He would have to remember our
more general instructions, and so memory would play an important part in
the whole process. He would probably note down the program of detailed
instructions on his pad so that he can quickly refer to it should he forget
what he is expected to do. The note-pad, then, is a type of memory, used not
only for calculations but also for storing the program.
We would also give him some reference books, such as a catalogue of
prices or a telephone directory, which might be needed from time to time.
These provide a second kind of memory: they store information, like the
note-pad, but the information is permanent and cannot be changed. The
books are 'read only' memories (they can only be read), while the note-pad
is a 'read and write' memory, since information can be written on the pad
and changed or deleted when necessary.
Finally, he might also need as a 'backing' memory – a secondary storage-
a filing cabinet for those records, such as customer accounts, to which he
may have to refer occasionally. It is now up to our helper to co-ordinate and
control the various operations required by the program to complete the task.
A computer works in much the same way as this and, incorporates the same
basic features
The original information … ………………Data
is fed into the computer, ……………… Input
together with the instructions. …………… Program
These are stored ……………Memory
and the computer carries out any calculations
required, ……………… ALU
and supervises and checks the whole process. ……………
Control
The completed answer is read out of the
computer. ………………Output

There is in every computer system a section to carry out each of these

operations, and the operations are combined to solve problems in the same
way as they were combined to complete the clerical task.

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