Forensic Ballistics and its phases

FORENSIC BALLISTICS
• Refers to firearms identification and investigation by means of ammunition fired through the
firearm.
• Is the science of analyzing firearm usage in crimes.
• Is the use of science and technology to investigate and establish facts in criminal or civil courts
of law.
• It is a refined Tool Mark Identification where the firearm is made of a material harder than the
ammunition components, acts as a tool to leave impressed or striated marks on the various
ammunition components that come into contact with the harder surface of the firearm.

Dr. Albert Llewellyn Hall, the pioneer in the field of forensic ballistics, was an expert in identifying firearms
from fired bullets. Identification of the crime gun is the principal purpose and objective of criminal
investigation, to establish the identity of the criminal offender and assist in their prosecution.

FORENSIC - As applied to ballistics or to any other subject, suggests a relationship to a court of justice and
legal proceedings.

FORUM - A Latin word which means “marketplace” – where people gather for “public disputation” and
“public discussion”.

BALLISTICS FINGERPRINTING
- is the identification of the gun that fired a bullet from an analysis of the unique marks that every gun
makes on the bullet it fires and, on the shell, ejected from it, that a firearm, being harder than a bullet
and cartridge case, every time you fire a cartridge on it, its Signature and Thumb Mark (Fingerprint)
leaves on its fired bullets and cartridge cases.

FIREARM IDENTIFICATION
- is a discipline mainly concerned with determining whether a bullet or cartridge case was fired by a
particular weapon.

❖ Attributes of Forensic Ballistics:

Field Investigation
- is conducted by the first officer in the case in the field when they investigate a case or cases wherein
firearms have been used. It is a routine job of the investigating officer that involves;
a. Recognition - which is the process of identifying physical evidence at the crime scene.
b. Collection - is the process of collecting pieces of evidence at the scene of the crime.
c. Marking - is the process of placing information on the physical evidence for identification.
d. Preservation - the investigating officer should exercise care and resourcefulness in securing
wrapping or packaging materials that can be used to preserve physical evidence.
e. Transmittal - the investigating officer has to transmit these ballistics exhibits to their respective
departments and submit the same to the duty desk officer or to the duly designated receiving
officer in their office.
Technical Examinations of Ballistics Exhibits is the job performed by the firearm examiners in the
laboratory which includes the following; marking of physical evidence, test-firing of evidence firearm,
photomicrography by using bullet comparison microscope, making of the report as to the result of the
examination and preparation of comparative chart.

a. Marking of physical evidence - Physical evidence bullets, cartridge cases, and suspected firearms
once submitted by the requesting party will be physically examined to determine its markings or
initials made by the investigator for identification purposes

b. Test firing of evidence firearms - The firearm is to be test-fired before a bullet recovery box to
obtain test bullets and test cartridge cases for comparison with the evidence bullets and evidence
cartridge cases respectively.

Legal Proceedings/Court Trial

- This is where the Ballistics Report of the firearm examiner and the Ballistics Exhibits such as;
firearms, fired bullets, fired cartridge cases, and allied matters are presented during the trial of the
case in a court of justice. It also includes the presentation of the Ballistics Expert’s testimony
regarding his finding/conclusion.

The examination of the submitted ballistics specimens, no matter how complicated, could only be
examined within the province of the so-called Seven (7) Problems in Forensic Ballistics or Firearms
Identification.

These are the following:

1. Given a bullet: to determine the caliber, type, and make of firearm from which the bullet was fired.
2. Given a fired shell: to determine the caliber, type, and make of firearm from which the fired
cartridge case was fired.
3. Given two or more fired bullets: to determine whether or not they were fired from one and the
same firearm.
4. Given two or more fired cartridge cases: to determine whether or not they were fired from one
and the same firearm.
5. Given a fired bullet and suspected firearm: to determine whether or not the bullet was fired from
a suspected firearm.
6. Given a fired cartridge case and a suspected firearm: to determine whether or not the fired
cartridge case was fired from a suspected firearm.
7. Given a firearm: to determine whether or not it is serviceable.
History of Ballistics

The word Ballistics originated from the Greek word “Ballien” or “Ballo” which means to
“to throw” and from a Roman war machine called “Ballista” - a gigantic bow or catapult used
to throw missiles and large objects such as stones at a particular distance to deter animals or
enemy forces.

From these words, the term Ballistics was derived to indicate the science of moving
projectiles. But ballistics isn’t just about bullets, it includes any projectiles and fragments of the
projectiles and firearms.

Ballistics used in a crime scene investigation was officially established in 1923. Charles
Waite and Philip Gravelle set up the Bureau of Forensic Ballistics in 1923. They, with Calvin
Goddard, started to develop their own very special equipment, the Bullet Comparison
Microscope. They are the pioneers of Forensic Ballistics and that is where Forensic Ballistics
got its start.

The Bullet Comparison Microscope was first popularized in 1927 during the Nicola
Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti robbery-murder case in Massachusetts. Due to Calvin
Goddard’s success with the Sacco and Vanzetti’s case, he was called upon to help with the St.
Valentine’s Day Massacre of 1929, which was one of the first major organized crime incidents.
His contributions went on to become the “Father of Ballistics” for developing the system by
which bullets can be traced.

Origin of Firearm

In the 13th Century, the development of firearms followed the invention of gunpowder in
Western Europe. Berthold Schwartz and Roger Bacon are both credited with the invention.
Most reference books credit Roger Bacon, English monk and Scientist with the invention of
gunpowder in 1248, and Berthold Schwartz, a German monk, with the application of gunpowder
to the propelling of a missile in the early 1300s. This powder is what we now call “Black
Powder”.

It is also often stated that gunpowder was first invented by the Chinese, and its use as a
propellant was long before its advantages became recognized in Europe. It may also assume
the Arabs with their advanced knowledge of chemistry at that time.

In 1247, One of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in a war far was that of an attack
on Seville, Spain. In 1346, Cannons were used by King Edward II of England at Crecy.
Cannons were first used at the Battle of Crecy, but it wasn't until 1300 that the first basic gun
was developed.

In 1335, Mohammad II of Turkey in his famous conquest of Constantinople. First firearms

were inefficient, large, and heavy and were not capable of being carried by an individual soldier;
hence, the development of cannons preceded that of small arms weapons by almost 50 years.
 In 1350, the first "hand cannon" allowed for portability. Ballistics dates to the famous
French artist Leonardo da Vince (1500 A.D.) as can be gleaned in his sketch of steam-powered
cannons through the hand cannons and primitive muskets like the matchlock, wheel-lock, and
flintlock firearms. To increase the reliability of lighting gunpowder, flint replaced matches in 1517.
Reverend Alexander John Forsyth of Scotland invented the first primer powder in 1805.

The man never satisfies himself. He is always trying to improve himself and his
surroundings. He created some crude or primitive weapons which were subsequently developed
into sophisticated firearms of modern times. Firearms are a type of weapon. They are designed
to kill or wound and so are less likely to have legitimate purposes. Thus, unlike knives and clubs
which do have more varied purposes, firearms are always considered weapons. "Firearm" -
means a barreled weapon from which any shot, bullet, or projectile can be discharged and that
is capable of causing serious bodily injury or death to a person.

Stages of Development of Man’s Weapon:

1. Stones
2. Cubs, Knives, Spears, and Darts
3. Sling shots to hurl objects
4. Bows and arrows
5. Crossbows
6. Guns
7. Missiles
 BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS

Ballistics is the study of the motion of a projectile. When we say MOTION, it refers
to the movement or the mobility of the bullet. We have different motions of the projectile
or bullet these are DIRECT, ROTATORY, and TRANSLATIONAL. The field of ballistics
can be divided into the following areas of study: Internal, External, Terminal Ballistics and
Forensic Ballistics.

• Direct - the forward movement of the projectile inside the gun barrel resulting from
the expanding forces of gases produced after combustion of the gunpowder.

• Rotatory - the gyrating action (rotating/spinning), either right or left, of the

projectile while passing through a gun barrel

• Translational - the straight-line movement where every part of the projectile

follows a parallel path, and no rotation takes place such as bouncing off a bullet
after hitting a resistant surface.

INTERIOR / INTERNAL BALLISTICS

Refers to the motion, attributes, and characteristics of the bullet while still inside the
firearm and it extends from breech to muzzle point.

How the Cartridge Works

1. A blow from the firing pin to the primer is the tendency for the priming mixture to be
crushed against the anvil causing its ignition which refers to percussion.
2. Subsequently, the produced flame travels and passes to a vent or flash hole that
connects the priming mixture and gunpowder causing the rapid and confined
burning of the gunpowder known as deflagration at about 0.0000001 seconds.
3. When the powder begins to burn it produces an expansive force of gasses, a
pressure to push the bullet to disengage from being crimped at the mouth of the
cartridge case.
4. Once the bullet is forced outside to make firm contact with the bore, the cartridge
case expands as the pressure is generated within to prevent the gas to leak
rearward so that it would be confined within the chamber of the firearm. Thus,
sealing of the barrel due to case expansion and bullet action is known as
obturation.
5. The small amount of expanded gas that would leak in between the body of the shell
and the inner surface of the chamber wall is known as blowback.
6. The time during which the projectile is influenced by interior ballistics is very short.
From the release of the firing pin to the moment the sound of the shot can be
heard as it leaves the muzzle occupies only about 0.01 seconds.
Conditions attributed to Interior Ballistics

1. Firing pin hitting the primer

- upon the squeeze of the trigger, the hammer will be released which causes
the firing pin to be pushed and hit the base portion of the cartridge where
the primer is located

2. Ignition of the priming mixture (Percussion action)

- located either at the cavity rim or at the center of the primer upon the
striking effect of the firing pin will ignite, and such action is called
“Percussion action”

3. Combustion of the gunpowder/powder charge or propellant

- the ignition is imparted to the gunpowder by passing through the vent or
flash hole, thus burning the gun powder and converts it into an expanded
hot gas.

4. Expansion of heated gases

- once burned, the charged powder is converted into a heated gas, and due
to a more elastic property of gases, its particles will spread and fill the entire
container (shell)

5. Pressure developed
- the outward push of the gases to the burned powder pressure is developed
due to the great amount of gas that is expanding within the shell causing
the withdrawal of the bullet from the shell

6. Energy generated
- the potential energy serves as the propellant of the expanded gases, in as
much as the pressure that is developed has that degree of energy to force
the projectile out of the shell

7. Recoil of the gun

- the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward movement
of the bullet upon explosion

8. . Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel

- is the relative speed of the bullet per unit of time while it is still inside the
barrel, or at which leaves the gun muzzle

9. Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel

- refers to the twist of the bullet caused by the cylindrical grooved portion of
the barrel of most firearms

10. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet

EXTERNAL/ EXTERIOR BALLISTICS
Treats of the attributes or movement of the projectile after leaving the gun muzzle.
It is extended from the muzzle of the gun to the target or any attributes to the motion of
the projectile while it is in flight and before reaching the target.

Conditions attributed to Exterior Ballistics

1. Muzzle Blast - This is the noise created at the muzzle end of the barrel of the
firearm after the explosion.

2. Muzzle energy - Energy generated at the muzzle point measured in foot-pound.

3. Trajectory - Refers to the parabola-like flight of the projectile from the time it leaves
the muzzle until it hits the target. It is also described as the actual curve path taken
by a bullet during its flight.

4. Range - It refers to the imaginary straight distance between the muzzle of the gun
and the target.

• Accurate Range - the distance within which the shooter or gunner has
control of his shots.
• Effective Range - the distance within which the bullet is expected to be
lethal.
• Maximum Range - the distance that a projectile can be propelled from a
firearm.
• Maximum Effective Range - is the farthest possible distance that a bullet
could travel.
•
5. Velocity - refers to the rate of speed of the bullet (during its flight) per unit of time
usually expressed as feet per second (ft/sec.)

6. Pull of Gravity - It is the downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth’s
surface due to its weight.

7. Air Resistance - Refers to the force of the air encountered by the bullet in its flight.
 Benjamin Robins
- Englishman invented the Ballistics Pendulum, an instrument use to measure
the muzzle velocity of any firearm and who was one of the first to state sound
ballistics theories in his new principles of Gunnery in 1742. He became the
Father of modern gunnery.

Alfred Lee Loomis

- Invented another instrument use to measure bullet’s speed is the Chronograph

TERMINAL BALLISTICS
Refers to the effects of the impact of the projectile on the target. It extends from its
initial contact towards the deepness of penetration on the target. Penetration of the bullet
is of prime interest.

Conditions attributed to Terminal Ballistics

1. Terminal accuracy - refers to the size of the bullet grouping on the target. This is
so because of some resistance and interventions that make the bullet change its
momentum to perform other motions rather than straight and hit the target partially
or totally sideways instead of head-on. Due to this effect, a keyhole shot instead
of a spherical entrance wound might be created.

2. Terminal energy is the energy of the projectile when it strikes the target. The
energy of the projectile is affected by three factors such as gunpowder content,
since the more the gunpowder, the more the energy will be produced. Another is
the length of the barrel, as the barrel of the firearm becomes longer it provides
and confined a solid mass of expanded gas pushing the bullet down the muzzle.
The third factor is the additional force imparted by the air to accelerate the bullet’s
velocity if its direction goes with the direction of the bullet upon leaving the muzzle
point of a gun.

3. Terminal velocity is the speed of the bullet upon penetrating the target. This is
governed by four factors such as same with terminal energy, gunpowder
content, barrel length plus type and shape of the bullet.

4. Terminal penetration refers to the depth of the bullet in the target. Hence, when
the bullet hits the target perpendicularly, bullet penetration is deeper in the soft
target than that of the hard target.
 Shot Ballistics and Shotgun Ammunition

SHOTS BALLISTICS - This refers to the study of shots from smoothbore firearms like shotguns
and muskets.

• Shotgun - a smooth bore, fires multiple pellets, and also it can fire a single slug.
• Shotgun shell or shell - a single unit of ammunition for shotgun, with either pellets or
slug as a projectile.

Shots or pellets as projectiles are of two classes based on their size;

1. Buckshot - for the larger one
2. Drop shot or birdshot - for the smaller.

• Chilled Shot - Shotgun pellets made from lead are specially hardened by the addition of
a slight amount of antimony.

• Gauge - It refers to the caliber of a shotgun, it is a number of lead pellets or balls of the
given bore diameter required to make up one pound weight.
• Choke - This is the degree of constriction on the end portion of the shotgun barrel for the
purpose of controlling the spread of the shots/pellets after leaving the barrel. That is, the
diameter near the muzzle end is slightly smaller than the diameter of the bore of the rest
of the barrel.

• Dram Equivalent - This is the measurement or the amount of gunpowder in a shotshell.

• Combination Gun - This is a type of break-action shotgun that consists of two barrels that
are over and under design with one shotgun barrel and one rifle barrel.
 • Drilling Gun - This is a class of break-action guns that contain three barrels, usually two
shotgun barrels of the same gauge and a rifle barrel.

• Cape Guns - Is a shotgun that has side-by-side variation or construction of barrels.

Daniel Myron Le Fever - Is credited with the invention of the hammerless shotgun and introduced
the first hammerless shotgun in 1878.
Winchester - Credited as the inventor of the earliest successful repeating shotgun being the
lever-action Winchester M1887 in 1887 at the behest of the Winchester Repeating Arms
Company.

Rodolfo Cosmi - produced the first working prototype of his semi-automatic shotgun in 1925,
which had an 8 round magazine located in the stock.

KINDS OF SHOTGUN

• Kind of Shotgun according to Action Type

1. Auto-loading or Semi-automatic - these are the same as auto-loading rifles in that the
recoil action reloads the gun from the magazine without any effort on the part of the
shooter.
2. Slide or Pump Action – operates in the same manner as to slide action rifles, by means
of sliding the lever under the barrel.

3. Hinged or Break Open Type – a hinged or break-open action shotgun requires the
manual insertion of the shells in the chamber by releasing some sort of catch for the gun
hinges to open at the breech allowing the cartridges to be loaded.

• Kind of Shotgun according to Featured Type

1. Single Barreled Shotgun – it is loaded with a single shotgun cartridge, closed, fired, and
then unloaded by the shooter.
2. Double Barreled Shotgun – it has two barrels arranged either side by side or one on top
of the other. Each barrel may have its own trigger.

3. Triple Barreled Shotgun - usually two shotgun barrels of the same gauge and a rifle
barrel. The most common arrangement was a side-by-side shotgun with the rifle barrel
below and centered. (Drilling)

4. Four barreled shotgun - which usually have two smooth bore and two rifle barrels.
(Vierling)
 5. Sawn-Off Shotgun – it has a custom design, and the barrel is usually shortened to
conceal the action.

SHOTGUN AMMUNITION

• Shotgun Shell - Refers to a single unit of ammunition for a shotgun. It consists of a Primer,
Projectile (either slug or shot pellets), GunPowder/Propellant, and a Tubular Case (either
paper, plastic, or metal) with a metallic base and Wads.

Parts of a Shotgun Shell

1. Tubular Case/ Shell Case – case usually made up of paper, plastic, or metal

2. Metal Base/ Brass Head - containing primer, powder, or propellant

3. Wads – base wad, over-powder wad, filler wad, closing wad

• Over-powder and filler wad - serve to seal the gun bore to prevent the gas pressure from
leaking around the shot charge.
• SHOT CHARGE OR PELLETS - these are terms in the shotgun projectile.

❖ Buckshot
- These are comparatively large lead balls formed in molds, without hardeners alloyed
with the lead.

❖ Drop shot/ Birdshot

- These are smaller lead balls that are formed by pouring molten lead alloy through
perforated pans of selected sizes located at the top of a shot tower.

❖ Slug - it is a single projectile and is predominantly used for hunting.