Introduction to microbiology and immunology
assignment
Maham Hussain
March 31, 2026
Introduction to microbiology and
immunology
Submitted To : Dr. Umar Ashraf
Submitted By: Maham Hussain
Registration Number: 2025-ag-5781
Degree: Food science and Technology
Department: NIFSAT (National Institute Of
Food Science And Technology)
Microbial Loop
The microbial loop is a crucial process in aquatic ecosystems that helps in
recycling nutrients and maintaining the flow of energy. In oceans and freshwater
environments, organisms like; phytoplankton release dissolved organic matter
(DOM) as a byproduct of their metabolic activities.
Instead of being lost, this organic matter is utilized by bacteria, which convert it
into their own biomass. These bacteria are then consumed by protozoa
(microzooplankton), which in turn are eaten by larger zooplankton, linking this
process back to the main food chain.
In this way, the microbial loop ensures that energy and nutrients remain within the
ecosystem, making it more efficient and sustainable.
Key Components
Phytoplankton (primary producers)
Dissolved Organic Matter (DOM)
Bacteria
Protozoa (microzooplankton)
Zooplankton
Function
Recycles nutrients and organic matter
Converts dissolved waste into usable biomass
Transfers energy to higher trophic levels
Prevents nutrient loss and increases ecosystem efficiency
Key Points
Occurs mainly in aquatic ecosystems
Links microorganisms with the food web
Enhances productivity and nutrient retention
Plays a vital role in ecological balance
Role of Microbes in Biogeochemical Cycles
Microorganisms are fundamental to the functioning of biogeochemical cycles, as they
continuously recycle essential elements required for life. Through their metabolic
activities, microbes break down dead plants, animals, and waste materials, releasing
nutrients back into the environment in forms that can be reused.
For example:
In the carbon cycle, microbes decompose organic matter and release carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere.
In the nitrogen cycle, certain bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia
through nitrogen fixation, making it available for plant use, while others carry out
denitrification, returning nitrogen to the atmosphere.
Microbes also play similar roles in sulfur and phosphorus cycles.
Without microbial activity, these nutrients would remain locked in unusable forms, and
ecosystems would not function properly.
Key Components
Bacteria and archaea (main drivers)
Fungi (decomposers)
Plants (interact with microbes for nutrient uptake)
Key elements: carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus
Function
Decompose organic matter
Convert elements into usable forms
Release and recycle nutrients
Maintain balance in natural cycles
Support plant growth and ecosystem stability
Key Points
Drive major Earth cycles
Essential for nutrient recycling
Enable availability of key elements
Maintain environmental sustainability
Influenza Outbreak (H3N2)
The recent global outbreaks of influenza linked to the H3N2 strain were mainly due to the nature
of the influenza A virus, which changes rapidly over time.
This virus undergoes small genetic mutations, known as Antigenic drift, allowing it to escape
the immune system even in individuals who were previously exposed or vaccinated.
Another important factor was the reduced immunity in populations following the COVID-19
pandemic. Due to lockdowns and limited exposure to common viruses, people developed lower
natural immunity.
In addition, in some regions, the seasonal flu vaccines did not perfectly match the circulating
H3N2 strains, reducing their effectiveness.
These factors combined led to increased transmission and widespread outbreaks across the
world.
Key Components
Influenza A (H3N2) virus
Hemagglutinin (H3) and Neuraminidase (N2) proteins
Human population (host)
Seasonal vaccines
Function
Infects respiratory tract cells
Spreads from person to person through droplets
Mutates to evade immune response
Causes seasonal epidemics and outbreaks
Key Points
Caused by Influenza A (H3N2)
Rapid mutation (antigenic drift)
Reduced immunity after COVID-19
Vaccine mismatch in some cases
High transmission and global spread