METU Civil Engineering Department CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS

2. FLOW IN CLOSED CONDUITS

2.1 General Characteristics of Flow in Closed
Conduits
2.1.1 Definition of Laminar and Turbulent Flows

Reynolds Experiment:
(a) Experiment to illustrate type of flow.

Dye

D
pipe
Dye streak
Q=VA

Smooth well-rounded entrance

(b) Typical dye streaks

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(c) Characteristics of Turbulent Flow

u

u'

u (t)
u(t)= u + u (t)
_
u = ti me-av er aged
(or mean) v alue
T

tO tO + T t
u = instantaneous velocity in the x-direction
u = time average value of u(t)
u (t) = fluctuating part of u(t)
1T
u   u dt , T = integration period.
T0
VD
(d) Reynolds Number, Re 


Laminar flow: Re ≤ 2000

Transitional flow: 2000 < Re < 4000

Turbulent flow: Re ≥ 4000

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2.1.2 Entrance Region and Fully Developed

Flow
Entrance region Fully developed
flow flow

Boundary layer D
Inviscid core

r
x

(1) (2) (3)

(6) (5) (4)

x6 – x5 x5 – x4

Fully developed Developing

flow flow

Fully developed flow:

p Entrance flow
(p+γz)/x = constant

Entrance
pressure
drop

p

x3 – x2 = x

x1 = 0 x2 = e x3 x

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2.1.3 Head Losses in Pipes

Total Head Loss, hL
hL  hf  hm
hf – Friction (Viscous, Major) loss
hm– Local (Minor) loss
Determination of Friction Loss (hf):
1) Darcy - Weisbach Equation
L V2 L 16 Q2 8fL
hf  f f 5 2  KQ2 , where K  2 5
D 2g D  2g g D

2) Hazen-Williams Equation
6.8 L 10.6 L
hf  1.85 1.165
V1.85
 1.85 4.87
Q1.85  KQ1.85
C D C D
K
D – pipe diameter (m)
V – average velocity (m/s)
g – gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
Q – flow rate (discharge) (m3/s)
L – pipe length (m)
f – Darcy – Weisbach friction factor (unitless)
C – Hazen-Williams Coefficient of Roughness (unitless)
Determination of Local Loss (hm):Empirical
equation (except for sudden enlargement)
V2
hm  K m
2g

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2.2 Fully Developed Flow in Closed Conduits

2.2.1 Derivation of Darcy-Weisbach Equation

Assumptions;
• Constant diameter, rigid circular conduit
• Incompressible fluid
• Fully developed, steady flow

a) If the energy equation is applied between two

sections of pipe segment having a length of L, and with
(V1 =V2), we obtain

p1 p2
hL  ( z1  )  ( z2  )
 

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b) Momentum equation is applied to an isolated

cylinder of fluid volume

Where P1 and P2 are pressures at the centroid of A(r)

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Since we have a constant diameter and steady-

uniform flow

2
Divide by πr

Divide by and rearrange

Linear shear
distribution

w
y
r 
CL

Note: 1) The above equation is applicable for both

laminar and turbulent flows.
2) It is also applicable for open channel flows.

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c) Using Dimensional Analysis of Pipe Flow

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2.2.2 Laminar Flow in Pipes

With the same assumptions used in Sec. 2.2.1.

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Flow quantities and Friction Factor in Laminar

Pipe Flow

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2.2.3 Turbulent Flow in Pipes

Turbulent Flow : Re ≥ 4000

CL

Ve l o city
R = D /2 p ro fi le , u = u(y )

s

Vi sco u s s ub l ay e r x

  s
s 

S m oo thwall
(a) Smooth wal l Rou g h waflow
(b) Transitional ll (c) Rough wall

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Darcy – Weisbach Friction Factor in Turbulent Flow

a) Smooth Pipe and Hydraulically Smooth Flow

1  2.51 
 2 log  f  func Re 
f  e 
R f

b) Colebrook - White – Transitional Flow

1  2.51    
 2 log   f  func  Re , 
f  Re f 3.7D   D

c) Rough Pipe-Hydraulically Rough Flow

1    
 2 log  f  func  
f  3.7D  D

Swamee – Jain Formula (Explicit)

1.325
f 2
   5.74 

ln  0.9  
  3 . 7D Re 

for the range of

106   / D  102 and 5000  Re  108

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Roughness Coefficients for Hazen-Williams,

Manning and Darcy-Weisbach Equations
Hazen- Manning’s Darcy-
Material Williams Coefficient Weisbach

C n Roughness
Height
 (mm)
Asbestos cement 140 0.011 0.0015
Brass 135 0.011 0.0015
Brick 100 0.015 0.6
Cast-iron, new 130 0.012 0.26
Concrete:
Steel forms 140 0.011 0.18
Wooden forms 120 0.015 0.6
Centrifugally spun 135 0.013 0.36
Copper 135 0.011 0.0015
Corrugated metal --- 0.022 45
Galvanized iron 120 0.016 0.15
Glass 140 0.011 0.0015
Lead 135 0.011 0.0015
Plastic 150 0.009 0.0015
Steel:
Coal-tar enamel 148 0.010 0.0048
New unlined 145 0.011 0.045
Riveted 110 0.019 0.9
Wood stave 120 0.012 0.18

6.8 L L V2
hf  1.85 1.165 V , hf  f
1.85
C D D 2g

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 2.2.4 MOODY CHART
Hydraulically rough flow zone, f=func(ε/D)
( Above the dashed line)

f=func(ε/D,Re)
Transitional zone
METU Civil Engineering Department

Turbulent flow

Smooth pipe curve

(from laminar to turbulent) f=func(Re)
CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS

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2.3 Computation of Flow in Single Pipes

Variable Type of the problem

Type I Type II Type III
a) Fluid
*Density G G G
*Viscosity G G G
b) Pipe
*Diameter G G D (G)
*Length G G G
*Roughness G G G (D)
c) Flow
*Flowrate, or G D G
Average velocity
d) Pressure
*Pressure Drop, D G G
or Head loss

G- Given,
D- Determined

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2.3.1 Calculation of Head Loss (Type I)

H1  H2  hL and hL  hf sin ce hm  0 ,
hf  H1  H2
p V2
Hz 
 2g

L V2 8fL
hf  f sin ce V  Q / A then hf  2 5 Q2
D 2g g D

Given : Q (or V), L, D, ,

Find : hf
4Q VD2
1. V  (or Q  )
D2 4
VD 4 Q
2. Re = 
 D 
3. /D
4. f(Re,/D) is determined
(from Moody Chart or Eqs.)
5. hf is computed

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2.3.2 Calculation of Velocity(Discharge) (Type II)

L V2
H1  H2  hL , hL  hf  f , (hm  0)
D 2g

V H1  H2  2gD  hf
2gD
fL fL

Given: hf, L, D, , 
Find : V

Since f depends on V through Re, and V is unknown

apriori, iteration is needed:

V,D,

Re=VD/
Moody Chart or Eqs.

/D

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Solution procedure (Type II):


1. Calculate
D
2. Select friction factor,
(assume completely rough turbulent flow); f(i) = f(0)
hf D2g
3. Calculate velocity; V 
fL
VD
4. Calculate Reynolds number; Re 

5. Determine f by using data from Step1 and 4; f(i+1)
(use Moody Chart, or Equation)
6. Check if f(i+1) = f(i);?
 no, go to step 3 with f(i+1)
 yes, continue
D2
7. Calculate Q or V; Q  V
4
Iteration Table
f (i) V Re f (i+1)*
f(0) Assumed calculated calculated f (1)-determined
f (1) calculated calculated f (2) -determined
f (2) calculated calculated f (3) -determined
. . . .

. . . . (i)
iteration is stopped when f =f(i+1)
. .

. .

f (i) f (i+1)
* obtained from Moody Chart, or determined using equations.

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2.3.3 Calculation of Pipe Diameter (Type III)

Given: hf, L, Q, , 
Find : D
1. Assume f(i) = f(0) (arbitrarily 0.02)
1/ 5
8LQ2  8LQ2  1/ 5
2. Calculate D  5 f   2 
 f
hL  g  hL  g 
2

VD 4Q
3. Calculate Re  
 D

4. Calculate
D
5. Determine friction factor, f(i+1) use Moody Chart or
Equations
6. Check if f(I+1) = f(i) ; ?
 if no, go to step 2 with f(i+1)
 if yes, stop
Diameter Calculated at Step 2 is the result. Select
the next larger commercially available pipe diameter
size
Iteration Table
D
f (i) Re /D f (i+1)*
f(0) calculated calculated calculated f (1)-determined
Assumed

f (1) calculated calculated calculated f (2)-determined

f (2) calculated calculated calculated f (3) -determined
.. . . . .

. . . . (i)
.
iteration is stopped when f =f(i+1)
. . . .

f (i) calculated calculated calculated f (i+1)- determined

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Example 2.1: Blue and yellow streams of paint each with a density of ρ =
850 kg/m3, enter a pipe with an average velocity of 1.2 m/s as shown in
figure. Would you expect the paint to exit the pipe system as green paint
or separate streams of blue and yellow paint?
a) If the viscosity, μ = 1 Pa.s.
b) if the paint were “thinned” so that μ = 0.01 Pa.s.

yellow D=5 cm Green?

splitter

blue
75 m

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Example 2.2: An oil with a viscosity of 0.004 Pa.s and density of 900
kg/m3 flows in a pipe of diameter, D = 0.02 m.

a) What pressure drop, P1-P2, is needed to produce a flowrate of Q =

7x10-5 m3/s for a pipe length L = 10 m, if the pipe is horizontal?
b) What should be the angle, θ, between the pipe axis and the
horizontal plane if the oil is to flow through the pipe at the same
rate as in part a, but with P1=P2?

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Example 2.3 (Type I problem): A galvanized iron pipe with a roughness

height of 5x10-3 mm with a diameter of 5 cm and a length of 100 m
carries water with a discharge of 3 lt/s. Calculate the head loss.
( = 1 x 10-6 m2/s)

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Example 2.4 (Type II problem): Water flows in a galvanized iron pipe of

5 cm diameter with a roughness height of 5x10-3 mm. If the head loss of
10 m occurs within a length of 100 m, calculate the flow rate.
( = 1 x 10-6 m2/s)

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Example 2.5 (Type III problem): A galvanized iron pipe with a

roughness height of 5x10-2 mm and a length of 100 m under the head
loss of 10 m delivers discharge of 3 lt/s. Calculate the pipe diameter.

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2.3.4 Friction Loss for Noncircular Conduits

Circular Non-circular
A A
Rh  Rh 
P P
Dh  D Dh  4Rh
L V2 L V2
hf  f hf  f
D 2g Dh 2g
DV Dh V
Re  Re 
 
     
f  f  Re ,  f  f  R e , 
 D   Dh 
 

1 2

for P2  P1
A 2  A1
Dh  D
V2  V1 (Q1=Q2) hf2  hf1
 
 and Re2  Re1  f2  f1
Dh D

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2.4 Nonuniform Flow in Closed Conduits

2.4.1 Local (Minor) Losses

(b)
Outlet
Q

Pipe

Separated
flow

Pump
Elbow
Tee Valve

Q Q

Separated flow

Inlet
Vena contracta

Flow separation
at corner

 Pipe entrance or exit

 Sudden expansion or
contraction
 Bends, elbows, tees,
and other fittings
 Valves, open or partially
closed
 Gradual expansions or
contractions

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hL  hf  hm ; total loss = H1 – H2

friction loss: hf = f (L/D)(V2/2g)

minor loss: hm = Km (V2/2g)

Km is the loss coefficient

For each pipe segment (i.e. reaches along which pipe

diameter remains constant) there may be several minor
losses.

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Derivation of Minor Loss for Sudden Enlargement

C.V.

r
D1 P1 V1 P2 D2
x
V2

(1) (2)

Continuity eq.: Q  V1A1  V2A2

Momentum eq. In x-direction:
(p1  p2 )A 2  Q( V2  V1)
(p1  p2 ) 1 2
 ( V2  V1V2 )
 g
2 2
p V p V
Energy eq.: z1  1  1  z2  2  2  hm
 2g  2g
p1  p2 V1  V2
2 2
hm  
 2g
Using the equations above,
( V2  V1)2
2
V1A1 V1D1
hm  , V2   2
2g A2 D2
2
 D 2  V 2 V
2
hm   1   1 1 , hm  K m 1
 D2   2g 2g

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2.4.2 Flowmeters

International standard shapes for the three

primary Bernoulli obstruction-type meters:
(a) long-radius nozzle;
(b) thin-plate orifice;
(c) venturi nozzle

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Venturi Meter
The venturi meter consists of a short converging conical
tube leading to a cylindrical portion, called the throat, of
smaller diameter than that of the pipeline, which is
followed by a diverging section in which the diameter
increases again to that of the main pipeline.

Diverging
Cone

Converging
Cone Throat

Entry
(2)
(1)

z1 z2
hm

Gauge liquid specific weight m

Datum

Inclined venturi meter and U-tube

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The operation is based on the principle that an

increase in velocity causes a decrease in pressure.
Energy Equation between section 1 and 2 (Assuming no

head loss):

p1 V12 p2 V22
z1    z2  
 2g  2g

Continuity Equation:

Q Q
V1  and V2 
A1 A2

p1 Q2 p2 Q2
z1    z2  
 2gA12  2gA 22

From the equations above;

A2
Q 2gh
1   
4 1/ 2

p1  p2 D
where h   z1  z 2  and   2
 D1

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Cd A 2
Qact  2gh
1   
4 1/ 2

h can be found from U-tube manometer reading using

hydrostatic principle:
p1  z1  z  p2  z2  z  h  mh
Rearranging gives
p1  p2  
h   z1  z2   h  m  1
   

h = h (SGm-1)

where SGm is the specific gravity of manometer fluid.

Replacing h
2gh SGm  1
Qact  Cd A 2

1  4 
The Equation is independent of z1 and z2, so the
manometer reading hm for a given rate of flow Qact is not
affected by the inclination of the venturi meter.

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ᶿ ᶿ

ᶿ ᶿ

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Example 2.6: Rainwater flows through the galvanized iron downspout

(ε=0.15x10-3 m) as shown in the figure. The cross-section of the
downspout is a rectangle with dimensions a=0.10 m and b=0.06 m, and it
is completely filled with water. Neglect the velocity of water in the gutter
at the free surface and the head loss associated with elbow. Determine
the flow rate( discharge) through the system.
Roof

b=0.06 m
1
a=0.1 m
0.07 m
Section A-A

Gutter

Galvanized iron
downspout
4m

A A
A
2 Datum

atmosphere

3m

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Example 2.7: Water flows from the basement to the second floor
through the 2 cm diameter copper pipe (a drawn tubing) at a rate of Q =
0.8 lt/s and exits through a faucet of diameter 1.3 cm as shown in figure.
Determine the pressure at point 1 if :
a) viscous effects are neglected,
b) the only losses included are major losses
c) all losses are included.
K8=2.

K6=1.5 8
l=3 m K7=10. l=3 m
6

7 9
l=3 m

5 K5=0.4
8.12 m
K3=1.5 Given:
3 l=3 m l=3 m Q = 0.8 lt/s
DP = 2 cm = 0.02 m
Df = 1.3 cm = 0.013 m
4 K4=0.4  = 1.6*10-6 m
 = 1000 kg /m3
l=3 m
 = 1.13 * 10-6 m2 /s
Q l=4.6 m

2 K2=1.5
1

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2.5 Pipeline Systems

2.5.1 Pipes in Series

D1,f1 D2,f2 Dn,fn

A B
L1 L2 Ln

QA = Q1 = Q2= =Qn =QB

hL,AB=hf,i+hm,i ; i=1,..,n

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2.5.2 Pipes in Parallel

Branch 1

Branch 2

A Branch i B

Branch n

QA=Q1+Q2+……+Qn=QB

hL,AB= hL,1= hL,2=...= hL,i=...= hL,n

hL,i = hf,i + ∑ hm,i

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Example 2.8: Given a three-pipe series system as shown below. The

total pressure drop is pA-pB = 150 kPa, and the elevation drop is zA-zB = 5
m. The pipe data are

pipe L (m) D (cm)  (mm)

1 100 8 0.24
2 150 6 0.12
3 80 4 0.20

The fluid is water (= 1000 kg/m3, = 1.02x10-6 m2/s). Calculate the flow
rate Q (m3/hr). Neglect minor losses.

PA/

D1
D2
A D3 PB/

zA B
zB

L1= 100 m L2= 150 m L3= 80 m

Solution:
Energy eqn b/w A and B
0
HA  HB   h f   hm

2 2
V1 V3
2
2g 2
2g 2 2 2
VA PA VB PB L1 V1 L 2 V2 L 3 V3
  zA    z B  f1  f2  f3
2g  2g  D1 2g D 2 2g D 3 2g

 p A pB   L1  V12 2
 L3  V3 2
  z A  z B    f1
L 2 V2
   
 1  f2 
  f3  1
     D1  2g D 2 2g  D 3  2g

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from continuity: V1A 1  V2 A 2  V3 A 3

2 2
8 8
A 1    A 2    A 3 and A 1  1.78 A 2  4A 3
6  4

V2  1.78 V1 and V3  4 V1

 p A pB   L1  V12 2
   z A  zB    f1  1  1.78  f2
L 2 V1

2

     D1  2g D2 2g
 L3  V12
 4  f3
  1
2

 D3  2g
2
V
20.3  1250 f1  7920 f2  32000 f3  15  1
2g

V1 and fi ’s are not known. Assume hydraulically rough flow!

pipe  (m) /D f (use S-J)
1 0.00024 0.003 0.0262
1.325
2 0.00012 0.002 0.0234 S-J: f 2
3 0.00020 0.005 0.0304    / D 
ln 3.7 
  

Then,
2
V
20.3  1250  0.0262  7920  0.0234  32000  0.0304  15  1
2g

V1  0.57 m/s

pipe V Re /D f (use S-J)

1 0.57 45976 0.003 0.0288
2 1.02 61378 0.002 0.0260
3 2.29 91953 0.005 0.0314

Then,
2
V
20.3  1250  0.0288  7920  0.0260  32000  0.0314  15  1
2g
V1  0.562 m/s

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pipe V Re /D f (use S-J)

1 0.562 44960 0.003 0.0288
2 1.00 60022 0.002 0.0260
3 2.25 89920 0.005 0.0314

Since the agreement b/w the last two iterations is acceptable

V1  0.562 m/s
 2
Q  V1  D1  0.00282 m3 /s
4
Q  0.00282  3600  10.167 m3 /hr Q = 10.167 m3/hr

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Example 2.9: Assume that the same three pipes of previous example
are now in parallel with the same total loss of 20.3 m. Compute the total
rate Q(m3/hr), neglecting the minor losses.

D1=8 cm

A B
D2=6 cm

D3=4 cm

Solution:
Energy equation b/w A and B:
0
HA = HB + hL = HB + hf + hm no matter which route is followed b/w A and B

L1 V12 L V2 L V2
HA – HB = 20.3 = f1 = f 2 2 2 = f3 3 3
D1 2g D 2 2g D3 2g

Substituting the known L’s and D’s ,

V12 V2 V32
20.3 = 1250 f1 =2500 f 2 2 =2000 f 3
2g 2g 2g

Since Vi’s and fi’s are not known, assume hydraulically rough flow
Pipe /D f0 V Re f1
1 0.003 0.0262 3.49 273726 0.0268
2 0.002 0.0234 2.61 153529 0.0247
3 0.005 0.0304 2.56 100392 0.0315

Pipe /D f1 V Re f2
1 0.003 0.0268 3.46 271373 0.0268
2 0.002 0.0247 2.55 150000 0.0247
3 0.005 0.0315 2.52 98823 0.0315
f’s have converged

Pipe V(m/s) Q(m3/s) Q(m3/hr)

1 3.46 0.0174 62.6
2 2.55 0.0072 26.0
3 2.52 0.0032 11.4
TOTAL 100

Q= 100 m3/hr is found.

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2.5.3 Branching pipes, junctions

The junction problem
z1

Res. 1 z3
HGL
Hj
Line 1 Res. 3

z2
𝑃𝑗
Line 3
𝛾
Res. 2
zj
Line 2
Junction, j

0

   Qi  0

(flows towards the junction are considered to be negative!)

Hj=zj+pj/

hL,i = hf,i + hm,i= zi-Hj

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 METU Civil Engineering Department CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS
Example 2.10: Find the flow rates in each pipe, neglecting minor
losses. ( = 1.02 x 10-6 m2/s)
Z2=100 m

(2)

L2=150 m Z3=40 m
D2=6 cm
ε2=0.12 mm (3)
Z1=20 m
L1=100 m
D1=8 cm
(1) ε1=0.24 mm L3=80 m
D3=4 cm
ε3=0.20 mm
J

Assume junction head, Hj and check if Q1+Q2+Q3 = 0. If not,

iterate by assuming new Hj until  Qi = 0 checks.

Iteration1:
𝑝𝑗
Assume 𝐻𝑗 = 𝑧𝑗 + = 𝑧3 = 40𝑚
𝛾
o Pipe 1
𝐻𝑗 − ℎ𝑓1 = 𝑧1
𝐿1 𝑉12
𝐻𝑗 − 𝑧1 = 𝑓1
𝐷1 2𝑔
2
100 V1
40  20  f1
0.08 2  9.81
0.3139 /D
V1  f1 V1 Re1 f
f1 0.0262 3.46 271372.6 0.003 0.0268
0.0268 3.42 268235.4 0.003 0.0268

(Initially, assumed hydraulically rough flow to find first f value.)

Q1  3.42  5.027  10 3  3600  61.9 m3 / hr (outflow)

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o Pipe 2
𝑧2 − ℎ𝑓2 = 𝐻𝑗
𝐿2 𝑉22
𝑧2 − 𝐻𝑗 = 𝑓2
𝐷2 2𝑔
2
150 V2
100  40  f2
0.06 2  9.81
0.4709 f2 V2 Re2 /D f
V2 
f2 0.0234 4.49 264117.6 0.002 0.0243
0.0243 4.40 258823.5 0.002 0.0243

Q2  4.40  2.827  103  3600  44.8 m3 / hr (inflow)

o Pipe 3
𝑧3 = 𝐻𝑗
Q3  0

Continuity at the junction

 Q  Q1  Q2  Q3
 Q  61.9  44.8  0  17.1 0 outflow > inflow
 reduce Hj

Hj must be within z1 and z3.

Iteration 2: Take Hj = 30m

o Pipe 1
𝐻𝑗 − ℎ𝑓1 = 𝑧1
0.157 f1 V1 Re1 /D f
V1  0.0268 2.42 189804 0.003 0.0270
f1 0.0270 2.41 189019 0.003 0.0270

Q1  43.6m3 / hr (outflow)

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 METU Civil Engineering Department CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS
o Pipe 2
𝑧2 − ℎ𝑓2 = 𝐻𝑗
2
150 V2
100  30  f2
0.06 2  9.81

0.5494 f2 V2 Re2 /D f

V2  0.0243 4.75 279411 0.002 0.0242
f2

Q2  48.4 m3 / hr (inflow)

o Pipe 3
𝑧3 − ℎ𝑓3 = 𝐻𝑗
𝑧3 − 𝐻𝑗 = ℎ𝑓3
2
L V
40  30  f3 3 3
D3 2g
0.0981 f3 V3 Re3 /D f
V3  0.0304 1.80 70588.24 0.005 0.0320
f3 0.0320 1.75 68627.46 0.005 0.0320

Q3  7.9 m3 / hr (inflow)

Continuity at the junction

 Q  43.6  48.4  7.9  12.70 influx > outflux

Interpolation
40 − 30
𝐻𝑗 = 30 + × 12.7 ≅ 34.25 𝑚
17.1 − (−12.7)
Hj (m)

40

30 ∑Q (m3/s)
-12.7 17.1 2-48
 METU Civil Engineering Department CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS
Iteration 3: Assume Hj = 34.25
o Pipe 1
0.2237
V1  f1 V1 Re1 /D f
f1
0.0270 2.88 225757 0.003 0.0269
Q1  52.1m3 / hr

o Pipe 2
0.516 f2 V2 Re2 /D f
V2  0.0242 4.62 271765 0.002 0.0242
f2
Q2  47.0 m3 / hr

o Pipe 3
0.0564 f3 V3 Re3 /D f
V3  0.032 1.33 52157 0.005 0.0324
f3 0.0324 1.32 51764 0.005 0.0324
Q3  5.97m3 / hr

Continuity at the junction

 Q  52.1  47.0  5.97  0.87  0

 Qj  0.87
%Error    100  1.6%
 Qinf low  47  5.97

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2.5.4 Network Solutions: Hardy-Cross Method

B C D
1 LOOP
1 2 “+” clockwise
I E

A A,...,I: JUNCTIONS/
4 3 NODES
F
H G EF: LINK/BRANCH

Conservation of Mass: Flow into each junction must be

equal flow out of the junction.

Energy Conservation: Algebraic sum of head losses

around each and every loop must be zero. Note that “-Q”
implies “-hL”. Darcy-Weisbach equation is considered in
relating hL to Q.

For Darcy-Weisbach equation,

hL,link=hf,link+hm,link=KlinkQlinkQlink

Note that Q2= QQ is used to accommodate for “-

“ discharges. Furthermore,

Klink=link[8fL/(g2D5)]+ link[8Km/(g2D4)]

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Solution Procedure
1. Assume the best distribution of flows that satisfies the
conservation of mass condition by careful examination of the
network!!!

2. Q = Q0 + Q through each pipe, where Q is the true value, Q0

is the estimated value, and Q is the error in the estimation.

3. In general, hL=KQn. For Darcy-Weisbach equation n=2 and K

can be represented using effective length, L*, such that
K=[8fL*/(g2D5)] Terms containing
Q2 and higher
4. Around any loop orders of Q are
neglected!
hL,loop=loopKQn=loopK(Q0 + Q)n
=loopKQ0n+loopnKQ Q0n-1+……..

For Darcy-Weisbach equation, using Qto accommodate for

the “-“ discharges, and recalling the fact that h,loop=0, the
above equation reduces to

loopKQ0Q0+loop2KQloopQ0=0

Solving for the only unknown, one obtains

Qloop= -(loopKQ0Q0)/(loop2KQ0)

5. Qloop for each and every loop must be smaller than a tolerable
magnitude. Otherwise, iteration continues until convergence
by updating Q0’s of the each link such that for each pipe
Q0,new= Q0,old+Qloop

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Example 2.11: Given is the network shown in figure below. Find
the discharges in each pipe.

20 K=1 50
A B
Q’s in m3/s
K=6 K=3 K=2
K’s in s2/m5
D C
100 K=5 30

STEP 1: INITIAL GUESS

(The continuity condition is satisfied at each and
every node!)

20 1 15 50
A B
6 2 2
70 3 35
1 35
D C
100 5 30 30

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STEP 2: DETERMINATION OF Q FOR EACH

LOOP
(The conservation of energy condition must be
satisfied for each and every loop!)
First iteration
LOOP 1
Pipe Q (m3/s) K K Q |Q| 2 K |Q|
AD 70 6 6*70*70 = 29400 2*6*70 = 840
AC 35 3 3*35*35 = 3675 2*3*35 = 210
CD -30 5 5*-30*30 = -4500 2*5*30 = 300
∑=28575 ∑=1350

28575
Q 1    21.17
1350

LOOP 2
Pipe Q (m3/s) K K Q |Q| 2 K |Q|
AB 15 1 1*15*15 = 225 2*1*15 = 300
BC -35 2 2*-35*35 = -2450 2*2*35 = 140
AC -13.83 3 3*-13.83*13.83 = -574 2*3*13.83 = 83
∑= -2799 ∑=253
“35-21.17”
 2799
Q 2    11.06
253
20 15+11.06=26.06 50
A B
2
70-21.17=48.83 35-11.06=23.94
1
D C
100 30
30+21.17=51.17

35-21.17-11.06=2.77 2-53
 METU Civil Engineering Department CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS

Second iteration
LOOP 1
Pipe Q (m3/s) K K Q |Q| 2 K |Q|
AD 48.83 6 6*48.83*48.83 = 14308 2*6*48.83 = 586
AC 2.77 3 3*2.77*2.77 = 23 2*3*2.77 = 17
CD -51.17 5 5*-51.17*51.17 = -13090 2*5*51.17 = 511
∑=1241 ∑=1114

1241
Q1    1.114
1114

LOOP 2
Pipe Q (m3/s) K K Q |Q| 2 K |Q|
AB 26.06 1 1*26.06*26.06 = 679 2*1*26.06 = 52
BC -23.94 2 2*-23.94*23.94 = -1146 2*2*23.94 = 96
AC -1.656 3 3*-1.656*1.656 = -8 2*3*1.656 = 10
∑= -475 ∑=158
“2.77-1.114”
 475
Q2    3.006
158
26.06+3.006=29.066
A B
2 23.94-3.006=
48.83-1.114= 1 20.934
47.716 C
D
100 30
51.17+1.114=52.284

3.006-1.656=1.450

Since Q1 & Q2 are not small (!), at least one more
iteration is needed!
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2.5.5 Hydraulics and Operation of Pumped

Discharge Lines

A pump is a mechanical device which adds energy

to the fluid.
S
H
ENERGY A
MOTOR
(Supply) F ROTOR
T

ENERGY
BLADES TRANSFER
(into fluid)
The power required to
drive the motor is known
as input power, Pp

The power gained  Pf =  Q Hp

Pf – power transmitted to fluid in Watts (N.m/s)

Commonly used pump power unit is hp (horsepower)
(1 hp = 745.7 Watts)
 - specific weight of the fluid (N/m3)
Q - discharge (m3/s)
HP - Head supplied by pump (m)

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(a) Radial flow pump (b) Axial-flow pump

(c) Suction lift - Static head

when the pump is located
above the suction tank
(Static Suction Lift)

(d) Suction Head - Static head

when the pump is located
below the suction tank
(Static Suction Head)

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If there were no losses : Pp = Pf

Yet, there are losses:

- mechanical losses in bearings and seals
- losses due to leakage of fluid
- other frictional and minor losses
Pf  Q Hp
p  
 Pp Pp

 Q Hp
Pp 
or p where p is the efficiency.

PUMP PERFORMANCE
CURVES
shut off head

Hp
rated capacity
p
(normal/design flowrate)
p
Hp
Pp
Pp

Q
Qr 2-57
 METU Civil Engineering Department CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS

Matching Pumps to System Demand

 Pump Hp vs Q must be known !
 System hydraulics must be known !

Consider a system with two reservoirs; water is

supplied to the reservoir with higher elevation by
means of a pumped line !
2 z

Hs
Total Static 0
Head
1

Static Suction
pump Head
P
valve
The system curve;
H1  H2  Hp  hL
p1 V12 p2 V22
z1    z2   - Hp  KQ 2  K mQ2
 2g  2g

Hp  z  KQ2  K mQ2  Hs  KQ2  K mQ2

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operating point
when valve is
Hp partially closed
and
valve partially closed
p
valve open

p

pump curve
hv
p

HP  Hs  KQ2  K 'm Q2
hf

hf operating point
when valve is open

HP  Hs  KQ2  K mQ2 This must be closer to max

Hs

Q
operating (design)
discharge
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 METU Civil Engineering Department CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS

PUMPS IN PARALLEL
Hp
A

Pumps A and B Combined

System
demand

HD
Pump B
Pump A

QA (QA)single QB (QB)single QD=Q Q

Where a large variation in flow demand is required, two

or more pumps are placed in a parallel configuration.
For parallel pumping the combined characteristic curve
is generated by recognizing that the head across each
pump is identical, and the total discharge through the
pumping system is Q, the sum of the individual
discharges through each pump. The overall efficiency is
HD  Q
ηp 
P P

in which  PP is the sum of the individual power

required by each pump.

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PUMPS IN SERIES
A B
Hp
Pumps A and B combined

System

HD = ∑Hp

Pump B
HB

HA Pump A

(QB)single QD = QA = QB Q

For high head demands, pumps placed in series will

produce a head rise greater than those of the individual
pumps. Since the discharge through each pump is
identical, the characteristic curve is found by summing
the head across each pump. The overall efficiency is

  HP QD
ηP 
 PP

in which  HP is the sum of the individual heads across

each pump.
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 METU Civil Engineering Department CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS
EXAMPLE 2.12:
The following pumped discharge pipelines are given;
a) Determine the discharge when only one pump is operating
(as shown in figure 1.) and compute the power consumption.
b) Determine the discharge when both pumps are operating in
series (as shown in figure 2.) and compute the power
consumption.
c) Determine the discharge when both pumps are operating in
parallel (as shown in figure 3.) and compute the power
consumption.
100 m

Fig. 1
60 m 2

1 P
100 m

Fig. 2
60 m 2

1 P P
100 m

60 m Fig. 3
2

P
1
P

Pipeline Characteristics
L=2000 m; D=0.2 m; =0.0002m; =1 x 10-6m2/s
Pump Characteristics
Q (lt/s) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
H (m) 70 67 62.5 57.5 51 43 32
 (%) 45 63 75 82 79 71

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SOLUTION

8fL
H P  (z 2  z1 )  Q2 (Hp)system from the Energy Equation
g D
2 5

L (m) 2000
D (m) 0.2
ε (m) 0.0002
ν (m2/s) 0.000001
Q (m3/s) Re f hf (m) (Hp)system (m)
0.00 0 0 0 40
0.01 63662 0.0234 1.21 41.21
0.02 127324 0.0219 4.52 44.52
0.03 190986 0.0212 9.87 49.87
0.04 254648 0.0209 17.27 57.27
0.05 318310 0.0207 26.71 66.71
0.06 381972 0.0205 38.17 78.17

Single Pump Pumps in Series Pumps in Parallel

H (m) Q (m3/s) H (m) Q (m3/s) H (m) Q (m3/s)
70 0 140 0 70 0
67 0.01 134 0.01 67 0.02
62.5 0.02 125 0.02 62.5 0.04
57.5 0.03 115 0.03 57.5 0.06
51 0.04 102 0.04 51 0.08
43 0.05 86 0.05 43 0.1
32 0.06 64 0.06 32 0.12

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SOLUTION for single pump case
Q = 35 lt/s
p = 80% (Q = 35 lt/s)
Hp = 54 m
Pp = 23.2 kW

SOLUTION for two pumps in series case

Q = 56 lt/s
p = 75% (Q = 56 lt/s)
∑Hp = 72 m
∑Pp = 52.8 kW

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SOLUTION for two pumps in parallel case
∑Q = 46 lt/s
p = 68% (Q = 23 lt/s)
Hp = 61 m
∑Pp = 40.5 kW

Hp
ηp

s.p. p.i.s. p.i.p.

Q (lt/s) 35 56 46 (2x23)
 (%) 80 75 68
H (m) 54 72 61
P (kW) 23.2 52.8 40.5
P/Q (kW.s/lt) 0.66 0.94 0.88

Note that if the pumps were not identical, in order to

compute the overall efficiency, the equations given
previously should be used.

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EXAMPLE 2.13: Water is pumped from reservoir A to

reservoirs C and D. The system and pump
characteristics are given below. Determine:

a) The discharge in each pipe,

b) The head added to the system by pump,
c) The head loss in each pipe for the computed discharges,
d) Complete the HGL,
e) Calculate the power of the pump for p=0.80.

System Characteristics

90 m

D
 400mm,
f=0.020 ; for all pipes L=1000 m
80 m 80 m

A C
pump
60 m
 400mm, L=500 m
 400mm,L=250 m each
B

Pump Characteristics
Q (lt/s) 0 100 200 300 400 500
Hp (m) 50 48 45 38 30 18

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SOLUTION:

SYSTEM CURVES

For Branch AB:

HA = HB-Hp+hfAB
2
80 = HB+hfAB-Hp 8fL
HB = 80+Hp-hfAB……(1)
hf  Q
g D
2 5

For Branch BC:

HB = HC +hfBC
HB = 80+hfBC……(2) hf  80.69Q2

For Branch BD:

HB = HD +hfBD hf  161.38Q2
HB = 90+hfBD ……(3)

To find the operating point, that is to say to obtain

the solution, continuity condition must be enforced
at the junction, point B:

QAB = QBC + QBD ……(4)

such that the hydraulic head at the junction B, that

is HB values obtained using system curves of each
pipe will be the same. In order to enforce this
condition at first the sytem curves for AB, BC and
BD will be constructed.
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At first, the variations of head loss in each pipe with

discharge are obtained as shown below:

Q hfAB hfBD hfBC

(lt/s) (m) (m) (m)
0 0 0 0
100 0.8 1.6 0.8
200 3.2 6.4 3.2
300 7.2 14.5 7.2
400 12.9 25.8 12.9
500 20.2 40.3 20.2

Then, using these values, variation of HB are related to

discharge through each pipe as given below:

Q Hp from AB from BC from BD

(lt/s) (m) HB (m) HB (m) HB (m)
0 50 130 80 90
100 48 127.2 80.8 91.6
200 45 121.8 83.2 96.4
300 38 110.8 87.2 104.5
400 30 97.1 92.9 115.8
500 18 77.9 100.2 130.3

The minimum HB value is 90 m; above which

flow in branch BC and BD will be in the
assumed direction!

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Rearranging eqn.’s (2) and (3) one obtains

1/ 2
 H  80 
QBC  1000 B 
 80 . 69 
1/ 2
 H  90 
QBD  1000 B 
 161.38 

so that

HB QBC QBD QBC+QBD

(m) (lt/s) (lt/s) (lt/s)
90 352 0 352
91 369.2 78.7 447.9
92 385.6 111.3 496.9
93 401.4 136.3 537.7
94 416.5 157.4 573.9
95 431.2 176 607.2

Plotting HB vs. QAB and HB vs. QBC+QBD, one obtains the

discharges through each pipe such that eqn.(4) is
satisfied. In plot below, in addition to these HP vs. Qpump
and HB vs. QBC and HB vs. QBD relations are also plotted.

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 METU Civil Engineering Department CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS

140

[Link]

120

[Link]
100
HB=90.8 m.
90
sys. BC+BD

80
[Link]
H (m)

60

40

Hpump=26.14 m

20
pump curve.

QBD=70.3 lt/s QBC=365.8 lt/s QAB=436.1 lt/s

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Q (lt/s)
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 METU Civil Engineering Department CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS

SUMMARY OF RESULTS:

a) From the graph, the intersection of HB vs QAB and HB

vs QBC+QBD is read to be at HB = 90.8m and
QAB = 436.1 lt/s. Furthermore, these values
correspond to QBC = 365.8 lt/s and QBD = 70.3 lt/s.
b) The pump head Hp = 26.1 m.
c) hfAB = 15.34 m.
hfBC = 10.8 m.
hfBD = 0.8 m.
d)
98.45 m

90.8 m
90 m

80 m 80 m

A 72.35 m C

pump 60 m

B
e) Pp = QHp/np = 139.6 kW

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 METU Civil Engineering Department CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS

2.5.6 Hydraulics and Operation of Gravity

Pipelines

The pipelines through which flow is maintained by

the action of gravity are known as gravity
pipelines. In the selection of the diameter of such
systems:

 Cost (capital + operation) is minimized;

 Depending on the type of pipe material a lower
and an upper limits are set for the velocity,
0.5 m/s<V<2 m/s;
 To prevent air entrainment minimum pressure
head, (p/)min permitted along the pipeline is 5m.

(p/)=5m
hvalve

control valve

Because of limits set forth on velocity and pressure

head there are lower and upper bounds for the
discharge through a gravity pipeline. Consider the
following schematic representation of a gravity
pipeline system shown below.
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 METU Civil Engineering Department CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS

Qin
spillway
hmax

A
hres zA
 B;valve

Energy Equation between reservoir and the exit

hres  z A  hLAB  hf  hv
(note that since V<2 m/s, velocity heads are neglected)
8fL V2 8K
hf  2 5 Q 2  KQ 2 hv  K v  2 v 4 Q 2  K 'v Q 2
g D 2g g D

hres  z A  (K  K 'v )Q 2 Q  hres  z A  /(K  K 'v ) 
1/ 2

when the valve is fully open K v  0 .

'

Remarks:
for hres  hmax and K 'v  0 Q  Qmax  hmax  z A  / K 
1/ 2

for hres  0 and K 'v  0 Q  Qmin  z A / K 

1/ 2

if Qin  Qmax then hres  hmax and Qspill  Qin  Qmax

if Qmin  Qin  Qmax then 0  hres  hmax

if Qin  Qmin then the reservoir is empty and the free surface flow
occurs through the pipe. To prevent the free flow, the valve is partially
closed such that

Q  hres  z A  /(K  K 'v )  1/ 2

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 METU Civil Engineering Department CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS

Computation of Pipe Diameter for Gravity Pipelines

Q

A
pmin/
S1 pmin/
C
S2
E

B
S3
D
F
Design Specifications:
Vmin  V  Vmax
pmin p pmax
 
  
a) Determine the control points (C, E, F) and their
topographic elevations zC, zE, zF. Add the minimum
required pressure head, pmin/, to these elevations
(zC&zE), and then determine the minimum energy
grade line slope, between the reservoir and control
points. For the above case zC  zE  zF ;
HA  zc  pmin /  
S1 
L AC

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b) Compute the pipe diameter for line A – C using

Darcy-Weisbach equation and select the nearest
larger commercially available diameter.
1/ 5
 8fQ2 
Dcom   2   Dcom  D(available )
 g S1 
c) Compute velocity:
Q
V
D2 / 4
 If Vmin < V < Vmax, selected diameter is used in the
project.
 If V < Vmin, a booster pump must be installed at
the reservoir site. Increase the velocity to Vmin by
reducing the pipe diameter. Find the reduced
diameter from
4Q
D
Vmin

The additional head supplied by the booster

pump Hp, is computed from
2
pmin L Vmin
HA  HP  z C  f
 D 2g

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 If V  Vmax, reduce the velocity to Vmax by

increasing the pipe diameter from
D 2
 Vmax  Q
4

Since the velocity and hence headlosses are now

reduced, install a Pressure Reduction Valve (PRV),
or allow increased pressures along the pipe as long
as p/ < pmax/ .
d) After determining the diameter for pipe segment A-
B-C and computing the piezometric level at point C
(HC), repeat the above procedure for the remaining
segment C-D-E-F. Note that for the above example
point E now becomes the control point. Therefore,
first the diameter for segment C-D-E, and then the
diameter of segment E-F is determined.
e) Finally, install a control valve at point F and
determine the necessary headloss at the valve to
maintain pressurized flow at segment E-F.

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Example 2.14: Consider the reservoir-pipe system

given below, with following values.
Reservoir depth hmax=5m, zA=5m, L=2000m, D=0.8m,
f=0.02

Determine:
(a) The system capacity, Qmax.
(b) Minimum flowrate, Q0.
(c) Spill flowrate, if Q=1.2m3/s.
(d) Valve loss, hv, if Q=0.5m3/s.
Q

Q=Qmax
A
hmax
hA
Q0<Q<Qmax

ZA Q=Q0
B
Datum
valve

Solution:

If minor losses except hv (valve loss) are neglected,

1/ 2
h  z 
Q   res A  where K
8fL
 10.09
 K  g 2D5
1/ 2
 55  c) Qspill = 0.20 m3 / s
a) Qmax    1.0 m / s
3

 10.09  d) hres  z A  hV  KQin2  hV  z A  KQin2

1/ 2
 5 
b) Qmin     0.70 m3 / s
 10.09  h V  5  10.09.(0.5)2

h V  2.48 m
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 METU Civil Engineering Department CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS

Example 2.15: Determine the flow capacity of the given

gravity pipeline system. Use an air valve that operates
under a pressure head of p/ = 5m.

Q 130 m
The critical HGL slope !! f=0.02
8fL
120 m hf  Q2
g D
2 5

125 m 115 m
5m
A
5000m C
5000m D=1m 5000m
D=1m D=1m hV
100 m
100 m

B
D
Solution:

130  120 130  100

S AC   0.001 S AD   0.002
10000 15000

Since SAC SAD; SAC=0.001 is the (milder) critical slope.

Therefore at C an air valve is installed.

HA  HC  hL, A  C ; hL, A B  hL,B  C  hL,5000  8.263 Q2

10  2x8.263 Q 2  Q  0.78 m 3 / s

HC  HD  hV  hL,C D
120  100  h V  8.263 x Q 2
hV  15 m (i.e. at point D at least 15 m of head must be
dissipated.)
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Example 2.16: Determine the pipe sizes of the following

transmission line, which transmits Q=1 m3/s.
Q
205 m

190 m
180 m
A C
E
140 m

130 m
B
170 m
D
F

LAB = LBC = 2000 m

f = 0.02 for all pipes
LCD = LDE = LEF = 1000 m

Design Specifications:
0.5 m/s  V  2.0 m/s
p
5m 80m

a) Control points
205  190  5
SAC   2.5  103
4000
205  185 Smin = SAC
SAE   3.33  103
6000
205  170
S AF   5  10 3
7000
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b) Diameter of line A-C, DAC:

 8  0.02  1.02
1/ 5

1/ 5
 8 f  L  Q2 
       0.92 m
D AC
 g 2
 hf 
DAC 2

 g  2.5  10
3
 

Take DAC=1.0m

VAC 
Q

1
 1.27 m / s O.K p /  B  80 m O.K.
A   12 / 4
L V2 0.02  4000 1.272
HC  HA  f  205  HC  198m
D 2g 1 2  9.81

c) SCE  198  185  6.5  10  3

2000
Smin = 6.5x10-3
198  170
S CF   9.33  10 3
3000
Diameter of line C-E, DCE:
 8  0.02  1.0 2
1/ 5

  2   0.76 m
DCE

 g  6.5  10
3
 


Let us take DCE = 0.75 m.

1
VCE   2.26 m / s  2.0 m / s
  0.75 2 / 4
So re-compute the diameter taking V = 2 m/s
Q, DCE
2
1
A   DCE  0.8 m
V 4 2

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L V2 0.02  2000 22
H E  HC  f  198  
D 2g 0.8 2  9.81
HE ≈ 188 m

d) For last segment, line EF:

188  170
SEF   18  10 3
1000
 8  0.02  1.0 2
1/ 5

  2   0.62 m
DEF

 g  18  10
3
 


Q 1
V   3.31 m / s  2 m / s
A   0.622 / 4
Therefore, take V = 2 m/s.
DEF
2
Q 1
   DEF  0.8 m
4 V 2
For this velocity:
L V2
HE  f  zF  h v
D 2g
1000 4
188  0.02    170  h v
0.8 2g

hv=13m

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 METU Civil Engineering Department CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS
HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT
1. Two water reservoirs with a difference in elevation of 5m are connected by 800m
of commercial steel pipe. The roughness height of the pipe is 0.18 mm. What size
pipe must be used to convey 100 lt/s ? Neglect minor losses, water=1x10-6 m2/s .

2. A smooth plastic, 10-m long garden hose with inside diameter of 15 mm is used to
drain a pool as shown in the figure. Including both friction and minor losses,
determine the flowrate from the pool. ( = 1 x 10-6 m2/s)

0.2 m

Kent=0.8
0.23 m

3. A fluid of specific gravity 0.80 flows steadily in a long, vertical 2.5 cm diameter
smooth pipe with an average velocity of 2.77 m/s.
a) If the pressure is constant throughout the pipe, what is the dynamic viscosity
of the fluid?
b) Determine the shear stress on the pipe wall.
( w = 1000 kg/m3, g = 9.81 m/s2)

D = 0.025 m

(1)
V = 2.77 m/s
SG = 0.80
L

(2)

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 METU Civil Engineering Department CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS
4. With a flow of 450 l/s of water, find the head loss and the division of flow in the
pipes from A to B. Take  = 10-6 m2/s and ε = 0.1 mm for all pipes.

L = 1000 m
D = 35 cm
L = 600 m
D = 30 cm
L = 600 m
D = 60 cm

A C D B

L = 1200 m
L = 1000 m D = 75 cm
D = 40 cm

5. A viscous oil with a specific gravity, SG=0.8 and a viscosity of 0.001 Pa.s flows
from tank A to tank B through the six rectangular slots indicated in figure. If the total
flowrate is 3 lt/s and minor losses are negligible, determine the pressure in tank A.
Assume hydraulically smooth flow.
Each slot
1cm x 1cm
Same
elevation
A B
6m
a
Section a-
a
a

6. For H=30 m in the figure below, find the discharge through each pipe. Neglect
minor losses, water=1x10-6 m2/s

Pipe L(m) D(mm) ε (m)

H=30 m 1 6 50 0.0005
1
2 10 100 0.001
3
A 3 20 120 0.0018
2 B

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7. In the following pipe system, water discharge in pipe 1 is given as Q1=1.2 m3/s.
The upstream and downstream reservoir water surface elevations are known, and
they are zA=100 m, and zB=80 m, respectively. Relevant pipe data are provided in
the table below. Determine the diameter in pipe 3. Velocity head at the junction and
minor losses in the system will be neglected. ( = 1 x 10-6 m2/s)

zA=100 m
m Pipe L (m) D (mm)  (mm)
1 5000 1200 3.6
2 6000 1800 3.6
3 18000 ? 4.4

(1)
Q1=1.2 m3/s zB=80 m

(2)
J (3)

8. Water flows from the reservoir through a pipe as shown in the figure.

a) Calculate the discharge for no-pump case by assuming no energy loss in

the system.
b) Calculate the pump head by considering all the losses in the system
considering the same discharge in part (a).

30 m

L=50 m
D=20 cm
ε =0.02 cm
Kent=1 Kelbow=1.5

Dnozzle=0.1 m 23 m

Kelbow=1.5

Knozzle=0.75

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9. Water flows at a rate of 0.110 m3/s from a lake as shown in the figure below. The
pipe is 100 m long and the diameter of the pipe is 10 cm and the roughness height is
0.02 cm.
a) Is the device inside the building a pump or a turbine? Explain.
b) Determine the power of the device if the efficiency of the device is 86 %.

160 m

Power house

150 m

Pipe properties
D=10 cm
L=100 m
ε = 0.02 cm

10. The pump with an efficiency of %80 has the performance characteristics shown
in the figure below. The mechanical energy loss in the piping and fittings in the
suction and discharge pumping is given by
V2
hL  K where V is the average fluid velocity in the pipe and K = 10. Find
2g
the flow rate through the pump and power supplied by the pump to the fluid.
D2=100 mm
D1=100 mm Q=?
Pump

15 m
m

60

45

HP (m) 30

15

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Q (m3/s)
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 METU Civil Engineering Department CE 372 HYDROMECHANICS
11. In a chemical processing plant a liquid is pumped from an open tank through a
0.1-m-diameter vertical pipe into another open tank as shown in the figure below. A
valve is located in the pipe, and the minor loss coefficient for the valve as a function
of the valve setting is shown in the figure below. The pump head-capacity
relationship is given by the equation:

Hp = 52.0-1.01x103.Q2 with Hp in meters when Q is in m3/s.

Assume the friction factor f = 0.02 for the pipe, and all minor losses, except for the
valve, are negligible. The fluid levels in the two tanks can be assumed to remain
constant. Determine:
(a) the flowrate with the valve fully open.
(b) the required valve setting (percent open) to reduce the flowrate by 50 %.

3m

valve

30 m
D=0.10 m

40
35
30
25
KL

20
15
10
5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
(Open)
(Closed) Percent valve setting (Closed
(Open)

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12. A pump that has the characteristic curve shown in the accompanying graph is to
be installed in the system shown. What will be the discharge of water in the system?
Take  = 10-6 m2/s.
L = 15 m
D = 20 cm
f = 0.02

P
10 m
L = 285 m
D = 20 cm
5m f = 0.02

3m

DATUM

Pump Curve

30

25

20
H (m)

15

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Q (l/s)

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13. Compute flow rate for the pipeline shown below. Also determine Hp values of
each pump in the system. Pump characteristic head- discharge curves for the
pumps are given in the table below. Use D = 0.25 m, L = 1000 m, assume that f =
0.02.

Q ( lt/s) 0 40 80 120 160 200

(Hp)1 (m) 50 48 45 39 30 18

(Hp)2 (m) 30 28 25 21 16 11

120 m

100 m

Ltotal = 1000 m
A D = 0.25 m
P1 P2

14. Assuming f = 0.020, determine the discharge in the pipes. Neglect minor losses.
Take  = 10-6 m2/s.

50 m

5m

L = 3000 m
L = 1200 m
D = 25 cm
D = 20 cm
3m 0m
L = 2500 m
D = 30 cm

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15. Three reservoirs are connected with smooth pipes at a junction point. It is known
that flow direction in pipe-2 is from reservoir B to the junction, and the discharge of
pipe-1 is equal to the discharge of pipe-2, Q1= Q2 . For pipe characteristics given in
the table below, compute the water surface elevation in reservoir C. ( = 1.0 x 10-6
m2 /s )

zA = 372 m

Pipe D(m) L(m)

A
zB = 360
1 m 1 0.2 300
2 0.2 140
2 3 0.4 190
B
J

3
zC = ?

16. For the system given in the figure, find the elevation of Reservoir D and the flow
direction in pipe 6. Neglect minor losses.
El 90 m El 60 m
El 80 m
El = ?
B C
1 5
3 6 D
A P 2 4

Pipe L (m) D(mm) f Q1 = 0.35m3/s

1 600 600 0.025
Hp = 8m
2 600 600 0.025
3 600 450 0.03
4 700 450 0.03
5 300 450 0.03
6 300 600 0.03

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17. The water surface elevations in the three reservoir system are shown in the
figure. In addition, the pipe data are provided in the table below. The discharge in
pipe AD is 100 lt/s. Use f = 0.02 for all pipes.
a) Determine the minor loss at the valve, hvalve, and minor loss coefficient, Kvalve.
(Note: Neglect all other minor losses.)
b) Draw the energy gradeline for the system.

100 m 100 m
Pipe L (m) D (mm)
AD 1000 300
BD 500 300
A B
DC 1500 400

QAD

D 75 m

valv
e

C
18. Assuming f = 0.020, determine the discharge in the pipes. Neglect minor losses.
Take QAB= 60 l/s for the first trial value. Stop iteration when |ΔQ| < 3 l/s. Take  = 10-
6 m2/s.

L = 150 m 250 l/s

D = 20 cm
200
l/s A B
L = 150 m
L = 100 m D = 20 cm
D = 15 cm

250 l/s
D L = 250 m C
200 l/s D = 10 cm

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19. Assuming points B, C, D and E lie on the same plane (zB = zC = zD = zE),
determine the direction and magnitude of the discharge in each pipe in the network
shown in the figure. (Use at least two iterations)

Given:
K2 = 3, K3 = 5, K4 = 2 and K5 = 5
8 fL
Where K has been defined as h f 
g 2 D 5
zA= 180 m

Reservoir
15 lt/s
C
A
[1]
[3]
[2]
20 lt/s
B
E

[4] [5]

35 lt/s

20. Find the discharge in each link using the given initial distribution by making 2
iterations and pressure drop between points O and C if they have the same
elevation.
C

B D KBC=KCD=KAO=KOE
KAB=KDE
5 lt/min ? KOC=3KBC
KAB=2KBC
6 lt/min KOC=30 min2/dm5
5 5 lt/min
lt/min
A E
7 lt/min
O
20
lt/min

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21. Schematic representation of a transmision line is shown below. Determine the

discharge that can pass through the system under gravity if the water level in the
upstream reservoir is 305 m. What is the valve loss at the entrance of the lower
reservoir. A minimum 5 m pressure head is required at the air valve which must be
placed at point C.

305 m

295 m

C
303 m
300 m 280 m
300 m 300 m

D = 100 mm
f = 0.02 (for all pipes) 275 m 275 m

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