UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION
 WHAT IS RESEARCH?
• Some people consider research as a movement, a
movement from the known to the unknown. It is
actually a voyage of discovery.
• We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for,
when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our
inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and
fuller understanding of the unknown.
• This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and
the method, which man employs for obtaining the
knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed
as research.
• The word research is composed of two syllables, re and
search.
• The dictionary defines the former as a prefix meaning
again, a new or over again and the latter as a verb,
meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and
try, or to probe.
• Together they form a noun describing a careful,
systematic, patient study and investigation in some
field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or
principles (Grinnell 1993).
• The simplest meaning of research is to search for facts,
answers to research question and solution for the
problem
• Research in common parlance refers to a search for
knowledge.
• One can also define research as a scientific and
systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific
investigation.
• The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English
lays down the meaning of research as “a careful
investigation or inquiry specially through search for
new facts in any branch of knowledge.”
• Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized
effort to gain new knowledge.”
• Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be
used in a technical sense.
• According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and
redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing
the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis.
• D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social
Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts
or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or
verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of
theory or in the practice of an art.”
• Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of
knowledge making for its advancement.
 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
• Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think
of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad
groupings:

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies

with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research
studies);

To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a

group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);

To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is

associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);

To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are

known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
• Types of research can be looked at from three
different perspectives:

Applications of the findings of the research

study

Objectives of the study

Mode of enquiry used in conducting the study

• The classification of the types of a study on
the basis of these perspectives is not mutually
exclusive: that is, a research study classified
from the viewpoint of ‘application’ can also be
classified from the perspectives of ‘objectives’
and ‘enquiry mode’ employed.
• A research can be an applied , correlational
and quantitative.
 Pure and applied
• Pure research involves developing and testing theories
and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to
the researcher but may or may not have practical
application at the present time or in the future.
• Pure research is also concerned with the development,
examination, verification and refinement of research
methods, procedures, techniques and tools that form
the body of research methodology.
• Examples of pure research include developing a
sampling technique that can be applied to a particular
situation; developing a methodology to assess the
validity of a procedure; developing an instrument, etc.,
• Most of the research in the social sciences is
applied. In other words, the research techniques,
procedures and methods that form the body of
research methodology are applied to the
collection of information about various aspects of
a situation, issue, problem or phenomenon so
that the information gathered can be used in
other ways –
• such as for policy formulation, administration and
the enhancement of understanding of a
phenomenon.
 Based on objectives
• A research study classified as a Descriptive
study - attempts to describe systematically a
situation, problem, phenomenon, service or
programme, or provides information about.
• Example:
• The types of service provided by an
organisation, the administrative structure of
an organisation, the living conditions of
Aboriginal people.
• Correlational study – The main aim is to
discover or establish the existence of a
relationship/association/interdependence
between two or more aspects of a situation.
• Example:
• The relationship between stressful living and
the incidence of heart attack, relationship
between fertility and mortality.
• Explanatory research - attempts to clarify why
and how there is a relationship between two
aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
• Example:
• Why stressful living results in heart attacks;
why a decline in mortality is followed by a
fertility decline; or how the home
environment affects children’s level of
academic achievement
• Exploratory research - is when a study is undertaken
with the objective either to explore an area where little
is known or to investigate the possibilities of
undertaking a particular research study.
• When a study is carried out to determine its feasibility
it is also called a feasibility study or a pilot study.
• It is usually carried out when a researcher wants to
explore areas about which s/he has little or no
knowledge.
• A small-scale study is undertaken to decide if it is
worth carrying out a detailed investigation.
• Although, theoretically, a research study can
be classified in one of the above objectives–
perspective categories, in practice, most
studies are a combination of the first three;
thatis, they contain elements of descriptive,
correlational and explanatory research.
 MODE OF ENQUIRY
• Broadly, there are two approaches to enquiry:
1. The Structured Approach;
2. The Unstructured Approach.
• In the structured approach everything that forms
the research process – objectives, design, sample,
and the questions that you plan to ask of
respondents – is predetermined.
• The unstructured approach, by contrast, allows
flexibility in all these aspects of the process.
• The structured approach is more appropriate to
determine the extent of a problem, issue or
phenomenon, whereas the unstructured
approach is predominantly used to explore its
nature, in other words, variation/diversity per se
in a phenomenon, issue, problem or attitude
towards an issue.
• The structured approach to enquiry is usually
classified as quantitative research and
unstructured as qualitative research
 STEPS OF RESEARCH
• Research process consists of series of actions
and steps needed for conducting scientific
research, if the researcher follows certain
steps in conducting the research, the work can
be carried out smoothly with least difficulty.
These steps are described as beneath—
 Step-I: Identification of the Problem
• The first and most important step for identifying a problem
is asking a question or identifying a need that arises as a
result of curiosity and to which it become necessary to find
an answer.
• The psychological studies are focused on one or many of
the following kinds of questions:
• What are the events that cause or determine a given
behaviour or response?
• What is the nature of behaviour or action (i.e., its structure)
and how it is linked with other actions and behaviours?
• What are the relationships of internal psychological
processes with behavioural phenomenon?
• The following factors should be considered by
the researcher for identifying in research
problem:
• Have not been investigated before;
• Will contribute to the understanding of your
question;
• Are available to investigate;
• Lead to another question!
• It is extremely important to evaluate the research
problem in the light of funds, time and expertise
and knowledge available at your disposal.
• It is equally important to identify any gaps in your
knowledge of relevant disciplines, such as
statistics required for analysis.
• For identifying a good solvable problem, the
investigator undertakes the review of literature.
 Review of Literature
• Literature review is a survey of scholarly sources
(such as books, journal articles, and theses) on a
particular topic.
• It gives an overview of key findings, concepts and
developments in relation to a research problem or
question.
• It is a search and evaluation of the available
literature in your given subject or chosen topic area.
• It documents the state of the art with respect to the
subject or topic you are writing about.
 Purpose of Review of Literature
1. Identifying variables relevant for research
2. Avoidance of repetition
3. Synthesis of prior work
4. Determining meaning and relationship among variables
5. To argue for relevance and significance of research
problem/question
6. To provide the context for one’s own methodological approach
7. To establish one’s own credibility as a knowledgeable and capable
researcher
8. To argue for the relevance and appropriateness of one’s own
approach
 Types of Literature Review
1. Historical Review

2. Context Review

3. Integrative Review

4. Methodological Review

5. Self-study Review

6. Theoretical Review
 Steps to be followed during RoL-
1. Read few, good reviews
2. Write critical annotations while going through
various reviews
3. To develop a structure
4. To write purposefully
5. To use the literature to support the argument
6. Make literature review an ongoing process
7. Get feedback in stages
8. To be prepared for redrafting
 Question for Reflection-
Till how far in the past can you go back
to get your RoL? How many years?
 Sources of Data for RoL

Data for
RoL

Primary Secondary Other

Sources Sources Sources
OTHER
SOURCES-
• Newspap
ers
• Magazine
s
• Internet
• Movies
• TV Shows
• Videos
(YouTube
etc.)
• Misc.
 Step-II: Formulating a Hypothesis
• When the researcher has identified the
problem and reviewed the relevant literature
he formulates a hypothesis which is a kind of
suggested answer to the problem .
• Hypothesis plays the key role in formulating
and guiding any study.
• For unbiased research the researcher must
formulate a hypothesis in advance of the data
– gathering process
Step-III: Identifying, Manipulating and
Controlling Variables
• Variables are defined as those characteristics
which are manipulated, controlled and
observed by the experimenter.
• At least three types of variables must be
recognised at the outset - the dependent
variable, the independent variable and the
extraneous variable.
• The dependent variable is one about which
the prediction is made on the basis of the
experiment. In the other words the
dependent variable is the characteristics or
condition that changes as the experimenter
changes the independent variables.
• The independent variable is that condition
or characteristics which is manipulated or
selected by the experimenter is order to find
out its relationship to some observed
phenomena.
• An extraneous variable is the uncontrolled
variable that may affect the dependent variable.
The experimenter is not interested in the
changes, produced due to the extraneous
variable and hence, he tries to control it as far as
practicable.
• The extraneous variable is also known as the
relevant variable.
• AN EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE HAS TO BE
CONTROLLED! IF NOT CONTROLLED, THEY
BECOME CONFOUNDING VARIABLES!
 Step-IV: Formulating a Research
Design
• A research design should include the
following; logistical arrangements have to
made according to proposed research design ,
the measurement procedures, the sampling
strategy, the frame of analysis and the time
frame.
• Constructing Devices for Observation and
Measurement -
• When the research design has been formulated, the
next step is to construct or choose appropriate tools of
research for scientific observation and measurement.
• Questionnaire and interview schedule are the most
common tools which have been developed for the
psychological research. If the readymade tools are not
available then the researcher may have to develop
appropriate tools before undertaking the study
• Sample Selection and Data Collection-
• After deciding the tools for the study the
researcher also decides about the participants of
the study.
• Usually a small sample is drawn which represents
the population.
• Depending on the nature of research problem a
researcher may choose particular method (e.g.
observation, experiment, case study, and survey)
for data collection.
 Step-V: Data Analysis and their
Interpretation
• After making observation the data collected are
analysed with the help of various quantitative /
statistical and qualitative techniques .
• Careful scrutiny of the data is a critical aspect of
scientific method.
• The purpose of the analysis is to make sense of
the data and see what light they throw on the
problem and the hypotheses of the study and
draws conclusion accordingly
 Step-VI: Drawing Conclusions
• The investigator, after analysing the results,
draws some conclusions.
• In fact the investigator wants to make some
statement about the research about the research
problem which he could not make without
conducting his research.
• Whatever conclusion drawn, researcher
generalises it to the whole population.
• During this phase, hypotheses are accepted or
rejected.
 Step-VII: Preparation of Report and
Publication
• This is the last step in most of the research
studies.
• The researcher documents all the steps of his
or her research in clear terms this report
inform that what you have done, what you
have discovered and what conclusion you
have drawn from findings.
 WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT
• Steps in research writing
Layout of
Research
Writing
Types of Research Report
Precautions while writing a report
 Presenting References
• Remember the correct format to put it in according

to university guidelines

• Do not miss out on any of your sources

• Use different varieties of sources for your

referencing

• Make use of tools to aid with your references

 Ethical Standards of Research
• Intellectual Property rights
• Plagiarism
• APA Format.
 Intellectual Property Rights
• Intellectual property is a broad categorical
description for the set of intangible
assets owned and legally protected by a
company or individual from outside use or
implementation without consent.
• An intangible asset is a non-physical asset that
a company or person owns.
 TYPES
• Intellectual property can consist of many types of
intangibles, and some of the most common are
listed below.
• Patents –
• Patent is a monopoly right given by the
government to an inventor for a period of twenty
years. Once granted, a patent gives the inventor
the right to exclude others from making, using,
selling, importing or offering for a sale of the
inventor’s invention for the duration specified in
the terms of patent.
• Copyrights
• Copyrights relates to original work of literary,
artistic, dramatic or musical work,
Cinematographic films, Sound Recording and
Software program.
• Copyrights provide authors and creators of
original material the exclusive right to use, copy,
or duplicate their material.
• A copyright also states that the original creators
can grant anyone authorization through a
licensing agreement to use the work.
• Trademarks
• A trademark is a symbol, phrase, or insignia that
is recognizable and represents a product that
legally separates it from other products.
• A trademark is exclusively assigned to a
company, meaning the company owns the
trademark so that no others may use or copy it. A
trademark is often associated with a company's
brand.
• For example, the logo and brand name of "Coca-
Cola," is owned by the Coca-Cola Company
• Geographical Indication -
• Geographical Indication is an indication which
identifies goods as agricultural goods, natural goods or
manufactured goods as originating, or manufactured in
the territory of country, or a region or locality in that
territory, where a given quality, reputation or other
characteristic of such goods is essentially attributable
to its geographical origin.
• Example: Basmati rice, Darjeeling Tea, Nagpur Oranges,
Kolhapuri Chappal, Thirunelveli Halwa, Kanchipuram
Sarees etc
 PLAGIARISM
• Plagiarism is the "wrongful appropriation" and
"stealing and publication" of another author's
"language, thoughts, ideas, or expressions"
and the representation of them as one's own
original work.
• Plagiarism is considered academic dishonesty
and a breach of journalistic ethics.
• Referencing is basically the
acknowledgement of
people/sources whose works
have influenced or aided your
own study in any way. These
could include books, journal
articles, newspaper articles,
websites, web documents,
unpublished theses and so on.
1. Giving evidence to your arguments
2. To cite different points of view
3. To avoid claims of plagiarism/ respect others
4. To demonstrate the knowledge and reading
done by you
5. To make your own work be accessible easily
6. For readers to look into your sources for
their own purposes
• American Psychological
Association (APA)
• Modern Language Association
(MLA)
• Harvard Style of Referencing
• Chicago Manual of Style
• Oxford Style of Referencing
• Council of Science Editors (CSE)
REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPH
Y
• REFERENCES- Most often used to describe
those sources directly cited in the
thesis/paper
• BIBLIOGRAPHY- Most often used to
describe those sources looked into by the
researcher but not directly cited
anywhere.
• Two types of Citations-
[Link]-Text Citation-
Those that appear within the text as
with quotes, paraphrases and so
on
2. References-
Those that appear at the end of the
thesis/ paper
 APA FORMAT
• APA style uses the author/date method of
citation in which the author's last name and the
year of the publication are inserted in the actual
text of the paper.
• It is the style recommended by the American
Psychological Association and used in many of
the social sciences.
• The American Psychological Association offers
some guidance and examples at
[Link]
• Currently, the 7th edition is in use.
• There are two parts to referencing: the
citations within the text of your paper and the
reference list at the end of your paper.
• The APA referencing style is an "author-date"
style, so the citation in the text consists of the
author(s) and the year of publication given
wholly or partly in round brackets.
• ‘CITE’ OPTION IN GOOGLE
SCHOLAR

• ‘REFERENCES’ IN MS-WORD