XII Chemistry Chapter 2
Solutions
Concentration of a Solution
9995400 500
Concentration :
The amount of solute present in given amount of solvent or solution.
Expressing concentration of solutions in terms of
1. Mass percentage
2. Volume percentage
3. Mass by volume percentage
4. Parts per million
5. Mole fraction
6. Molarity
7. Molality
Mass of the component
Mass % = X 100
Total mass of the solution
Volume of the component
Volume % = X 100
Total volume of the solution
Mass of the component
Mass by Volume % = X 100
Total volume of the solution
Number of parts of component X 10⁶
Parts per million =
(ppm) Total number of parts of all components of the solution
Mole fraction (X ) =
A
No. of moles of component
#
Total number of moles of all components
=
Sum of mole fractions = 1
Xn + Xz =
1
X=this
No. of moles of solute
Molality (m) = 3m
Mass of the solvent in kg
No. of moles of solute
Molarity (M) = 3
Volume of the solution in litre
No. of gram equivalent of component
Normality =
Volume of the solution in litre
2) A mixture contains 3.2g methanol (molecular mass = 32u) and 4.6g
ethanol (molecular mass = 46u). Find the mole fraction of each
component.
Meth-
Meth -
↑ meth -
Neth = 1 -
Youth
3) Number of moles of the solute per kilogram of the solvent is:
(a) Mole fraction
-
(b) Molality (c) Molarity (d) Molar mass
4) The mole fraction of water in a mixture containing equal number of
moles of water and ethanol is:
i) 1
- ii) 0.5 iii) 2 iv) 0.25
5) Express 15 ppm (by mass) in percent by mass.
15ppm =0009
000 =
%=
%
005
Mass
of solid
1) Nature of solute / solvent
Stability
in
↓
It is observed that polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and
guid
non polar solutes in non polar solvents - “like dissolves like”.
2) Effect of temperature
If the dissolution process is endothermic (ΔH > 0),
The solubility should increase with rise in temperature.
If it is exothermic (ΔH < 0) the solubility should increase with
decrease in temperature.
3) Effect of Pressure
Since solids and liquids are highly incompressible, pressure does
not have any significant effect on solubility of solids in liquids.
Solubility of gas in liquid depends on ;
1) Nature of solute / solvent - “like dissolves like”.
2) Temperature : Solubility of gases in liquids decreases with
rise in temperature.
3) Pressure
Solubility of gas in liquid
Effect of Pressure
Henry’s Law
It states that the solubility of gas in liquid at a particular temperature
is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas in equilibrium with
the liquid at that temperature.
PaX
P = k
+ X- -
solub
-
Henry’s Law C
14
B
#, solubility ↑
P A solite
I
solubility
Wit &
X-E
Temp
* solubility
Xa y = mx + 2
solubily ↑
Temp ↓ P =
k X
,
+ 0
Tak
~ The value of KH depends on the nature of the gas and temperature.
wAs the value of KH increases,the solubility of the gas in the liquid
decreases.
- As the temperature increases solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases.
~ It is due to this reason that aquatic species are more comfortable in
cold waters rather than in warm waters.
Applications of Henry’s Law
1) In the production of carbonated drinks
2) In the deep sea diving (bends / compressed sickness)
3) For climbers or people living in high altitude (Anoxia)
1. To increase the solubility of CO₂ in soft drinks and soda water,
the bottle is sealed under high pressure.
2. Scuba divers carry oxygen cylinders to breath under deep sea.
At high pressure under water, the solubility of gases in blood increases.
When the divers come towards surface, the pressure gradually
decreases. This releases the dissolved gases and leads to the formation of
bubbles of nitrogen in the [Link] blocks capillaries & creates a medical
condition known as bends. To avoid bends the cylinders used by scuba
divers are filled with air diluted with helium(11.7% He, 56.2% N & 32.1% O).
3. At high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at the
ground level. This leads to low concentrations of oxygen in the blood and
tissues of people living at high altitudes or climbers. Low blood oxygen
causes climbers to become weak and unable to think clearly.
This condition is known as anoxia.
XII Chemistry Chapter 2
Solutions
Raoult’s Law
Vapour pressure Po Po
It is the pressure exerted by the
E
--- --- ----
----
vapours of the liquid in equilibrium
-
B
-
-
with the liquid at that temperature. - -
- I
P Pa=
+
PB PaX XA PCX
PiX
Pixa
AtB
------- -
- x
- - -
-
- -
--
-
---
-
-
- - -
-
- & &
-
- --
- - -
-
- - -
-
- & - -
-
=
=
↑ --
- T = &
-
-
-
-
-
=>
-
Vapour Pressure of Liquid-Liquid Solutions
Raoult’s Law
For a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure
of each liquids is directly proportional to its mole fraction.
PCXa
PoXA
=
Raoult’s Law (Liquid in liquid)
↑
p
appeti
PB
P P
-
= +
~ Pa
PB
Ya = 0
Mole fraction .
Xa = 1
XB = 1
XB = 0
XII Chemistry Chapter 2
Solutions
Ideal / Non ideal solutions
Ideal solutions + PB
P=Pa po
Pa = PaXA e
Ps
PB =
PROXB Pa
P =
Pa + PB
A -
A B-B
Ov = 0
F ·
=
UnixH = o
=
-
A-B
-
Ex
- - -
-
-
Ideal solutions
These are solutions which obey Raoult’s law over the entire range
of concentration.
If the A-A and B-B interactions are nearly equal to the A-B
interaction, the solution behaves ideally.
That is, solvent-solvent interactions and solute-solute interactions
are nearly equal to solute-solvent interaction.
A perfectly ideal solution is rare. But some solutions are nearly
ideal in behaviour.
Eg: solutions of n-hexane and n-heptane, bromoethane and
chloroethane, benzene and toluene etc.
Non-ideal solutions showing Positive deviation
( Acetone + Ethanol )
CH-O-CHz CHzCH-OH
Pa > PaXA
O
·
PBJ PBX B
P >Pa + PB
Pa
>O
A-A weak
Tnix> o strong
Interaction
B-B
Interaction
A-B
Interaction
In the case of positive deviation from Raoult’s law, A-B interactions
are weaker than A-A and B-B interactions.
That is, in this case solute-solvent interactions are weaker than
solvent-solvent and solute-solute .
So more molecules are escaped to vapour phase and hence the
vapour pressure of the solution increases.
Eg: solutions of ethanol and acetone, acetone and CS₂,
acetone and CCl₄ etc.
Non-ideal solutions showing Negative deviation
( Acetone + Chloroform )
CHCls
Pa < PaXA CH3-0-C -
-
·
PB L PBX B
↑ <Pa + PB
Pa
Do
Tuixh 20 wea A-A
Interaction strong
A-B
B-B Interaction
Interaction
In case of negative deviation from Raoult’s law, the A-B
interactions are stronger than A-A and B-B interactions.
That is, solute-solvent interactions are stronger than solute-solute
interaction and solvent-solvent interaction.
So number of molecules escaped to vapour phase decreases and
hence the vapour pressure of the solution decreases.
Eg: solution of phenol and aniline, chloroform and acetone etc.
XII Chemistry Chapter 2
Solutions
Azeotropes
Azeotropes
They are binary mixtures having the same composition in liquid &
vapour phase and boil at a constant temperature.
For such solutions, it is not possible to separate the components by
fractional distillation.
~
F
-
-
wr -
iT
68% HNO₃
- -
-
-Gr
-I
↑
↑
↑
F
-
----- &
-
--
-
----
↑
-
&
↑
32% H₂O ·
-
--
T
- -v
Er
- -
↑
There are two types of azeotropes:
1) Minimum boiling azeotropes (showing +ve deviation)
The solutions which show a large positive deviation from Raoult’s
law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a particular composition.
Eg: 95% ethanol solution by volume.
2) Maximum boiling azeotropes (showing -ve deviation)
The solutions which show large negative deviation from Raoult’s
law form maximum boiling azeotrope at a particular composition.
Eg: a mixture of 68% Nitric acid and 32% water by mass.
XII Chemistry Chapter 2
Solutions
Colligative Properties
Colligative Properties
“Colligative properties are the properties of dilute
solutions of non-volatile solute, whose values depends
upon the amount of solute particles present in the
solution, but not on the individual identity of the solute.”
1. Relative lowering of vapour pressure
2. Elevation of boiling point
3. Depression in freezing point
4. Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
1) Relative lowering of vapour pressure
When a non-volatile solute dissolved in a Volatile
liquid, the vapour pressure of the solvent is lowered. -B
----
B
- - B-B-B-
-
A=
-
-
--
-
--
- -
My=M P> Pa
Lowering
of
UpPa -
OP
Relative lowering- -
-
Pa
Up
2) Elevation of boiling point M 1atm
-
Change in boiling point is directly proportional to the
amount of solute present in a given amount of solvent. solvent
Boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its *
vapour pressure becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure. :
solution
>
Temp To To
DTs < m
Tb > Tso
DTb =
Kom O
OTb Ty-Th =
My =
-
x0 -
3) Depression in freezing point
-
Freezing point of a substance is "the temperature
at which its solid and liquid phases have the
Frozens
same vapour pressure".
Tam
47 =
km T > Tf
07 -E
=
x10
MB
-
4) Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
“The passage of solvent from solution
of lower concentration to the solution
of higher concentration through
↓
*
a semipermeable membrane.”
-
Solution of S Solution of
Higher P Lower
Concentration M Concentration
“Excess hydrostatic pressure which
must be applied to the solution of
higher concentration to prevent the
(1)
passage of solvent to it through a
semipermeable membrane”
C = A
TCCT ~
T RCT
My =R
=
- T
TV = DRT
-
=
Advantages of osmotic pressure measurement over other
colligative property measurement :
1. Osmotic pressure measurement can be done at room temperature.
2. Here molarity of the solution is used instead of molality,
which can be determined easily.
3. The magnitude of osmotic pressure is large even for very
dilute solutions.
4. This method can be used for the determination of molar masses of
biomolecules and for polymers.
▪
Osmosis
*
Osmotic Pressure
S
Saline Pure
P
Reverse Osmosis Water Water
M
Isotonic Solutions
Hypertonic Solutions
Hypotonic Solutions
Reverse Osmosis
The direction of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure larger than
the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution side.
Now the pure solvent flows out of the solution through the semi
permeable membrane.
This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis and is used in
desalination of sea water.
Isotonic Solutions :
Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature
are called isotonic solutions. When such solutions are separated by
a semi-permeable membrane, no osmosis occurs.
Hypertonic / Hypotonic Solutions :
A solution having higher osmotic pressure than another is called
hypertonic solution. While a solution having lower osmotic
pressure than another is called hypotonic solution.
XII Chemistry Chapter 2
Solutions
Abnormal Molarmass
Abnormal Molarmass
The molar mass obtained by colligative property measurement is
incorrect, if there is association or dissociation of particles.
Such molar masses are called abnormal molar masses.
If the number of molecules in solution decreases, colligative
property decreases and molecular mass increases.
In order to correct the abnormal molar masses, van’t Hoff
introduced a factor called van’t Hoff factor (i).
Van’t Hoff Factor (i)
Normal Molarmass
i = -
Abnormal Molarmass
Observed Colligative Property
i = -
Calculated Colligative Property
Total number of moles of particles after association/dissociation
j =
Number of moles of particles before association/dissociation
van’t Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative properties
① 8
② Tb = o Kie
E
OT = 2 km
③
I nRT
① V =
In the case of association, i < 1 Nac 1- Nat +cl
un un
In the case of dissociation, i > 1 ·
O ②
s
For NaCl, i =
For K₂SO₄, i =
↑
F =
=
z
Son
u
①
For CaCl₂, i =
-E
For acetic acid in benzene, i =
association
*
-
cach-ce
①
you
thank