@a.

sic Cf11H Engineer i n g ) , - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ ( BCE,1 J

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

IN TR OD UC TI ON 1
. PR EV IO US . YE AR S QUESTIONS
. " . . ·.-.. ·..

I. SH OR T ANSWER TY PE QUESTIONS Q.3 Write basic respo11slhilit/es of a civil e11g/11eer

.
Ans. The basic responsibilities of a civil engineer
Q.l Defilte tl,e floo r space i11llex? are planning
/R. T.U. 2018/ and designing a structure and analyzing its vario
us aspects.
mak ing a regu lar inspection in the site to ensu
re t~at the
Ans . Floo r Spa ce Index (FSI) : This is also referred construction is goin g according to the plan and
to as making the
floo r Area Ratio (FAR), is the ratio of develope necessary amendments in the proj ect, if required
d floor space during th(
on a piece of land to the amount of raw spac course of construction.
e available on
that land . Municipal zoning ordi nances may estab
lish the FSI
within a particular range to limit the amount Q.4 Lisi out tlte s11b-bra11c/1es of civil ellgi
of construction J1eering.
[Link] size of buildings in a particular area. Beca
use the FSI
is a measure of the combination of the height Ans. Civil Engi neering is sub divided into man
and footp rint of y branches 1
a building, using it to regulate size allows mor
e flexibility in mainly:
building design than using either of the mea
surements by (1) Structura l Engineering
tJ1emselves. (2) Geotechnical Engineering e
FSI ·means the ratio bet\veen the area of a cove
red (3) Environmental Engi neering .r
floor (Built up Area) to the area of that plot (land
) on which a (4) Transportatio_ n Engineering ' I{
building stands. (S) Water Resources Engineering • I
e
I o
Floor space covered in all floors (6) Surveying
FSI
( 7) Con struction Engineering
Area of the plot
~=======:===:===~•
lwt is work 0 r str11ct11rai e11gi11eers? ~I
;=.z Wftal do you mean by construction ma1
w.
Q.5 'J
1e
1ageme11t?
Ans . Structural engineers often work alo_ le
ngs ide civi'.
~ - Construction Manag_eme~t : Co~struc engineers and architects as part of a con~truct1on
tion E~ginee~ng team. __,
, d' . i·ine of Civil engmeermg which deals with
1s a 1sc1p design,
. •
d construction of every type of structure, viz, Q.6 Define i11frastr11ct11re.
planning an
b 'ld' ngs roads, bridges, dams, tunnels and . J
~ir~orts _etc. '
C~ns:ru;tion management can be further Ans. Infrastructure, in general, defines as_a set
d1v1ded mto of faciliti_:;
following majors: through which goods an.d services are pro':'1~~d
to the pub! 1i
(i) Building .Materials
. fi astructure is the stock of basic fac1lit1es
and capita
;q~ipment needed for the functioning of a c?un
(iQ BuildingConstruction try o~I ~~ea,
the term to refer collectively to the roads, bridg
es, ra, ine
(iiO BuildingTechnology
 1111 <1 similar public '1\-"0rks [Link] are required for nn industrial
[Link] Cl.u/1 l.'>\g(n~ll

,.uious physie1l and chemical attributes ofwatc-r ~ broug1i

g"osfC C{vll
•
Telephones
• Enginttnng
Radio
: ~ - - - - - - -_ _

71 ~
_:::-~==:::::~~
Inf~
,..,_. se.:::r ts i L'"' <!: •
8CE..)" "'
,
<'\:onom~: or :11iortion ofit., to fonction. unda safe limits prescnbed fo r human consumption fo; • Television
•. '°"5C:::ortst:.:::_, . • '-'<r lcr ;:_-~ !-~ - J
drinking purposes.. • Cinema etc. O\ crall d:Yclo,- - - ~ « E.:r ~ --6!:3
(n1 W,ste water ~anagcmcnt: The waste \Vater (3) Energy/Power Go' ~ '~,,·....•.[Link] tzd e::-J~. "' - '
s 1~:ie-sc r.:~ s f· · - ~
II. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
leased from toilets or kitchens of a household or """~
~•c • Coal boa;id~Of""Orld
11., Cl~E po!
~1::2: ...
.
~ = =-~ :.- · - _

lo 2016. lndia it--.. ~ c : : . . ~ c ~

re . d b.
water released from industries stan s as n 1g chal lenge r, • Electricitv.
a civil encinecr 10 be disposed safely. Wnstc wntcr trea11n or Pcrji ,-.-, 19 p ~ C "Q.a-.:; [Link]' ~ d
Explain the importance of a Civil Eaginur in - • Ii . Cot • Wind power c o a . i ~ ~ ~J ::016. ll:l n::..:;:::i ~ --.::= ' !-.
society? · [[Link].10111 plants are created by civil engineers or ti:ca~mg the Waste · · sol u~ ~ o a " - , .... ,.
~~ =-..~ (~,.~~

Ans. Iwport2nec of .a Ch·il Engineer in Society : Ci\il

"oter depending on the amount _of waste m IL Such water
after ~tment is reused for agnculture purposes. Even i
•
•
Oil
ar energy ~baih ; , , ~
. - t:?---= ~
llroJeas) hzs rccei\"t:d bill ~ ~~~ ~
. .
Gas an d b.10-gas · ' J<X:S z:ld t:ir.~ ..r r re
p 1gineering is the stn:am of engineering which is related to some countries of\\-orld like Si~ga!'°re. Australia and Namib~ • [Link]:tt (FD!) mn,cc:i ~ ~- · ~ - -;:-c
. ,~~ So a 15 ~ ~ '3 {
the waste wata is used for dnnkmg purposes too. 4) [Link] goods and output ..._.... ,,or rniJ
thai the d.....__.
human being in their daily life. From construction work to
llwater supply to waste water, civil engineering is required at (,iJ1 Jrrig:ition works: Irrigation work is Carrie(! out
(
• M •
merals
~ IL . •
i:n.~-- c ,~,_ .

-..,-..~ z:id "ill ~ so i:i. ~ f--.--c.

--~ lW.U [S ~= -
_l!Vety place. There are so many role ofcivil engineer in society, by civil engineers teamed up with agriculture engineers. Civil • Steel ~ qxxi ~ i=-cs: cf i ~ il ===- ~ ,f
few of !hem are listed under : engineers are responsible for providing required amount of • Metal other than steel zn tv."t> types ofjobs Z\~ !e f,.-c-a 0\-U ~ L
water to fields by constructi ag dams and canals and regulate (I) T,-'-=-•..J.. - · ,
(i) [Link] and construction of buildings:The main • Basic chemicals -==J""" '-
-ole of a civil engineer considen:d is to design and build water to the fields. • Fertilizers and PCS!icides (2) ~~Joos a
.;tructurcs. Civil engineers are invoh•ed in creating structures (viii) Snrvcying work: Civil engineer docs the
surveying work. Surveying work includes measurement of • Machinery and machine tools
for human shelter, office and other such acti~ilies. From the QA ~lain t u ~ of eatam,,y of ay a,mmy lfo )
r jcsign work to execution work a civil engineer hoids the
•;omplete responsibilities.
distances horizontally as well ns vcrticnlly. Surveying is used
for commencement of any construction work as we·necd to
(5) Increasing productivity of natura]
• . Reclamation oflaod lCSOurccs
u, tlu ~ of itJ irif,UJD:.aan.

fim establish tJ1e outlines oftl1e structure. Also for creating • ' irrigation Ans. Any co1:.:tzy"s ~ ~ ~ ufC1...-n-d ~ u'-A
(ii) Construction of [Link]: Roads are the main mode
?f transportation in any part of tl1e world. Civil engineer maps surveying is done. • Drainage [Link]::aJ~~:'-tcatil r&-cli.- .= d
. ;[Link] roads not only for the betterment ofhuman being • Land reshaping resanfing m . , ~ a:cre De cct'OCm\ t\_~'-cd c.f: T

COIIIll!y. The rule o f ~ in ~ro:n.T.1•,

• .-n.comfor1 sense but also for the commercial sense as roads Q.2 WltaJ are tlle impacts ofi11Jrastr11ct11ral de11e/op111ent • Afforestation
:·lfe main means of transpo;ting goods as well Economy of on economy of co1111try? /R.T.U. 2018/ (6) Science and technology dn1:lopmcit of3 ~ mi uso Sffll:lf its ~-c c:ci b.-ul: a
be O\l:r cmphlsiml Lile a f ~ i:i :m tdiflC"C. tl>t rrti..-.
tl
my country is governed by the conditions of roads of that OR • Teaching basic and appiied rescartb of infras:ru..--n:rc as -..ell as its S0Ulldnc,ss. arc c=1 tti tJ--
\
:ountry. Discuss tlte role of civil e11gineer i11 society. • National laboralories IIJ1ioo·s lilt1.I dc\tl.---p=tt. The ccco.'lmi: ~th cfo roun:r: s
(iii) [Link] and construction of bridges: Bridges are • Liaison witl1 productionlDlits lus n idcntly h:Ji..""r=d b..md in lund " 1th the de-cl~ '
he structure which are built over water bodies, valleys or Aos. Impacts of infrastructural development on (7) lnfonnatio_n system ofitsinfras:ru:turc. To~ f:imcus",,o.,mi._<t Dr \'K..R. \
:ven roads in order to cross these physical obstacles ccooomy of couotry : Infrastructure, in general, defines as • Mass media RJ0. "tl:J,e lira. bcfuff!I infra..=tun: md <X\cl..v,,cnl IS "''
;[Link] and still not closing the way underneath. Bridges a set of facilities tl1rough which goods and services are acocc for aJI affair. It is a crotm\K'US ~-css :i.-.d ~
• Libraries and mus~;ms indC\"~ lastcbc ~ I C \ . ~ and foll.....,, c, r
_~ire built since ages by civil engineers. Site investigation to provided to tl1e public, infrastructure is the stock of basic
• Fails and exhibitions by progcs-s in i n ~ . if"" an: to fulftll NT ~b,-.,.
, lesign to execute and _to operate and maintenance ofbridge, facilities and capital equipment needed for tl1c functioning of ,

1
1 civil engineer is involved in every step of work of bridge a country or area; tl1c term to refer collectively to the roads, • Booksandjoumals objcc1i1C$ of a self-accelerating. rrocess of ~ oneom•
: onstruction. bridges, rail line, and similar public works tl1at are required drlelc,pmenC.
for an industrial economy, or a portion of it, to function. lnfrastnl>.""turt' dndeopmrnt is t'llC of the nujor foct .:,1
(iv) Design and construction of dllms: A dam is a Q.3 Write tire scope of civil enginwlng.
[Link],mill cconc,mi. dClck'fC'll<lll in [Link]) "">·
,,arrier or obstacle to restrict flow of water ofany surface or Infrastructure includes in its broadest tcnn the following:
such as:
• mderground streams in order to create reservoi~ for storage Economic Infrastructure : Ans. Scope of Civil l';ngineeriog : A Ci\i l En~nm is
(I) D=t in,c~tmrnt in ,nfr.i5ll\ltturc crnlc-< rrodu;1io
; ' ,f water. These reservoirs not only suppress the floods but (I ) Transport invariably requi red in all types of \\Orls relared to filll.:ilil~ anJ ,t,muUlc-< c:-."{'!K'mk ~,ti, itiK
:lso are used for providing water for irrigation work, human • Roads infrastrucrurc dC\·elopment Ci,il Enginccring. tht 00ft !nn.:h
(~) II mhx:o tran<J,til'n co<U ll!lJ [Link] cosL'I.. 1m1iro1 in
· .onsumption, generation ofelectricity, industrial benefits and of engineering. has a lot of scope. The scope can 1"
• Railways understood in two wnys, fi~tly llS per lht dncl.,pmcnt c,f
comret1ti1enc<s; and .
nany other works. Geological investigations for selection of • Shipping ports and harbours (l) II r«'' 1Jc-s cmpl("l)mcnl oppoR [Link] md ph) ~1c.
lam, design and analysis ofdams, construction ofdams and infrastructure in India and second!) lhc type ofjobl a1111Jblc anJ soci.11 infta<truc•urc 10 the poor.
• Airports for a civil engineer in India. um
heir operation and maintenances are done by a civil eni,incer.
(v) Water supply: A civil engineer is responsible for
• Transport equir,mcnls
(2) Communication
onverting water from river or lakes to potable water suitable
orhuman consumption. Water treatment plants are designed • Ports
nd built by civil enginee~ where raw water is treated and • Telegraphs
 ) - - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . i~e-c-E-
.s~~
(I) True bearing
,th'•• 11111,lt/1111
~
/,1•1111,•,•11 two /W/111~ c 1111 /,~ (II) MnJ!llCilc bcccrlnJ!
1,,,1? l!x1 1lu/1t, (Iii) Arhhrnry hcnrlng
~:
lntl vll poslllun hcilwccn two polnls cun he llh
Q, 13 C11111•1•rt tl,e /111/ow/11,: wl,11/c hc1,r/11,:s 1111111u,lrm,1a/
·rhu re
cnsur I11~:
l&,
,11, h)' hetir/11,:N,
• 111lncc1 111

2
nJ
je1or . 1ll lslnncu 1111d 111111,lci bcilwccn thu two polnls (I) 5,t 0 4/J' (II) 114°2"' ,~c
(\) 1torl 1.0 11 111
SUR VEY ING 11nd
AIIM, (I) 54°40'
dlHIIIIICO 11nd 11111~\c hc1wcci11 lhci lwo polnls.
(l) \furl 1co1
,i'' ~. ·( .,;~·
' •
..., · -~-t i ~ ·'"I••·~-," ' PRev1ous YEARS QuesT10·NS .: ~'!:\·•f.•:r :- •
I':•• ' : '• ' I '
·:."• ,:·:
j \
~= == == == D of
~ e .wr1•11)•l11i:,
Q,8 of
lll'O Nt111 ln11N urc VOi')' li1r lhm1cuch ot hur, 1llruc1 1·1111Hl1111 IH ·11
I, SHOR T ANSW ER TYPB QUESTIONS 1111! p1111Nlhlo, In H11uh UIINllH l11cl lruu1 r111111,l111-1 IH llo11u. l11cllroc1 ~ 1 1 "'l'lio Hclcincu 1111d url of c.lclum1l11l11s 1hu w- - - -A-+-- - - - c 11,
fi 1n•vcy n~ I I
1'1111111111-1 IN11111n known 11N'l(uul11rocnl 1'11111',lnp,'. ~••"•' ltl 1111 of vurlonHpulnlHubovc, on or bu ow t 1c 11
t•IIVO poH u •
,urfuCU Of OUI·1h"
10"
), I ll'/1111 /1· th,• 11/,j,•,•f 11/ ,1·11r1•1•y/11/l Y ' 1,.,
/11.'l;II, :J/1/H/
()/(
/11.'l:ll, 111/H/
r::::= , I/JJ']il!re1tcl! /ictwee 11 p/1111N 11111/ 1111111.~.
Q, ,Vr1le I
Is
9 6
lli·/t,• th,• 11hj,•1·t.1· 11/.1·111·1•,•y/11/l, AnH. Mnu111•1 k l>l•cllnn llon I A cu111p1111N dous 11111 po int of
lo
lhu 11·11u nort h - uxccpl hy col11ulcJ011co In s111110 nrunu. T ho ,.:::= 11 lly rcprcscnlHthe fcnlurcs on or nonr
(II) 114"24'
,\nK, A p\1111 1!.tP \,~~1rojcc1ctl on n horlw111nl plnnc, A plun N
,us. 'I Ii<• uh,lccl, 111' Slll'VIJ)' lllp, 11n:: cu111p11NN needle IN 1111rm:1c d hy 111111,111u1lc l'u rcu prod11cud 111 rd
thU cnrlh'H Hlllf uc,·c 11I 11ls11111cu on tho shccl so horl1.0n111I
lhu 0111c1· llq11l,I p111·101'111c l\11r1h'N coru, which vnrlllHIn cllllorcm1 I rr
(I) I11 111kc 111cm,11rc rnc111s In onl<•r lo tlcl u1n1lnu rul111lvu pnrlH 0 1'1l1c worlcJ nllll 111 co111111111lly chnnl',11111,. Thu llllllllllltlc dop ICtH 1hu 1or •[Link].l bclween vurlous poIntK 011 I ih's t 1c cnr ·c.
dls11111cos nru mc11K
p,is ll l1111s hclwccn pol111s sll11111ctl 11hovu, 1111 or h<•11c111h nol'lh pulu Is cun cnll)' lucnlud In lho B111'1111 INl11111I rclllou or n
the 1-1rn11n,I. C111111d11, 1111d fro111 lhu IJl<, INwcsl or1rno north. Thu dlrc.:cllon s11rf11cu, •rnll drown on u rolutlvcly smnll sculc. A ur
A mnp IH (!OIIC y
( 2 ) 'Ii, loc1110 pul11I H1111lhu .,,r111111d fro111 lhu pl1111s or 11111p11,
In which 1l1c co111p11@ nocdlc pol nl lu lrnown IIH M111',11utlc orully uhows somu uu·'dlilonnl l'onlurcs like Clllllours, I\
No1th, 1111d lhu llll!)lll hclwcun Mnl',llUl lc Nof'lh 1111d lho Trnu 11101111,cn I llc11tu 1hu unovcn nn1urc or tho sroun0. i,
North clln:cl 1011 IN cnllcd 11111a11c1lc duulh111tlo11 or v11rl11tlo 11. huchuru ulc, to m
:n
D
•.l 11'11111 /.1· Jt,•1,r,•.11•11111th•1• /r11t'flt111? /11,1:IJ, 111/H/ ~ 10 ,Vr/11! ,1/jfcriml IJ'lll!S of c/111/m- /11 .rnri•cy/1111,
(),!', /t.\'p/11/11 I/IC' hl!l!f/,/ of 111.~ lrllllll! III? s
/II, 'f ./J, 111111/
::.1K, '1)11cK of Chnlns In Surveying re
""· Hl'pt'l\•1•111111lv1J ll1•11l'tlo11 1 A t'[Link]'l.!Hu111111lw fr11cllo11
{F) i. tho 1·11110 ur tlblnncc 011 the 111111> lo [Link] Nl1111cu
111111,I. R,•prc,c 111111 lvc fr11 c1li111h ore cxproNKud In lhu form
011 tho A nN, Jlcl11h1 of h1Ntr11111L•111 : A Nllrvcyln a term usut.1111
Nplrlt
luvclllnll fo r lhc hcll',hl of' lhc 11110 of' ttl11h1 or II lqvcl ll11s
(I) Cnginoor's chnl11 i\8!·1fi~i·1Wi!;F §Ji·i'i+iit·iN! er
\Y

I I loll111w d hy 11 : (c11l011) 1111d thun 11 1n1111hur, whun.:

,e I, the 11111111·111111r 111 Ilic frncllo n, the colo n rcprcucn
the l111llrn111c111 nhuvu lhu 11doplc1! dnlurn, 1111rlao110111clrlc lovulllng
(II) auntor'H cl111i11
(\II) t(uvo1111u chnln = Q.l U'/inl Ir /ocnl 1111rnr 1/on 7 110
,., Ir It Jrtrcttcl 111111
IC
IO
for lhc hclghl of'lhc ccnlor 01'1111: lhuodulltc 111,ovo tho llrount.1 (Iv) 1)11110 chuln or Slcul bond /R.T.11. JOII/
lNlhc
vl•,i1111 op,•nof 1011, 1111<1 the olhor 110111hor INthe dc110111h1111or. or 1111111011 11111,·k, In utmlln N11rwy l11ll lo r 1hu hul11,l11 of'lho cunlur = ,llm/11n1cJ7 • cl
h11,, " ,cu lc 111 I :2,1,000 c1111 l>ll uxpn:uucd n1111hun1111 lc11 lly
, 112•1,I/OO . 111 fiic l, 011 110111c 11111p11, you will ~oc thu 1( 17
o f'lhu lclcucopc o r1hc lrnuult 01· lulcucoplc ulldntlc 11bu1·c lhu
lll'ound or ttlnllo n 11111rk, nut.I In tlllforcn llnl luvullln g for lhu
Q
•
11 Ex11/11/11 1hc terlll 11I/
,c corrcct/111u·,
111 II chol11 so ror h11por111111 or
=
,\Ill, 1,ornl ,'\t1mcllun :
{\ m11Gnc1,c · .,·
o
1 n rl occ is
1ncnu1111\
rdlc "hich l< unln11ucncc<I )' ,c
\J
p1c"c11fcd 11,,lup, 11 clivhlcJII ~iB" · hol11,h1 or 1hc line o r ull',h l of' the 1clc11cop u 111 lho lovulllna Anti A 1npc Is more precise t~ll)' usccl nnd bccnusc or, this eslnbllsh«l by n moi;ncllc n\ver sometimes, the mui;ncll~ le
l11uh·u111 cn1 when lhc l11Hlru11w111 lr1 level. • k to11c Is 11°11c ,. • corrcc1lo11H· o1her ourncllni; forc:es.J lo•~ rn,; cntcd fro111 \ndicnlini; ilt
l)l'oclsc wor fl citons urc know11 uN 1npc _ needle mn)' be n11rnc~c ~:;,en ii i, in pm,imi1y I ll cc1l0 ,. "
.., /:'.,·,,/11/11 ,,,,. /1111/r,•('( rtllll(III/ {? /11.'l:U. WIH/ rc11aon lhe corrc = 1rue "
mn"nctlc mcrld1011 . h n1cn11 used IU dcnul, ,c
()/1
() ,(1 Jlll,11/ 1/0 )'1111 l/ll!/11/ h)• ,W lfl'l!)'llf, inui;nc\\c ~uhs1nnccs. 1, ocol 0\KJ
11mc11on , ·di,
\' C " hlch prevents l 1,c II« "
,ll J)cjllll! /1dnr/ll/l• 1111111 ofnn)' line nn)' in11uencc, such 11' 1he •:1 No,rth in" i;ivcn locnlily, Sun~ 1,
J), j/11 r r,•,·l11r11r 11/ rtllllfllll (, Q
11 h 110N from ro\11111111\01he mnsn:c,~on on: : mng11c111c In 1hc grou1l1\
Survey or I h1 tturvcylng, we lnkc 111ummrc111c11l11 In tho
of1hcsource,ofloc11l ulln I ,1ccls1ruc111rc,, 1ullr<u11l1u , I
/\11N, di ccllOllfro111W I c ,· ncniurccl f'rom
Anti The reference r •mcrldl1111'. /\111! o I
1~•::•::·:,~.:, =:.~------------
" "· lt,•l'lp1·u1·11I H1111i:ln111 When lhc c.:nd polnlH01'11 uurvuy 11old . A pcr11011 (o r nut of pcruono) pcrform lnl! vurl ouo 118 , .. Ir· cnr"•\nu c1cc1r\c curren '
I<' h 11"1 11,ll'rvi, lhlc due 10 hlBh l111crvc11l111~ l!,t'IJlllld or ll'lhc opcrul 101111 to ob111 l11 uuch 111c11Nuro111c11ttt lo known 1111 11 ', 0 I6 iik1101YII
111 rclcrre ~~~•:l0'l~h:10~
the •l,cnrln~ • .___ ___ _
•:; urvcyor'. mcrllllnn Is en cO ,cN of 1icurl11~-
.
'1'hcro nro 1hroo IYI
__....a.-
 BCE.6 ,- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
..--
underground iron pipes, keys, steel-bowed spectacles, metal
-----,-------{ Basic Cfull Englnee rtng
/evelli11g. Expfrti11 spirit leve//i11g.
1. Direct Ranging . Dire t
survey stat' f •
. . ~
BCE. 7
c ~gmg is done \\hen the I\\ O
buttons , axes, chams, steel tapes etc., which may be lying on b 'd ions o a survey line are -mter-v1s1 . . ble
and
)
the ground nearby. Q.2 The /e11gth ofa li11e measur ed with a 20 meter /R.T.U. 2018/ can e_ 1a, on ground easily. Direct [Link] be donechain by :
cltai,,
Detection of Local Attraction : The local attraction was fo1111d to be 250 meters. Calcula te lite tru (i) ~y eye judgment: Let A and B be 1wo sta1ions of
at a particular_place can be detected by observin g the· fore /e11gth of tlte li11e, if tlte cltai11 was IO cm too fo g; veiling : Levellin g is _a bran~h of surve)'.ing used for a_survey Im~ ~nd !he distance need to be detennined of this
11
and ~ack bearings or each line and finding its difference. If /R. T. u. 2018/ ~s.J,e e elevatio ns of pomts with reference to a point !me by_chammg. So we need lo stretch the chain straight
I
·ng 11
the differen ce between fore and back bearing is t 80°, it may (ii\d1 · k nown or assume d. The pomt
levation 1s · whose along lm~.AB. Let us assume that the length of line AB is
be taken that both the stations are free from local attraction . Ans. Given, I= 20 m .~os~ c •s known or assumed is called datum or benchmark. '.11ore th ~ the chain length so we need to establish some
I
provide d tl1ere are no observational and instrum ental errors'. Measured length= 250 m tieva11?n is also used to e stablish points if their elevations mtenned1ate points in order to ensure tha1 the chain is s1retchcd
lfthe differen ce is other tltat 180?, the fore bearing should If the chain was l O cm too long than, i,evel)•ng with respect to any datum or benchmark. The
given, . straight In direct ranging by eye judgment, min imum !hree
be measured again to find out whether the discrepa ncy is · .
t' . ~ tsoflevc lhngas: ranging rods are required,.one each on end stalions A and B
due to avoidable attraction from the articles on person, chains,
tapes etc. It the differen ce still remains, the local attraction t
True lengtl1, L = x Measured length obJC\ To find the elevatio ns of various points with and one used for establishing intermediate point As sh0\\11
· reference to any known or assumed benchmark. in figure 1 ranging rods are erected on station A and B and a
exists at one or both the stations.
20.10 To establis h various points of given elevation with surveyor will stand about 2 meter behind the raneine rod a1
Strictly speakin g, the term local attractio n does not L = - - x 250 = 251.25 m 2· referenc
20 e to any known or assumed benchmark. [Link] assistantwiththethirdrangjogrod will standinbetween
include avoidable attraction due to things about the person or
to other soµrces not connect ed with the place where the t,evelling provides vertical control in surveying opposite the points A and B holding the ranging rod ,·ertically. The
Q.3 .Write a sftorl 11o(e O11 lotal stalio11. • · or Compas s surveying which provides horizontal distance between point Aand the assistant standing with the
10 c,am
need le is read. /R.T.U. 2018/ I , .
Elimination of Local Attract ion : If there is local OR ·control. third ranging rod should be little less than one chain length.
·
a~racti~n at a station, all the bearings measure d at that place Write i111porta111 operatio11s of total station.. . •t Levellin g (Direct Lavclling) : It is that branch of TI1e surveyor at station A will dirttt the assistant 10 mo\'e
w111 be incorrect and tl1e amount of error will be equal in all Spir' • in which the vertical distances with respect to a right or left transverse to thechain line, till the assistant is in
1evc•11mg ntal· line (perpendicular· to the d'1rect1on
· of grav1'ty) may
the bearings. There are two methods for eliminating the effects Ans. Import ant Opera™H!s of Total Station line with Aand B. Whenthe third ranging rod "; 11 be perfectly f
oflocal attraction. )lonZO d t dete rmine tire relative difference in elevation in straight line toAB the surveyor will not be able to see the
O
(i) Distanc e Measur ement: Electron ic distance meter be use two
. First Method : In this method, the bearing s of the cor:isists as the major part of a total station. Rlmge of
adjacen t points. 7ii. honzont
•
aI p Iane o f s1g
· ht ranging rod at Bas throu_gb ranging rod at A. he c:m sec only
EDM t,etwee;to level surface at any point is readily established by
Imes are calculat ed on the basis of the bearing of that line v11ries from 2.8 km to 4.2 km. The accurac the third ranging [Link] this instant he ";11 sigrul the assistant
y of measure ment tan~~~ of 3 spirit level or a level vial. In spirit levellin?, a spirjt to erect the ranging rod at that point and thus an intcrmcdialc
w~ich has a differen ce of 180° in its fore and back bearings. varies from 5 mm to IO mm per kifome me
ter for linear nd a s ighting device (telescope) are combined and
It 1s, however, assumed that tl1ere are no observa tional and measurl'ment and I" to 20" for angular measure ment. The I point (C in figure \) will be established. ~e cluin is then
le;~ic:I dis~ances are measured by observing on gradu~ted
other instrumental errors. The amount and directio n of error distance measured is always sloping distance from stretched bcovcen points A and C. As the distance bct\\ccn
instrument \ds laced on the points. The method is also known as ~11:cl
due to local attractio n at each ofthe affecte·d station is found. to the object. For measure ment of horizon r veiling. It is the most precise method of ·dete~nunmg point Aand C is kept slightly less !hon a_chain lc.n~ so " h_cn
tal angles any
If, howeve r, there is no such line in which the two bearing s conveni ent directio n may be taken the chain is stretched it surp:[Link] potnt C. N_o" t11e third
as referenc e direction ~evations and the one most common_ly used by engineers.
. d.
differ by 180°, the corrections should be made from the mean wh_ereas for vertical angle measure ment
zenith directio n is ranging ro 1s pullcd out and erected at the potnt where the
value of the bearing of that line in which there is least taken as reference directio n. · chain ends and thus the distllllCC between A Ill\~ C bcc~mcs
·Explaiu ,a11g/11g fR.T.U, 2018/
discrepa ncy between tl1e back sight and fore sight readings. (ii) Data Process ing: Total station is provided with an Q.S 0111 si,rvey ll11es. •
asonccham 1ength• Now the ranging rod at station A will be
OR · _ II d out and an orrow will be put in place. 11,e ass1sta11t .
If the bearings are express ed in quadran tal system the inbuilt microprocessor. The microprocessor averages
multiple p~II ~c this ranging rod with him and will now stand bctwl-<:n
correcti ons must be applied in proper directio n. In I st and observa tions. When we provide instrum ent as well Discuss direct raugi,rg 111 .de/ail.
as target WI . C d 13 The surveyor will sign3I him to move

~;·~a~T"
3rd quadrants, the numeric al value of bearing s inC::-rease in height from ground, with help ofslope distance poml on . let\ or
and horizontal ·
c lockwis e directio n while they increase in anti-clo ckwise and vertica l angles the microp rocesso Lines : \Vhen line~r
Ans. Rangin g Out Surveyd between two points, chnm righ11n111svcrsc 10 c~nin'tine ll!ld like th .is other .mtem,edial<.:
r comput t:t• the
direction in 2nd and 4th quadran ts. Positive correcti ons are coord inatcs. The processor is capable of applying tempera measurements are taken on groun . ht along the line joini~g
ture
a ppl ied clockw is e .and negativ e correct ions counter - and pressure correcti ons to the measurements, or tape need to be stretch~d stra1g as 'Survey line' or'Cham
ifatmos pheric
clockwise. lempera turc and pressures arc supplied . those two points. This line is kflown 'Stations'. lfll1e diswncc

j ,//;./
• C kfloWn OS • Jhcn the
Second Method : Tl1is is more a general method (iii) Display : Ele ctronic display unit is capable 9f line' and the end pomts ar h the length ofchntn .
·
: Jr rn--✓//
•
and is based on the fact that though the bearing s measure d displayi ng various values when respecti ve keys are
pressed. between two stations ·s I
less t an
1
• 'tly between 1,e '"
•
0 sta11ons.
I n
11 a stati on may be incorrec t due to local attractio n the l11esyste;n is capableofdisplnyinghorizontal chain can be stretcIl ed d1rce n two stotions . · grco1cr 110
is. cdin1e
distance, vertical . nee betwee . h me 111tcm1
included angle calculat ed from the bearing s will be correct distanc e, horizon tal angle, vertical angle,
differen ce in But when the dis18 need to estobhs 50 end sto1ions.
;incc the amount of error is the same for all the bearings elevations of two observed points and qll
the three coordinates the chain le~glh, thf.~J::rc in fine wi~h thc \~'~ bclWcen1wo
n easured at the station. The included angles between the of the observe d points. points (stot1ons) w blishing intcrmed1n1e,~ lines' or simply
ines arc calculat ed at all the stations . If the traverse is a This process ofcsta s 'Ranging out sur-cins :
(iv) Electro nic Boole Total station has the capabili ty
:losed one, the sum of the internal include d angles must be of saving stations is know~ n two methods of rang
poirit data. The capacity of electron ic note book 'Ranging'. There a_re
2n - 4) right angles. If there is any discrep ancy in this, varies from •·1~. I
2000 to 4000 point data. The data ca n be
,bservat ional and instrum ental ·errors also exist. Such error downloa ded ( 1) Direct ronS 11'.g
to comput er and the note book can be reused to .
s distribu ted equally to all the angles. store more data. ( 2) 111u1rcct rnn"111g
"
 BCE.8
J-- --- --- --- --- --- .... --- --- --- --- --1
(ii) B~· a line ranger: A line ranger is a sur,cy ,Ba .si c Curll Enginenu,g
ing line AB. If the point at which the line ranger is held 11,e basic systems of notation of bearings? or south and then east or" e~ . .
instrument used for establishing intermediate poinis is qu dra · Bct.g
during not exactly on line AB, the two images will appear separa " 1s wnnco d-d
ranging" ithout actu:illy going to either end ofa surve) te .a nt. tn Which the line ·is 1l mg. . The· r-• mg upon the
....__.
' line. (figure 3 a). In such case surveyor will move the instrum /R.T.U. 1018/ using 1111s system is called Q d =ng me:isurcd
The biggest advantage of a line ranger is that no assista ent · beari . the ua rantal
nce slightly sideways until the two images appear exactl ng. Since quadrant of •
bean
is required while using line ranger and the sun·eyor y one , .. • ng or reduced
11IC cm:le IS U•""
can establish intermediate points.
himself over the other. Now sun•eyor will transfer the point . s,·stcms of Notation of Bearings : There are there,orc, II IS clear th•t th """ m...._ _.
V<.Uin~
to the from 0° to 900. " eva1uc ofn dran ,
ground by hanging a plumb bob from the hook on the handle ,S'~s which are used to measure bearing, namely : ~ua bl bearing varies
. ${Ctl •
Too 2. lndir e« Rang ing : When the end points of a sun•ey ~ le circle beanng system (W.C.B.)
Pnsm Bottom line I) \\ij\0 . N
Pnsm is not intervisible due to high inten•eningground or if
the two ( Quadrantal beann g system or Reduced bearing 0
stations are very far from each other, direct ranging
is not Q \Q.B· or R.B.)
possible. In such cases indirect ranging is done. Indire
ct
ranging is also known as 'Reciprocal ranging'. In recipro ,v.. • le circle beari ng system (W.C.B.) : \n WCB
cal r!I o . . of
1• f eas\lrement of beanng, bearm
ranging minimum 4 ranging rods are required.
o inckwise I .
re alive to magneuc
g of a line is
. no rtl, d' . n. As
w---' "7! E-- -
1O 1rectto
I ~ c est, the whole circle is used so we can conclude ('f
II.
9Eye ~ esugg
~ \\'ho
\ecircle bearing varies from 0°to 360°.In figure C
8 ts
Fiz.2 • . nortli south, east and west arc shown as N, S, 'I\.
A line ranger consists of two right-angles isosceles ~gne!IC ectiv:\y. The whole circle bearing ofline OA is s 3
triangular prisms placed one above the other. In figure
2 the \~r:spOC is e and 00 is e,. As shown in the figure, 'fi&. ll ht
diagonal of the two prisms are silvered so as to form 15
the (6 2' are me~sured from magnetic north clockw In figure 22, the line OA is closer to ~ctic nonh. IS

reflecting surfaces to reflect incidental rays. In order 1oang1es . ise.

to hold •· ucco,
. .npass works on this system . TI1ercfore, from magnetic north, angle 8 "ill be the red~
the instrument in hand a handle with a hook is provided .. of
at the bearing ofline [Link] line lies in the lim1 quadrant ofcircle,
bottom of line ranger. ll1e use of hook is to attach a N which is also knO\\ll as the N-E q113drant. Hence, tht rcl11tt
plumb 1\1
bob it transfer the point on the ground. bearingoflinc OA will be N8 E. SimiMy line OB is close to
1 ltt
the magnetic [Link], the angle 8:,,ill be mc3Slll'Cd
Let a survey line AB is to measure with help of chain
and point C need to be established through ranging by from magnetic south for line OB 1111d from the opi>'"ISite
~-
; 3
a line direction of clock i.e. counterc\ocl.,"\\ise. Thequadr:intsloog.
ranger. Two ranging rods are fixed on the two station ,ur
s A and with the reduced bearing oflinc OB "ill be SO:E. Now it c:in
B. The surveyor will hold the line ranger in his hand ,\
at the be easily seen that selw\\ill be the rcluctd be:uingoflinc is
level of his eye, and will stand at any point C very near Fig.
the QC and N8,W will be the teduccd bearillS of line en
line AB, as judged by eye. Now he will observe the Let as assume there are two stations A and B which OD.
ranging are not Sun•eyor compass wl,)rks on QB ~-stem.
rod at A through the upper prism PQR. The ray of light intervisible. In figure two ranging rods will be fixed
from on two
A enters the upper prism , gets reflected from the silvere stations A and B. Now two assistant will take two
d ranging m:
diagonal PR and enters the eye at right angles to the line rods and take positions at C, and D, in such a way Q.7 Explain t/1e conctpl of unit of mtas11rtmtnt
AB, that the in \er
as the incident ray makes an angle of 45° with the reflec assistant at C, can see the ranging rods at D, and B, simila deta/1. :w
ting
assistant at D1 can see the ranging rods at c; and B.
rly s
surface. Now surveyor will observe ranging rod at B he
through 1 Now Fig. ll
the lower prism SQR. The ray of light from B enters the assistant standing at C, will direct the assista nt at D to Ans. In surveying we need to measure: 1,1
the .
lower prism, gets reflected from the silvered diagon move a new position D in such a way that now C,, D 1 dranta\ bearin g system or Reduced bearing (I) Horizontal distance nnd angle between two :mts
al SQ 2 2 and B OQ Qua R B ) • 1n the second method of bearing
ar,d enters the eye at right angles to the line AB. are in one line. Now assistant at D w\11 direct the assista
2 nt (Q.B. or .. b. • . (2) Vertical distance and angle bctwttn two pomts
at C to move to a new position C in such a way that
now cm the magnetic eanng ofany line is measured relatived
D C 2
and A are in one line. Now the assistant at C will , etic north or magnetic south. The \in~ is measure So we need both linear
• and angul~ measures. he
)le
di~ec/ the assistant at D to move to a new positio 2 Gagll h whichever is the nearest.
n D1 i? 1• Linear Mcasurrs
2
.such a way that C, D and Bare in one line. Now
·veto either north or soul '
. . .I asured
k . or anticlockwise dard of Weights and Mc:isurcs.
2 )
' at D will direct the assistant at B to move to a new
assistant
•• b;eanng 1s e1t 1~~ me . in cloc incs wise
in which direction
According to the Stan ntofkngthismctcrs.
2 pos1t1on ion. The position ofhne d~e~ . Act (India). 1976 the ~ni~of~;as~~ndin. f«l and inches 'St
B) i~ such a way that D , 8 and A are in one line. arcnt that only a . mts mtrvuuccu I 1

(a) process will continue till two points C and D will be establi.
) ) This bearing should be measure ·. t 1~.npp•stcm. Hence it is Before the metnc_ u th Table is showing the b~1.c I n1
(b) shed nt of circle is getting used 10 t us s~ront in which the were t he used units for Ieng . . . ns "ell ns On11sh cl
. Fiz.3
in such a way that the assistant at C will find point C,
B in one line and simultaneously assistant at D will find
D and n [Link] quadrantal sy 5tcm. The ~un First the direction linear mcnsurtmcnt um1s,
. both 1n mctnc 1
~·
:c
· ·
If the images of the ranging rods at A and Bare seen in D, C point RS 1s also noted aIong'vith the bennng. gle mnde by nort11 system .
and A in one line. Thus all four points A, C, D and Bare or South is written followed by tic1 an
vertical line (figure 3 b) then the ~int C is !n line to
survey in one line.
------------------
BCE.1 o )..- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . - - - - - - - - - - - -
Toblo : Units of Longlh
- ;_
'------.
Basic Ciull
.:::..:::
The fo'.lo,~ing nre the types of scale :
( I) Pl urn Scale
.::::_::
Engt
- \=~~---=-=-- -~-
r..,;:,,: --;:;;:: ,;-~7-- - lti'2r;:clufl
11ccri11

~ ; of I
,;11gfncer-lng

~191 Jl v~re •.cell

~1~::
rntely grnduoted. Steel tapes arc availal I .
' r 2 meter, IOmeter, 20 meter 30 ' >c in
~nd of the !~pc a brnss ring i~ a11:1~~1~~.a:i,!
t 13 ·S· - ",., FS = 2 870
Also Last R-.~-- r-lrsi ~~--665= 0.205 m
- .~:: 7-
BCE.1 1 D
C,
Metric units British units l ''oJ\fwhic_h is _zero pomt ? flhc tape. Steel tapes cannot
IO milimctcr = 1 centimeter 12 inches = I foot (2) Diagonal Scale cJld 1 5
C,
unil w11h vegclal 1on nnd weeds. = Ol.?0 - io1.500 =0.205 m
10 centimeter = 1 decimeter 3 feet = I ynrd 1 diOgro 1h
()) Scale of Chords (, As t B.S. - t F.S.= Last R.L. - Fi~t R L ( h g.
10 decimeter = I00 centimeter 5 ½ yards = I rod, pole 11 ruipcs: TI1csctapcs are madcofNickel-stccl alloy . • . c cckedJ
1. Pin in Scale
= I meter 4 poles = 66 feel
.
(~16:::nd steel 64%) known ns in~[Link] tapes have very Q.11 T/1e followi1
1g bearings were obse . .
Id
10 meter = 1 decameter = 1 chain Jtl ·enl of thermal expansion x 1oG
(C

IOdecamcter = I hectometer IO chains = I furlong

A plain sc_alc is used to measure distances in two digits caefficl mode in the fomi ofa ribbon(0.122 f•C)
of 6 mm width and
r, prismatic compass C
l' 1 "'td k•III, l1tlp of
· a c111ate the lnttrio, anglt1.
IO hectomclcr = I000 meter (Unit and tenth). For example cm and mm, meter and #ppes 0~ I ths of20 m 30 m 50 m d es
8 furlong s = 5280 feet decimeter etc. me
'loble in cng 100 Bearing
= I kilometer = I mile ,,~,
' ' . an
ore kept on reels of large diamete meters.
r to avoid
i ii
2. Aogulnr Measures
2. Diagonnl Scale
~ inpcs r tapes are highly prccised and less affected by 57°42' or
, g 1ovn BC
The diagonal scale cnn measure distances up lo three I d. d f .
-~~turcchanges. T 1c 1sa vadnlag~o 111var_1a pcs is that 129°23'
An angle is the space between two intersecting lines or digits (Unit, tenth and hundredth e.g. meter, decimeter and ,r ry sol\ so gets deforme easily. Also 11undergoes ·CD or
surfoces 01 or close to the point where they meet. The radian 194°56' II.
centimeter or yord, feel ond inches etc.). This scale works ire ve s In length os time goes on. So it is nlways advisory DE
is the unit of pl([Link] angle. The radian is the angle between on the princip le of equal rriangle . 250°0' Its
1\10 radii ofa circle which cuts off on the circum ich~~g~ the length and coefficient of thermal expansion EA n.
ference of 3. Scnlc of Chords 1.ttCl111nc . . 57°42'
an arc equal in length to the radius. 171ere ore three popular ,,f '-artap cs from 11me to time. 3

systems of angular measurements: The scale of chords can be used for angle measurement. 'IC
Ans. Figure shows the traverseABCDEA with survey lin~
lfwc have to make an angle on the drawing·sheet 3:nd we do ~efollowi11g rentli11gs nre tnlce11fro111 a level: J. 885, 5 is
(i) Sexagesimol System namelyAB, BC, CD, DEand [Link] onlybearingisghen
not have a protrac tor then this scole is very·useful. ~ 0 J.585,' J.985, [Link], 1.660,.0.985, ,J.JJ0, 0.765, ii means it is fore bearingonly unless otherwise stattd. Bae~
I Circumference = 360° (Arc Degree)
7
~~BS
rmd J.005. /11stm111e11t is shifte,I 011ce after sixth bearings can be calculated with help of equation (I). of
I Degree = 60' (Arc Minute) Q,9 Discuss ll(trious types· of tapes used ill s11rveyi11g, ,ca1/111g. Fore bearing = Back bearing ± 180° ...( 1)
enter the above rentli11g i11 r, level field book mul Included angle= Back bearing of previous line - Fo,c rd
I Minute = 60" (Arc Second s) er
bearing of next line
compIll e the rer/11ce
- ,I level of all stntio11s 11si11g ...(~)
(11) Centesimal System Ans. Tape : ror higher accuracy in linear measurements , , 1 ,r ;11 s1rume11t-111ethotl.· ·The firs/ readi11g was
C.

t,erg,t 0.'J 13ack bearing ofline AB= S7°42' + 180°=237°42'

tapes are invaria bly used in surveying. Tapes are classified a
I Circumference = 400g (Grade) ..t,e n staff was hel,I al " be11cl1111nrk of
as per the materia l used in their manufacturing and can be of /0kell • 11 · Back bearing of line BC= 129°23' + 180°= 309°23' ur
I Grode = IOOc (Centigrade) '
following types: JOJ,500 meter, Back bearing of line CD=: 194°56' - 180°= 14°56' A
1 Centigrade = I 00cc (Centi Centigrade) is
(i) . Linen or cloth tape:Thesc are closely woven linen - Tl' problem will be solved by height of instnim cnl Back bearing of line DE= 2S0°0' - 180°= 10"0' :n
(iii) Hours System or synthc_lic material and arc varnished to resist the moisture. ~ ':s explain ed above. Number of station~ will be Back bearing ofli ne EA = 340°12' - 180°= 160°12'
l Circumference = 24h (Time-Hour) Linen tapes arc available in length~ of IO meters, 20 meters, _ =[Link] calculotion is tabulated as follows:
25 meters and 30 meters and width of 12 to 15 mm. TI1e 1 Now included angles can be C31culaltd byusingcqua1ion
I Hour = 60m (Time-Minute) re
main disadva ntage of linen tape is tl10t it is affected by Il.L. (2) as the traverse runs in clockwise direction.
otion B,S. I.S. F.S. H.I. Ilemarl<S er
I Minute = 60s (Time-Second) moisture and gets shrunk . Also its length gets altered by Bench LA = Back bearing oflineEA- Forebcaringoflinc AO w
·stretching. They arc usually encased in plastic boxes with I. 1.885 103.385 101.500 tnark , IC
In India, mostly the first system is used. =160°12' - 57°42' = 102°30'
recessed hand les. 2.770 100.615 to
2. LB = Back bearing of lineAB - Forebcaringoflinc DC
(ii) Metallic tape:Metallic tapes arc light and nexible, ). 1.585 I 01.800
Q.8 Define ua/e. 011 which factor scale selectio I01.400 =237•42•- 129°23•= 1os•19• cl
11 They do not break easily. They ore used places, 4. 1.985
depends. Write its types, where
minima l error in length docs not have any major effect,. I. . 2.115 101.270 LC=Back bearingofline BC- forcbcaringoflinc CD
Metallic tapes :ire made in length of 2, 5, 10, 20, 30 and 50 Turning lC

6. 0.985 1.660 102.710 101.725 point I =309°23' - 194°56' = 114°27' -le

Ans. Scale : Scale of a plan or map is defined as the fixed meters. The metol ring is fitted toward s tho outer
end in n 101.600 LD= Back bcnringoflinc CD- Forcbcaringofline DF
ratio of the distance between . two points on the sheet and tape of length IO, 20, 30 and 50 meters and the metal 7. 1.1 10
their corresponding distance on the ground . Selection ofscale tied to its width, This metal strip protects the tape. This
strip is
8. 0.765 101.945 =14°S6' -2s0•0· + 3600= 124056' r os
type IC
9. 10 1.825
depends upon: of tape is used only in simple survey work but not used to
10.
0.885
1.005 101.705 LE=Bnck bcnrmg . fl' DE- Fortbcnrinc oflinc EA
o inc - 'J 11
1_neasure length accurately. :I·
(I) The size of the area surveyed =10•0· - 340012' + 3600= g9048' n I
l: l:
(2) The purpose of the survey conduc!ed and
(3) Required precision of plotting
(iii) Steel tapes: Steel tapes arc more accurate than
mct;illic tapes. They arc made ofsteel or stainless steel strips.
Steel tapes consist of a light strip of width 6 10 l'O mm nnd
13.S.
=
.
F.S.
=
- o2•30•+
Sum ofincludcdonglc - 1 , 1oso19' + i w2T '
12<1•56' + s904s• = 540•0•. hence OK.
' I
,. C

2.870 2.665
,·
{.!B~C~E.:_ :!1~20------- ----------,---- ---------1 Dasie Civil En111necruig
So the included nnglcs of tho pcntngon ADCDE ore:
L A = 102°30'
~
t,
c.
'

L D = J08°19'

-
th
L C= 114°27'
L D = 124°56'
L E= 89°48' [Link] 3
- s.
>d
(C

PREVIOUS y EARS QUESTIONS >f

lf

i,liH:lhMHilMi·NMIMid Ans. Any material which is used~ II.

termed as building material or constructionpurposes is IS
(1) Stone or construction material. n.
(2) Bricks
~
(3) Ccmcnt
the 111ai11 J1111ctio11 of al11111illa 111 brick? 4 IC
(S) Concrete ( ) Mortar
(6) Steel IS
Fig. ~I lR.T.U. 2018/

Q.4 Write the three uses of bricks. lf

~ Alumina 1-s t110 ma111 . '
constituent of clay. IL acts ns a
l's. nting material in row brick. Brick clay is plastic due to Ans. Uses of Bricks ,I
tJIICresence of alumina. This plasticity ensures thol bricks .
(I) Bricks ore uscd instructuralpurposes. ,,or ,,oumill!on :r
11' pbe molded. An excess amount of alumina in clay may and ~ . C.
or construction of wulls ofany size.
:,II ethe bricks to shrink, warp or crack on drying w1d burning 3
(2) Bricks nre used for constructionof 0O<JTS.
~ y other cementing material. Ir
~10 (3) Bricks arc used for dccoratil'e or omamcn1al purpo
~
, rvt,at is the i11itial selfing time f or ordinary portlaml
as for [Link] arches and cornices.. Bricks ses,
b d. C3n
"is
. ~ carve m a vanety of colors, tc.,111res., bonds and n
Q, cei11e11t as p°l!r IS specif1cat/011s? fR.T.U. 2018/ JOlnlS.

tns. Initial setting time is that time period between the time Q.S . IJ'/1111 are tire properties of wnurL 't
~ter is added to cement and time at which I mm square :r
!!(lion needle fails to penetrate the cement paste, ploccd in Ans. (i) Strength (ii) Fineness (iii) Resistant to moisture
die Vicat's mould 5 mm to 7 mm from the bottom of the (iv) Selling of cement (v) Pl11Sticity (,i) \\'orbblc tC

mould. Division on setting time of cement is based on Initial 0

stiling time ofcement and Final setting time of cement Q.6 IJ'r ile the types of b11i/di11gs.
:I
Atnom1al constmction the cement paste / mortar/concrete
:
(CEMENT + WATER = PASTE,PASTE + FINE Ans. Types of buildings
= MOR'fAR, MO RTAR + COARSE ( l ) Residential Buildings I C
AGGREGATE
AGGREGATE = CONCRETE) time is required for mixing, (2) Educationnl Buildings l le
transporting, placing ,compacting and fin\shing .During this (3) Institutional Buildings
(4). Assembly Buildings f IS
lime the above mentioned cement pastc/mortnr/eoncrete must
1 C
be in plastic condition which is termed as Initial setting time (5) Business Buildings
(6) Mercantile Buildings
J s
ofcement.
" h
(7) Industriol Buildings h
QJ Defi11e tJ,e term constr11ctio11al material. Write (8) Storage Buildings
'(

differe11t co11structio11 materials. (9) Hazardous Buildings

_j
 ~
ci~/1 1''rlJ1lllCCring'

vf!::.,,,c..
lu:;:ll-;£:-n-ol:--n-cc-,t-ng ~tilution is referred .
ns the supply of ou1s1
DCE.14 r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . ( ' D;;:a.,::-1;:c-;:C:;: . dc · ·
. g through windows or ot her o1icn· o,r in10 ~ -__,, ~"
..,iid111 . f ,ngs due to wind (7) h can be moulded into
IP' and convcct1on c fccts orising from 1 (8) RC any s11..e llh :J
Q.i £xpl11i11 the term mortar. Q.2 Me111/011 the uses 11/ ce111e11t. /R. T.U. 10/8/ c 'fli empcrature or · .C. structure can be en 11 11 rrt1h
~ ressure d1 crcncc d d .
or both between ins1 c an outside (9) C · designed r t..
...,urP . • ons11tucn1 ofR.C C • or 21T) de\U'c:j lczj
Ans. Mor1:1r : Mo11ar is defined as o paslc formed by the Ans. Uses or Cement : lli"'· building. Vent, 1nllon ofn building iscsscnt· .10 1because Uses or llC.C. : . . arc tas1I) obtainable L~
~c . . t
ocldi1ion of waler to n mix1urc composed of an aggregate (I) II i_s ~scd in morlor for plns1cring. masonry work, nous funcllonnl requ1rcmcn1s, such 05 : ( I) R.C.C. is ll5Cd as a Id
such as snncJ and o mntrix composed of on oggregalc such pomlmg, CIC. / ~ To creole oir 111ovc111c111s
1 . struc1uralcl~ I'
' co 1umns, beams, lintels, sta' -•-y~ ilt Ill r~el- It
ns sand nncl n matrix or binding maleriol like lime orcemenl. Q) To aintoin conditions suitable to the colllcnts of the -- (2) ~·
On drying the mor1nr sets ton hnrd ond compocl solid due ro (2) II is used In concrete for laying Ooors, roofs and p) 111 RC · .C. is used for lh
constructing lintels, beams, s1airs. pillars etc. space sl c construct'
lhc oetion of water wi1h the ingredients. undue concentration ofbodyodo ,umcs, ruc1urcs like Waler tanks, dams '1c1on of stori£e
0) .,-,,0 prevent .
r.
b d' . urs,
(3) It is used for mokingjoinlS for drains and pipes. dust, boctcnn cor on 10x1de, moisture etc. (3) R.C.C. is used for the co .
II. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTION S (4) It is used for water tightness of structure. ') To remove the products of combustion, body hcnt nnd . like bridges, rctniningwal~ ~~ ofb,g struai=
( )Jent libcmle_cl f1;1111 t!1c opc'?tion ofcenoin equipments. (4) R.C•C. ·1s used in [Link] stru..,. harboun
.
ctt..
(5) II is used where a hard surface is required for ti ~ ,f
. , ,,''ntuml vent1lnt1011'fi . 1 s provided through window sleepers, electric poles etc. Clt11ts Isle raill\a~
Q. r Wliot nre 1/,e var/011.s 11ses of sto11es? /R. T. lJ. 101~/ protect,on ofexposed surfaces of structures ago in t s or ll
tilntors whcrcos nrt1 1c,n 1 (mechonicol) vcnt ilntion is (5) R.C.C. is used for constru . ts
the destructive agents of the went her ond cenot
Ans. Uses of Sroncs : n J(llvidcd by fans etc. multistory buildino ch' Cling [Link] strua~ li\c ll
organic or inorganic chemicals. fO .,, ll1lOe)-S. lowcn Cit.
a
(I) From lime immemorial stone hos been used both (6) R.C.C. is used for pavement COIISlructi
(6) It is used for prccast pipes mnnufocluring, piles, ~{fllll the bflSlc concept of R.C.C. /R. T.U.10181 or nirpon pnvcments. on lik l1X!ds le
for residential as well as public buildings. Stones fencing posts etc. · ~• OR ' h
with their high strcn(,rth ond durnbilitycharaclcristics (7) R.C.C. con be used for constructin
(7) It is used in the construction ofimportonl engineering .p/sc11ss basic co11cept ofRCC. WrltC!S Its properties, buildings like chem' 1 . g haurdous
ore used in foundation work ns well ns fo r ,c.i stora&e, a101111c [Link].:. lf
structures such as bridges, cuIvens, dams, tunnels, 01il'a11lagcs a11d uses.
superstructure work. The historical structures like
Pyramid ofEgypl, Great Woll of China, Red fort, : light houses etc.
;;=uiulc Concept o~ R.C.~. : Conc~ctc is very strong in Q.S IVrire lite compontnIJ of Obuilding. /[Link]..:m1 -d
Taj Mnhal ond many other such structures ore made (8) It is used in the preparation of foundations, water tens1on. Its rcs,sloncc. is so low 11101 ::r
comPrcssion but weak III OR
of stones and ore standing today witJ1 tJ1e some t'ight noor.;, footpaths CIC, p,1in concrete cnn be used only when there is only pure t.
strength since ages. What do you mean by building construaio11. Oritc
(9) It is employed for the construction of wells, water IOfllprcssion. Steel is cqunlly strong in compression nnd compone11rs of building and thtir/llllaio,u.
l

(2) Many stones hove high crushing strength ond thus ion but due to its length, steel moy not develop its full a
lllnks, tennis courts, lamp posts, telephone cabins .\
ore used in t he construction of dams, weirs, roads etc. ' :ngth in compression _due to_ buckling, whereas steel cm1
harbours, abulmcnl for bridge ond many such Ans. Building construction deals with ,-anous prOCtS~ or IS
1tvclop its full strengll1 111 tension. When steel nnd concrete
[Link] clements invol\cd in the wnc. n
structures which need to hold hcnvy crushing loads. IOfllbinotlon is used, both the mntcriols take the stresses they conslruclion
Q.3 W!tnt s!toultl be rite pla1111l11g for proper .rn111/gl,1 arernost suitnblc for. This combinntion of steel nnd concrete Components or Dulldlng nd Their faartioDJ
(3) Due 10 the case of dressing, many stones (like
am/ ve11tl/at/011 /11 fl b11ild/11g? /R.T.U.1018/ ~known os ' reinforced cement concrete' or R.C.C. ns steel A building consists offolhming Ihm: p.w:
sandstone) ore used for ornomcntnl works in ,:
OR ,ovidcs reinforcement (strength) to concrete cement. (I) Foundollon: Foundation is the lo"t1t r311 of a
buildings in the form of mouldings with large :r
projection. · Discuss lite co11cepl of J'/111 /lg/11 mu/ ve11tl/at/011. )fain properties of R.C.C. : building which is below the surface of the surrounJmg pwnd ..
(I) The concrete grips fost wi!h steel surfoce nnd is nblc It is in direct contncl with sul>-stralD and truumiu all the C
(4) Stone hove high resistance ~o impact and nbrnsion· loads to the soil bcnc;ilh.
ond with this property they ore used os road metals, Ans. Concept of Sun Light and Ve ntilation to transfer the stresses which it cannot resist itself. 0

(2) Dolli concrete ond steel hove almost same coefficient (II) Pflntb: Plinth is the middle p,lltofabuilJ111g. frnm
railway bollnst ond oggrcgote for making concrete. Good sun light or day-lighting is no! too much of light,
the surface above the ground 10 surface of 1he noor :I
(5) Flag stone slabs arc used for paving. but sufficient light which is free from glare and ii should come ofll1crmnl expansion, and thus no intcr:nnl stresses due
immcdiotcly nbove the ground. 1t 11111ufm the loJd 10
from tJ1erightdircctio n. Good day-lighting is essential in many to tempcrnturc voriotioo nrises.
(6) Stones like limestone arc necessarily used for the foundation. I C
woys: (3) Concrete coots the surface of steel, thus protects ii
cement manufacturing. Limestone is also used ns (iii) Super Structure: The p.1tl «'fUtr\lCIN abo,e lhc : C

n nux in blast fumace. (l ) · To create a pleasing and hea lthy environment. from corrosion. plinth lcl'cl (or ground 000f IC\d) is lno"n :u [Link] itruelu11:
(2) To promote the activities carried in buildings like Ad1•aoh1gcs of R.C.C. : In general, n building is made ofthe follo"ing strv,1unl I "
(7) Many stones like marble, granite, close grained
factories etc.
(I) It is economicnl io ultimntc cost.
' (
sandstone arc used in the form of veneers for components:
's
decorative front nnd interior of building. (3) To ensure the safety of people inside the building. h
(2) It i.5 fire resisting. ( I) Founc!Jtion
Good lighting is achieved by providing windows in h
(8) Product of sand, gravel and crushed stones ore (3) It is ol,nosl impcnncnl>lc. (2) l'lin~1
residential or commercial buildings. IL is imponanl 10 nclmll r
widely used in the manufacturing ofartificial stone. (4) It is durnblc.
enough light for good seeing os per the requirement of 1hc (J) \\'alls
-
J

(9) Metamorphic rocks like slate arc used os roof room and also to control dircc~ond rcncctcd glare from light (S) The mni ntcnuncc cost of R.C.C. Is very little.
covering ma1crial in the form of tiles. (•t) floors
sources lo elimirialc visual discomfort. (6) It cannot be nttnckcd by termites.
( [Link] r-------------...---------- ....r-=~-.;-:~,..._- Baslc Clull Englnecrf"S)
· ~ c clull Engineering
. )\'125, M30 etc. Tl1e first letter ' M' d
~
-7r---_=_,_* * u;s-..~SG
- -

(5) Doors nnd windows (2) Colour: A good qunlity brick should hove unifo.:;;;
itl0,
• , 'r. ·uowing number shows the com
cnotes m' h
. I>. w crcas (7
~d,o press1ve stre h ) Main c . ;'I
(6) Sills, lintels nnd weather shndcs colour. Oxides of iron imports red colour to the ;, rctc in N/mm', when specified . d ngt ofthat with steel con.. · onsta1u,n1 for llC IC(.17 ·;
cane d d d size cubes ( Iso I b' •w1ltt1tes R . , -C.· C
(7) Roofs bricks. Uniformity ofcolour in bricks is nn indicator •' ~ ore coste on tcstc af\er 28 day H' mm t inds rap'1dly . h e1n,ortcd Con.-... ·c oncrcic along !.
of uniformity in the chemicnl composition nnd sitSI • . s. 1gher '""d f wn ---,c ~
.••.,.tonrcnc1uevcd m laborntories butth . . ...~ es o reinforcement steel and as ·,1 . cment(R.C c ) h
(8) Stnircases thoroughness in the burning of bricks. Colour of c0n•:v . . . Cir tmplemcntat' as steel is . IS "'cal 10. ..
'tc ,so tedious task as 1t requires O tr' ion lo the place wh . Provided in tcns'I tension, !-
(9) Finishes good qunlity brick mny be deep red, cherry 0: ott s1 trol s ict and high level (8) 0 b ere tensile stresscs ,,,_ i c?one as "'ell as d
copper colour. ualll>' con . t er Proper11 - urs.
q (2) Eco non11·c·, Concrete is proved b which can be proved~-- es: Con,-,. ~-- SOm
·--•~ ,145
( I 0) Utility fixtures
(3) Texture: Texture of n good qunlity brick should . I . I lo e a very Concrete has a t dU<UU1ful and need to L . . ..' Pl'Opcn,cs
nonuco maten a as compare to other t en en~ t hn. k. "" -end... ~
be fine, compnct nnd uniform. cCO • I • construction end ·, o s - ~ ~
Q.6 Write a short note on building bye-laws ? (R.T.U. 1018/ •terinls hke stee , especially when O strength cntcnon . . . ency to be po n Also co •
in• 'd d IS U rous. ncrctc has a
OR (~) Compnctness: Good qunl ity bricks should be (OllSI ere • •e of Concrete
What do you mean by Building By-laws. Write its aspects. sound nnd compact. . (I) Concrete along . h
(3) Maturity with .Age: Concrete lin•d .... ens with age Wit steel R.
(S) Hnrdncss : A good qunlity brick should be dtho process of hnrdenmg continues for O 1 . construction of foundat' as C.C. is 115cd for ,rI
Ans. Building By-Laws : Whenever there is o construction ,n ong time. etc. ions, roofs., walls., ~••_ ,.
sufficiently hnrd thnt if scratching it by finger nail it
work is planned, firstly it is designed. The main questions (4) Free from Corrosion: Concrete · f ti -.cmcnu
arises during designing is that what things one should keep in
should not be able t? mnke any impression. '""°sion and there ore no appreciable effects o; t ree hrom (2) Ctruoncrete is used to. make som f ~
""'. . a mosp ere s ctures, such as d b. e o the largest
mind while designing. Different people hove different design (6) Soundness: When two good quality bricks nre gc,nts on 11. (J) C . ams, ndges etc.
1 oncrete is used for road . .
requirements. The design used by one may affect other people struck against ench other, there should be n ' memllic . R . t t C
, (5) Fire cs'.s nn .: oncrete as O material is fire (4) C . COnstnJct1on.
living in the vicinity. Ifit effects adversely, one of the many ringing' sound. An experienced engineer cnn easily t oncrctc is used in
~,istont. Concre e ts an mert material so in case of fire no prccast stru. c1ures. Precut
conditions that will result from this will be frequent brawls identify such sounds. ,~ rr structures are those stru
cturcs \\h1cb 11rt eastcd .in r
nnd fights with the neighbors and the locality members. T11ere ,dvcrsc .e ,ccdts. nR recseCen_ i_n concrete. Although when controllcdenvironmcntandth '
(7) Durability: Salt nttack [Link] the durability of concrete 1s use m . . . 11 ts vu Inerable ns steel as a meta 1 and placed. en transponcd to the site
should be some stnndards on which building designs con be
based. Keeping this need of stnndardizntion in mind°thcre brick. The presence ofexcess soluble salts in brick gets elongated when heated. d
nlso cnuses efflorescence. The percentnge of (5) Concrete is used in tunnel construction. :r
was a need to formulate certain rules and regulations that (6) Resistance against Abrasion: Concrete forms
soluble salts (sulphntes of cnlcium, magnesium, (6) Concrete is used in canal constructi
one should follow while constructing a building. T11erefore, and is capable of resisting abrasion,
sodium nnd potassium) should not exceed 2.5% in 1hord surface (7) Concrete is used in constructionof::,r pipes. I
some rules nnd regulations were formed by government to
11
regulate the construction of the buildings known as Building brunt bricks.
00 0 \
by lows or Building Regulation. (8) Wnter Absorption: A good quality brick must not
The by-laws govern the following aspects: absorb more than 20% of its dry weight in water
( I) Line of building frontages when it is kept immersed for 24 hours. Also oner
(2) Built up area ofbuildings 24 hours of immersing, bricks should not show
(3) Open space lll'Ound buildings and their heights deposits ofwhite snits when allowed to dry in shade.
(4) Provision of size, height ond ventilation of rooms and (9) Crushing Strength: Crushing strength of good
apartments bricks should be of the order of 10 N/mm2 and in C
(S) Water supply nnd sanitary provisions nny case it must not be below than 5.5 N/mm2 • 0
(6) Structural design or sizes nnd sections
(10) Brick Enrth: The brick should be moulded from a
• ·t
good brick earth. Free from vegetnble molter,
Q.1 What are tire qualities of good bricks? /R. T.U. 1018/ stones, grovel, knnknr or any hnrmful snits.
l C
Ans. Qualities or Bricks : (11) Thcfllllll Conductivity: The thermal conducti vity ~ C
(1) Size and Shape: A good quality brick should be of bricks should be low ns it is desirable 'thnt the
uniform in size ond should have rectangular plane building built with them should be cool in summer ,r !
surfaces with parallel sides and sharp straight right ond worm in winter. n t
,, 1
angled edges. Its surfoce should not be too smooth
or otherwise the mortar will not stick to it. Alumina Q.8 Write propertle.r ,md 1mll ' of co11crete. '
imports plasticity to bricks. Presence of silico
prevents cracking, shrinking nnd warping of row Ans. Properties of Concrete
bricks. An excess of alumina causes shrinkage ond (1) Com11rcsslve Strength: Co nc rete hns high
wnrping of bricks during drying and burning. compressive strength. Concrete is known by its grndc liko
 -~ s,,gi=ering'
. 1.
Ill
J\fllodatory Signs: These signs a
ffi
ovcrnent of tra 1c and make the ro d
r,ei;etll1in
re used to
a users co ·
laws and regulations, restrictions and
ensure
-~'.zam
-
w::a::fil(IVS;f . ~

,-
J J_atioll of these signs is an offence prohib1t1ons.
(iO • h • • as per law s ·.
~dator)' signs are s own m figure I. · ome ..
b

e- ffl'E:1 I
V
......, ©
-_
©
~ i "' .
d
.. 1e1
TRANs,oRTATION 4 ,..,..--
®
"'-C~

e
,_
~--.
__
•-::,,r
~
·~
r-.r.. ~
~~C$)
t'::-'~.J ~
'
0
- -- A ~ :..J
...A s

,.,.,...,, . ...-..~ Rvt~c.,--

• ii,J
<f
. .'. ,• :.~ •. ·. "• .:.._1 ,., PREVlou·s YEARS QUESTIONS ;.-~
·. ;-., , ,;_:: .
~ A - A __ A
...A
• • : • •, ~ ".,., ,f~ ; ..,_ • : '• • "' ,
>
' ••, • C
,.,....,
,,......
..,_
.... --
.....
-A
Q.2 Write lite c h a r a c t ~
tra11sporta1ion. '/ ranous mod,s of
[Link] 101i1
,f
l
5

~ --
A A.
The drivers, accordingly, take necessary actions to handle
·-.:::sttoir
,.. ANsweR. TYPE A
--
l
. ' . QuEST10Ns
.. ' the situation. Ans. Charactenmcs of Various Mod - a
Informatory Signs: These signs guide the road users .--
....-- °"""""°" ~ .,'-ql
I. Roadways : The most conYc111en1. and • ·
es orr~MalM>o •

about destinations, distance, alternative routes, and prominent Fig. I the people' mode is roadways Road ha nearest to
's
Q. I Why road traffic sig11s are used? fl 'bT . . ways \'ethelll.l.'Ul!l
locations like food joints, public toilets, nearby hospitals, etc.
z. Cautionary Signs: These signs make the road users exi I lly in tenns of route, d'1rcct1on,
· tune,
• speed f um
f
Ans. Traffic signs give information about the road conditions conscious of hazard~us conditions on the road beforehand: etc. Characteristics of roadways can be r ed o tmcl
151 as under:
ahead, provide instructions to be followed at the major QS Give tlte name of lite measures lo decrease the 'Jbe drivers, accordingly, take necessary actions to handle {i) Road transport requirtS a rtlalilclysmall ime51men1 d
crossroads or junctions, warn or guide drivers, and ensure accident rate:s. !he situation. Some cautionary signs arc shown in figure 2. for the govemmenL T

proper functioning of road traffic. ~

(I~ Roads are used byvarious types ofroad \ehicles. tike

A.... & A.... A.... IA

I
Ans. The various measures to decrease the accident rates passenger cars, buses., trucks, !\lo and thrct "heeled r
Q.2 What is transportation? Wlty ii is necessary?

--
may be divided into three groups: automobiles, pedal cycles and e\'en animal dm, n \
(I) Engineering (2) Enforcement .,. ..........
.... RightHu~ .........., vehi~les. Road transport is the onlyme<le throuclt "tiich s
Ans. Movement of humans, animals or goods from one place "'"'

,& £ & & ·&...

OM 0
(3) Education door to door service can be pro\'ided. -
to another is known as tran sportation. Transportation
contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural (ii~ Road transport completely offer a frtedom to road
II. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
development of any country. Transportation is the key for
economic development of any country or region as every
commodity produced viz. food, industrial products etc. needs
transportation at all stages from their production (or Q.I Exp/ail, the various road traffic signs. /R. T.U. 2018/
- -- - -·.....
........
..... ... ...,,
w......
users to transfer the vehicles from one lane to
another and from one road toanotheri!Ccording to!he
need and convenience. : e
e
I
1·

&- £.... IA £ A
(iv) For short distance tra\'el, road [Link] sa,es time. : l
manufact uring) to distribution. !
(v) Road transport is the only mew of transport offer
Ans. Road Traffic Signs : itself to the whole communityolile. t
Q.J What are mandatory sign? ....... '-"""' Cyd•Cr-"';
.,_,_.
__,
Traffic signs arc the silent speakers on the road. Be it :
2. Wntcnrnys : Water t131lsport is the cheaprst and e
the person behind the wheel or a pedestrian, having a sound 1

IA la & 4 A
Ans. Mandatory Signs: These signs are used to ensure the oldest mode of transport. It opcr.11es on a natural 1rack e
knowledge about road safety is absolutely necessary for all ~
free movement of traffic and make the road u~ers cognizant and hence docs not rtquirt huge [Link] in\'C'Slmenl in thc

-- ~·
before hitting the roads. Traffic signs give infonnation about
ofcertain laws and regulations, restrictions and prohibitions. ,.., construction nnd maintenance of its track e~ccpt incase of ,r s
the road conditions ahead, provide instructions to be followed lriltftatWIJirt t f.t,\t ftoc.A C
Violat ion of these signs is an offence, as per law. canals. The cost of operationof water transport is als~ W)' a
at the major crossroads or junctions, warn or guide drivers,
and ensure proper functioning of road traffic. Being unaware Flg. Z
less. It has the lnrgest corr)'ing cnP3city 3nd is most su11abk
dg
II
,
QA Write the difference between ca11tio11ary signs and fi . bulkygoods om long distances. It has pl3)c<l a 1
of road signs is akin to throwing caution to the wind. It can 3. Informatory Signs: These signs guide the rood ~scrs or cnrr)'mg Id ~
informatory signs. lead to loss of life and property. A person is supposed to be vor)' significant c:olc in bringing difTcrcnl pJrts ~r the " o' r
about destinations, distance, nllemntive routes, 0nd p~01nment '
-.
I
familiar (get through a written or oral test) with the traffic 1, locationsJike food joints, public toi lets, ncnrby hosp1tnls, etc.
closer and is indispensable to foreign 1r.1Jc.
Ans. Cau tionary Signs: These signs make the road users signs and symbols before acquiring a drivi ng license in India. Some info rmatory signs ore shown in figu re 3·
conscious of hazardous conditions on the road beforehand. Road safely signs arc primarily of three types:
.. !""II-'!"
 Clvll tng/.ru!crlng
BCl.20 r-----------------------------,[Link] CluU Enulnrr,;,.9
.

~.~rtJC. uJarly desirable at intersections• bridge s11es

0
. and at
The mo in chnrncterislics of wntcrwoys nrc: (2) Air transport has the highest speed among all the modes defective Th .
~I"' vhcrc there arc restrictions 10 traffic m .. e COnd11ionof the r IICl.21
ceS' ovcmcnts.
(i) Rivcrs or occnns ore a nntural highway which does of transport. geometric features or any of the <lad _SUJ'Uce or other
1101require nny cost of conslruclion nnd maintenance. (3) Preferred for long distance transport, [Link] r
r' ·rorccment Measures the road may not be C1lv1r~ c:tistin.
}£0 .
Even the cost ofconstruction and mnintennnce ofcanals human beings and srnoll cargo. (i) Speed Control: ro enable drivers of vehicles 10 In nutshcl~, we cansay upto lhe ex~on
thatan • . CZ!lsi:i~~~
c t r ~ of

is much less and lhc:y nre used, not only for transport (4) Air transport requires special preparations like wheelers ,t(OP correct speed habits tachometers may be filled so to a combination of se,.•- • 2Ctubn rnzy be~"--

purposes bul ulso for irrignlion, etc. links, meteorological stotions, flood lights, searchlights le'Wooive the record. of speeds.. Surprise checks on speed particular reason foll ...... rcasoru and ~ ~ ,A'-"
.
. owingcan be the "'C!'Je
,s id also be done time Lo lime.
(ii) It con cnny much larger quontillcs of heavy and bulky etc. ~ou ([) Distracted Driving: . ~ o f ~
0
goods such ns coal, timber elc. (S) Airplanes run on liquid fuel, generally II special blend (Ii) Trame Control Device: The Signals may be cause of accidents. A dia- ~..... -~ drn'er. i!I? the,,...
h' - ~......, drivensa · ..,,,
known as jet fuel. iJesigncd or signal system may be introduced if necessary. is or her attention from the IIIOlori:itt:zdr.e;u
(iii) It provides much more flexible services than railways
nnd can be adjusted to individual requirements. (6) It is not used for mass public transport.
m-..
s'lflli(arlY pro~er traffic contr~I device like signs, markings or phone, send a text ..-....ge or'fZd, USUally to talk Cti z cell
[Link].
chilllnclizing islands may be installed wherever necessary. (ii) Speeding: [Link] ,L_
(iv) The risks of occidenls nnd breakdowns, in this form of
transport, -arc lcnst os compared to any other form of
(iii) Training and Supervision: The transport easy way to cause an a«id
""""'the<--'
CIII. The fasi:q dm
=
..,...... ,:-.~~ z:i
Q.3 Write a short 11ote 011 road safety measures. tJiorities should be strict in testing and issuing license 10 sIower your reaction time [Link] be ·r 'Oil c, ~
I
transport. you n= 10 pm·c;i i:i
/R.T.U. 2018/ :vers especially drivers of public service vehicles or taxis.
auto accident
(v) Speed of Jnlond water transport is very slow and OR Oii) Drunk Drivuig: Wb:n ,-oo drink,
(iv) Medical Check: The drivers should be tested for
therefore this mode of transport is unsuitable where Write detailed note 011 road mfety measures. to focus and function nmn-1,., ~ • )tl!I lose the~
yjsion and reaction periodically. . _ r· - ,...,.J 115 ,-cry ~ ..,h:;i
lime is an important factor. op~ratmg ~ vehicle. Driving under the imlu:na: of ala>bot
(v) Observance of Law and Regulation: Traffic laws
(vi) It con be used only in a limited area which is served by causes accidents every day' even ""- ,~-
'= -.; zn ooe of the
Ans, Road Snfety Mensurcs : The various measures to lild regulations must be followed by each and every person top causes that can be avoided.
deep canals and rivers. decrease the accident rates may be divide~ into three groups: ,ho is driving any kind of vehicle.
(vii) Rivers and cnnals cannot be operated for transportation (Iv) Reckless Dmlng: If you don·t dm-e amulh·
(i) Engineering (ii) Enforcement (iii) Education ), Educational MellSurcs and you may end upina needless accident Thzt's-..hal 0 ~
throughout the year as water may freeze during winter
1. Engineering Measures (i) Education to Road Users: It is most important to happens to reckless drivm "ho sP=i, ~ lzD::s too
or water level may go down during summer. Similarly
(i) Road Design: The geometric design features o·fthe educale the road· users for the various precautionary quickly or tailgate before cmsingae2rattidmt
oceans have tides or storms which become unsuitable
road such as sight distances, width of pavement, horizon lo! Jllcasures to use the road way facilities with safety. (v) Raio: If lhe weather gru bad so do the l'026.. Car
for transportation.
and vertical alignment design details ond the intersection Qi) Safety Drive: Imposing traflic safely week when accidents happen very of!CD in lbc rain becziise "--ml' =rs
3. Airwuys: Air transport is the most recent mode of design clements are checked and corrected if necessary. The ihc road users arc properly directed by the help of traffic slick and dangerous surfaces for can., tnd3., and linill':yc~
transport. It is the gift of the 20th century to the world. The povement surface chorncteristics including the skid rcsislancc police and transport staff is a common means of training. and often causes automobiles to SJ)in om of c:omrol or Sb!
two world wars gnve a great impetus to the development of values ore checked and suitable maintenance steps arc token Road users should be taught about the do's and don'ts by while braking. To avoid a ar atcidau, dm--e ain =ful
oir tronsport in almost all the countries of the world. Tho to bring them upto the design standards. J11cons offilms and documentaries. when it rains.
peculiar characteristic of air transport is that ls does not need (II) Preventive Malnteonnce of Vehicles: The (vi) Running Rrd Ughu: It is aaxnmon sight II road
a specific surface track for its operations. It hos no physical broking system, steering and lighting arrangements ofvehicles intersections that vehicles cross wilhout C2ringfor the light
barriers as io the case of otJ1cr mode of transport. Political QA Expla/11 V(lr/011s causes of acclde11ts i11 detail. The main motive behind Red light jmnping is sn ing lime.
playing on the roods may be checked at suitable intervals • I
boundaries are also immaterial altJiough it has to observe the TI1e common conception is that 510pping !I red sipal is
and heavy penalties levied on defective vehicles.
requirements of the Jntcrnationol Law. The supreme ADI, There arc four basic elements in a traffic accident: wastage of time and fuel.
(Iii) Before and After Studies: The record of accidents
advantage ofair transport lies in its quickness. It Is the fnstost (,·ii) Running Stop Signs: Slop signs should OC'\'CT be , ·
and their patterns for. different locations are maintained by (I) The road users
mode of transport. Bui the cost of its operation is very high ignored, but when they im:, serious n..,:idents art ofltn the
means ofcollision and condition diagrams. Aller making the (2) The vehicles
and t11us it is suitable for only rich passengers, mails and light rcsuii. r.-ch
'-" )'eat• thousands
· of car accidents °""' bccW(
d id
r'
necessary improvements in design and enforcing regulation,
and costly cargo. However, in advonced countries like U.S.A., (3) The road and its condition drivers nm a stop sign. Many rollo,·cr accidcnll ID ~ e-
il is again necessary to collect and maintain the record of ·1mpact car accidents result from drivm that run stop signs. J :
Germany, etc. it offers a tough competition to the railways. (4) Environmenlal factors like traffic weather etc. rtd.s r ,.
accidents 'before and ofter' the introduction of preventive
Main characteristics of oirwnys ore: measures to study their efficiency. The road users responsible for the accident moy be the
(,·ii[) Dc,igo Drr«IJ: Automobiles havr h~ scrio:
• • I d pedestrians or the and 1111)' of those dcfecti,·c partS can call5t
(I) Air transport provides unbrokenjourooy over land and (Iv) Road Llgi1tlng: Proper rood lighting can decrease · driver of one or more veluc1cs invo vc • parts•
sea. It is the fastest and quickest meons of transport. . . I d . tl occident moy also be nccidcnl.
the rate ofaccidcntsduringnight, due to poorvisibilily. Ligh1ing passengers. Vehicles invo vc in ie
 Basic Clvll £1\gln e_,
(ix) Unsafe Lane Chan . . •nng
a time where you n d gcs. There will elwnys come
Ii ee to get over to another ten c·
rom a freeway get . th . Q.S Wlint is roadways. Write ifs d,aracteristics.
' m e correct lane to make a e 1.e. exit
When drivers don't make ti I
leads to accidents. tum, etc.). Ans. R~ndways : Refer to Long Answer Q.2.
sa e ane changes properly, it often
C,

. (x) Road Design: Defective geometric desig Q.6 Explai11 wateni•ays. Write its cl1aracteristl h
n l'k cs.
.madequate sight d'istance, inade
. quate width of shoulde• se
improper curve design. improper lighting and . Ans. Watc m•ays : Refer to Long Answer
Q.2. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING d
.t
control devices. r'
improper tram~
:r. Q.1 Define «trways. Write its mai~ cllara
(xi) Animals: Stray anin: is on the road cause
cterist'ICS.
accidents. IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
· Ans. Ainv nys • Re•r.
:1er 1o Long Answer Q.2. 1[

ooa.
IP·'f'IWWlUMi·MMIHM virus, fungi etc.) lo macro•.....
mammnIs, fishes etc.).
Biodiversity
Mn· ,1c Ieve\ (b'..1, •
1,..,_ UlSCaS. l't'i)t1\cs.,
1f

ts
I.

. . also differs r.,rom one CCOS):st l.

~I are the types of polllillo11? exampIe, m11 forest we ma Ii . cm toanother. For
animal life. Vnriatio~ inpl;ts• ~~ \\1de varietyof plant llld 3

~
C
large trees. Animals may ran~ ~i:e fro~ small heros to
~ns, Types of pollution :
to large mammals. In other WOflh. bi~~(m,~ico ncs)
(n) AirJ>Ollution defined as a totality of genes,
region. . l\fflt~ can also~ ,[
(b) Wnterpollution sp«its and ~-s1 = in a
(c) Land (soil) pollution d
(d) Noise pollution Q.4 W11a1 do you mtan by colltction of iraslt lrlllrr! t
(c) Radioactive pollution
(f) Them1al pollution Ans. Waste water is generated by main\v \.itch
bathrooms. 11us · water is rich in d
· . oil
washing powdci en lll
:ind
7

~ detergents _etc. so it docs not gi\'c any foul smell. But the \
Q.l What do yo11 111ea11 by basics of specie
s? water commg out fromtoilets contains faec:il mlller " bidi
----
; , Species, such as the quetzal, nhuehucte (Mont
cypress),jnguar,
ezuma
is biodegradable and gives foul Sll)cll.
Both types of waste wntcr art tran5poncd throuth
dahlia, crocodile, and the monarch butterfly
arc the units in which we categorize ell living things, includ underground pipe lines connected to main m ofthe h..~
ing These pipe lines are madeup bycemml cltinJcb) or p\.1:,-ii,.
a
human beings. A species is group of orgnnisms
thnt can 1l1ese pipe lines rut then connected 10 inspc.:ti('I) ch3mkr
reproduce and create fertile offspring.
In general, individuals of n species nre recognizeabl
c Q.S Write down tht types
because they are similnr in form and function. Often of Solid •'a:Slt.
, how-
e1•cr, individuals-of a species are very different. For examp
le, Ans. lypes to Solid waste:
male and female birds ofthe same species are very differe • Household waste also called municip:il \\'lSIC
nt,
tadpoles are very different lo frogs, and cotepillars
arc very • Industrial waste
different to butterliles. The opposite can also be true:
some • Agriculturnl waste
species appear very similnr and are difficult to disting
uish at Diomcdical waste
times, even with the most expert eye. .s
HIIZllrdQUS wnstc

Q.3 Deji~te b/01/ii•ersity? Q. Dtfint Global llartning.

6
Ans, "13iodivcrsily" means presence of differe . • -·• lO .... tht [Link] the
nt kinds of
living organi~s in a particulnr ecosys1cm. It includes ;\ns. Globol wn!Tiltn&fisEarth's
tc!1Tlc-uc,ccans
"'
and nc•r surfac~31r.
•
compl~te nvcmsc temperature o
spcctnim ofliving organisms from microscopic level (bnctc
nn.
 "'"c ..:q '------------------------------ ---IDasIc CluII Englneerfng V '2. l llC lll._, u, ..., .... ' ""• -••-•• - ••• • ._.,.,..., , ""''H I U\, llU JI illlU l)JQ
~

6.
, •,· remedintion improve the quality of soil by decreasing Surfnceimpou~ ~ - : '-
This ha~ been happening in the recent decades and is expected 2. Organic insecticides like DDT, benzene et
, : - the pollutants. 7. Sewers and othe . .
to co_ntmue. In fnct the tern, global wam,[Link] snid to be a accumulate in soil and have deleterious effect 0: r pipelines
specific example of climatic changes. In scientific and plant growth. Biodegradable organic wastes should be used for 8. Pesticide and fen·1·
3- I Iler use
common tem1s, global wam1ing refers to recent wam1ing nnd • 3. Jinproper and continuous use of fertilizers, pesticid generation ofbiogas. 9. Drainage wells
also implies a human influence on tl1e same. niters the basic composition of soil and makes 1: Microbial degradation of biodegradable substances
The lntergovemmental Panel on Climate Change (JPCC) e 4. 10 Injection wells/floor drains
soil toxic. should be done.
concludes that most of the observed temperature increases 11 . Improperly constructed wells
be used to
since the middle of the 20th century and it wos caused by Effects or Soil Pollution 5. Biological pest control methods should 12. Improperly abandoned wells
increasing concentrations ofgreenhouse gases resulting from I. Yari_o~ds types of chem icals like acids, alkalis, reduce the level of pesticides.
human activity such ns, fossil fuel burning and deforestation. 13. Active drinking water su I
pcst1c1 es, 11e11vy meta1s etc. from the indust · 1 Chemical fertilizers should be replaced by PP )'wells
It also concludes that variations in natural phenomena such . I I , rra 6.
d~sc in_rges c 1ang_e the physical, chemical and biofertilizers. 14. Poorly constructed im· .
as, solar radiation and volcanoes produce most ofthe wanning gat1on wells
b1olog1cal properties of the soil. The pathoge , IS. Miningactivities
from pre-industrial times till 1950 and afterward hod a small . d . . nrc Mining techniques should be improved to reduce
cooling effect. b ncteria an viruses m the sewage waste cause 1.
the spread of mine dust. · Effects of Groundll•atcr Cont 1
vario~s types ofdiseases such as diarrhoen, cholera, am nation
typhoid,. plague, etc. It decomposes tl1e organic matter s. Pneumatic pipes, special pits should be used for Contaminationofgroundwatercan 1•
II. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS producmg toxic gases. collecting and disposing wastes. water·quar1ty, Ioss of water supply de.,..,d-'
resu I m__J)OOrdrinkin•
..., "
t h'gh ' e-• "'-' •w ,act water
2. Salts tend to nccumulate in the soil causing for bulk transfer of various wastes to discharge sys ems, 1 cleanup costs, high costs ,0 al .
9. . "r temat.1ve \\;iler
Q.1 Discuss tlie effects a11d co11trol ofsoil pollutio11. salinization which leads to death of_plants. sites, transfer stations should be made at different supp11es, and/or potential health problems..,,__
1 U'C consequences
.
3. Plants also absorb the pollutants and store them in of contammated ground water or degrad-' __.,,
"'-' •w,act water
points. .
Ans. Land or Soil Pollution : Land is equally important to their stems and leaves which affects tlte humans. are often serious. For example, estuaries that have been
I0. The waste materials like paper, glass and plastics impacted by high nitrogen from ground water sourtts ha,"<!
humans and otl1er living organisms. The upper part or layer 4. The radio-isotopes in tl1e soil enter the food chain shou Id be recycled.
of tl1e land is called the soil. It is tl1e most fertile part of the lost c~tical shellfish habitats. In terms of water supply. in
replace essential elements in the body and caus;
land. Soil is a very important natural source in which physical, some instances, ground water contamination is so severe that
abnom,alitics. The radio-isotopes in the soil emit ~ Descr1b~ br~efly sources a11,I effects ofground water
chemical and biological activities continuously take plac~. radiations in to the environment. the water supply must be abandoned as asource ofdrinkin2
Country's economy depends on the soil. co11tm11111allo11: waler. In other cases, the ground water C.!11 be cleaned u~
Any physical or chemical changes in soil conditions that Salination of Soil and used again, if the contamination is not too se,"<!~ and if
;;;s. Sources or Groundwater Contamination : Ground the municipality is willing to spend a good deal of money.
may adversely affect the growtll ofplants and other organisms Increase in concentration of soluble salts in the soil is become contaminated from natural sources or
living in the soil is known as soil pollution. Bacteria and fungi called salinatio11. It degrades the quality ofland. Salinization water can R .d . 1 . • 1 Follow-up water quality monitoring is often miuiml form:my
decay the plant animal wastes and dead organisms, convert riumerous types of human activities. Ies1. e_n~ta, mu~t:r;
can occur in any region and is gene~lly caused due to the commercial, industrial. and agricultura oct1V1t1es can a a ec years.
them into nitrates, phosphates and otl1er nutrients. The use of continuous use of irrigation water which contains salts. round water quality. Contaminants may reach ground wa_ter Because ground water. genenlly moves slowly.
large amount offertilizers decreases the ability ofbacterja to tom activities on the land surface, such as releases or spills contamination often rtmains undetected for long periods of
decay wastes and produce nutrients. Pesticides harm tlle "Nom,ally, plants have a lower concentration of water
tllan the surrounding soil. So water flows from soil into plants. from stored industrial wastes; from sources b~low the land time. This makes cleanup of a contaminated 11;iter suppl)
bacterias and otl1er organisms in the soil. Erosion also causes face but above the water table, such as septic systems or
But if soil is saline, it has a lower concentration ofwater than difficult, ifnot impossible. !fa cleanup is undenaken, it can
a lot of damage to the soil. Careless fam,ing and land ~::king underground petroleum storage systems; from
construction causes erosi<_>n. plants and thus water starts flowing out of the plants into tl1e cost thousands to millions ofrupees.
structures beneatl1 the water table, such as wells; or from Once the contaminant sowte has been controlled ~r
Sources or Soil Pollution soil. So plants cannot tolerate saline soil.
contaminated recharge water. removed, the contaminated ground water can be ~ated in
I. Since agriculture is becoming more and more The salts move up from lower layers to top layers by The following are the main sources of ground water
intensive, increased quantities .of f~rtili~rs, C!IPiHary action and gets deposited on _surface which creates one of several ways: . .
pesticides etc. are used. The residues of these a lots of problem for tlle plants. Excessive use of fertilizers contarn ination: 1. Containing the contnminant to prevent m1~rat'.on.
pollute tlle soil. like sodium nitrate causes salinization ofsoil. In coastal regions, 1. Natural sources 2. Pumping the water, treating it, and rttuming it to
2. Industrial discharge and urban solid wastes are the winds bring lot of salt from sea water to Ian~ causing the the aquifer. .
2. Septic systems Lea,•ing 1he ground water in p!acc and trca1111~
major sources orsoil pollution. increase in concentration ofsalts in soil.
3. Oilier sources ofsoil pollution include waste water Processes like dilution, vapor extraction, bio remediation 3. Improper disposal of hazardous waste 3. either the water or the contaminant. d ) ,
Releases and s~ills from 'stored chemicals and ·non! to attenuate (n: uce
and faulty sanitation. etc. can reduce this soil pollution. 4. 4. Allowing the contam1 . . ) following rhe ,
, (with monitoring ,
follutants of Soil Pollution petroleum products natura 11 ) • t sourte coniro1.
Control of Soil Pollution implementation of nn oppropno e
l . Chemicals like zinc, cadmium, aluminium, copper, 5. Landfills
mercury from industrial wastes reach the soil l. The industrial wastes should be properly treated
directly or indirectly. before discharging them into tl1e soil.
( BCE.26
Selecti_onofthea ppropriate remedial technology is based
[Link] Cunl E nginc~ r,g
Disposal of solid wastes is commonly done by dumping
i;:ngineering~:::::::::::::r--:-:--:----------
., CU"' -::::.::.-- -'-'
;
~ - ' • _·1some may cause harm when present in air in s
p011utall:~ions and others may do so only if they are prc':nt
11
on site-specific factors and often takes into account cleanup on land or into water, incineration or Jong tenn storage (xii) Certain hea,')•metals like BC~
in c,:nt
goals based on potential risk tl1at are protective of human secured facility. All these methods have negative impact on
. Tl d . f
('lo ·•hconcentrattons. ,e uratton o exposure of the body through the luno• and Icad'.1'a~enter \he,.___.
'llo f ( .. i) o- tause pa\50!\ ''-"'
health and the environme nL The technolog y selected is one the environme nt and are proved to be hazardous for the human ill'' 3 0 important actor. Therefore the prime factors XIII Effect of rad·100 .
,., Ing_ .
c1tve fallour . .
that will achieve tl1osc cleanµp goals. Different technologies health as incinera~ion causes pollution in air while land filling
1 so
j; 0 • human health are, e 11 ects of radiation ~- . ,._ · The lnolo•,c3\ ,
..,.t ng d ""') uo: som · h
are effective for different types ofcontaminants, and several _contaminates the surface and ground water. United Nations ,fl•· 1 -...iature of the pollutants amagc. In SO"'" 'cdam
· fl; a.t.1c or •tn••:.e
(i) ,... .......
1s a ected, while in gen agethecxl>OSed. • ~.,
tech nologies are often combined to achieve e ffective Development Programme estimated more than fi ve million concentration of the pollutants . llldi\idc.;\ d
(,ti) generations become th _eti_c dama~c uic fulllre
treatment. TI1e effectiveness of treatme nt depends in part people die every year from diseases related to inadequate (tii) Duration of exposure . e v,c111ns. e
waste disposal system. Table 2 shows the effective time taken Radioactive fallout from t .
on local hydrogeological conditions, which must be evaluated . ) State of health of the receptor and
by the disposed wastes for their disintegration. causes, cstmg of nud~ " ~<.s s
prior to selecting a treatment option. Given the difficulty and ~ v) Age--group of the receptor. (a) Cancer
high costs of cleaning up a contaminated aquifer, some T• ble 2
Types of Solid Waste ~he effects of air pollution a~e observed greatly among (b) Shoncningof\ife span •f
communi ties choose to abandon [Link] wells and use other Approximate Time it
Takes to . . children, infants, asthmatics and people with chronic (c) Genetic effects or mutation.
water sources. if available. Using alternative supplies is
Degenerate the Litter seniors, of lungs or heart are thought to be at great risk. One significant point we have to note abo ,f
p,obably more expensive than obtaining drinking water from
Organic waste such as A week or two disea: : secbanism of Action of Air Pollutants~ The effects of radioactive fallout is,
it causes lo ut uie eiTc-:i
the original source. A temporary and expensive solution is to vegetable and fruit peels. 1n
air p-0llution on human h1,alth generally_occur as a result of
1h fu ngrange df"-'lS affci:lii-• ls
purchase bottled water, but it is not a realistic long-tenn solution leftover foodstuff, etc. e ture of man and henceihe future ofour civilization.• 1_
ofntaCtbetween the pollutants and-the body. Normally, body 2. Effects of Air Po\h1tioa 00 A .
fo r a communi ty' s drinking water supply problem. A Paper a
by which farm animals.,...• ...,· _. . 5 : .n., e
10-30 days CO ccurs at the surface of the skin and exposed rnechamsm • • Dl!Dl1
community might decide to install new wells in a different contact O .
Cotton cloth 2-5 months nes. Contact with [Link] sur,nces < .
ts o
f d"fli ..
I erent frorn thatbywhichhumanbcings- ~..,.,., s en~h
- ~.-1SOnw1
area of the aquifer. In this case, appropriate siting and tllembra 0 ..,,11__-, s
Wood 10-15 years uunosl importanc e becaus~ of t_heb,r . h. I b .
1g, a sorptive cafac,ty atmos-phercs arc potsoned.
. . - ..,,.,...... r-""''"
monitorin g of the new wells are critical to ensure that ln case of farm anillllls ii is 3
Woolen items I year ed 10 fltat of the skm. Air- ome gases, vapors, ,umes, two step process : .f
contaminants do not move into the new water supplies. Tin, aluminum, and other co~Par d dusts may cause irritation of the membranes ofthe
I00-500 years tl\tsts' an throat. larynx, (i) Accumulation of the air-borne =tlmin3nt in ~
metal items such as cans . tree and lungs. S
tracheobronch1al · and ~,orage; 1
d
ome vcgetnhon
eyes,
. . nose,ts even reach the mucosa of tI,e d'1gest1ve .
Q.3 Explain Composition of solid waste. Plastic bags One million years tract. (ii) Subsequen t poisoning t
1rntan . of the nnim:tls when the, ~t
Glass bonles Undetennined Health Effects I ·
t _1e contammated vegetation. • '
-
Ans. Composition of Solid Waste : Solid waste may be i) Eye irritation. In case of human bcingswooongin polluted ~
1
To overcome the serious thre"llt of solid waste in the (
any garbage, refuse, sludge and other discarded material society there is a need 'ii) Nose and throat irrita_tion. in factories, the concern is for the b=ful substiln---c th:it ,s t\
to accept the concept of waste ,, . ha1
" hich may be solid, liquid, semisolid having gaseous material management to handle the solid
waste generation, its handling, 1
- 1
directlym ed.\nlhe caseof '-- ,wmaninulc:[Link]~ ~ r s
( i) Irritation of the respiratory trac_t. . b . l .snotu1
•'-eresuItOf"nh-•·
obtained from industrial, commercial, mining, and agricultura l transportation, storage, recycling and disposal 0 VIOUSy 1 I i11IDgurc:po•'-- IIUt"'131f,,•Ulr:tu
.... . ,. •'-"-."t II
in an organized (iv) Gases like hydrogen sul_pl~ide, ammonta ~nd the ingestionofforagewhichb11Sbccom
operations, and a lso fro m communi ty activities (like constructive way. eronuminlte,1"i\h
mercapta ils cause odor nuisance even at · ow pollutant like fluorine frorn the air.
construct ion waste, household junk such as furn iture,
concentrations. The three pollutBnts fCSllOnSiblc for mC'SI. li\t stod, -c
appliances and equipments etc.). Typical solid wastes are Q.4 Explain ltarmf11/
effects of air pol/11tion. (v) Increase in mortality rate an_d morbidity rat: ... damane arc fluorine, arsenic and lead. Thest p('llutant> ~
leather, rubber, plastics, food wastes, paper, wood and ·other
(vi) A variety ofparticulates, particularly pollens, imllate origin~te from industrial SOUltCS
combustible and non combustible-materials. Table I shows Aos. Har mful Effects of Air Pollution or from dustingand spra)i!lf- .,·
asthmatic attacks. , (a) Fluorine: Of all farm animals. cattle and shetp 1111! e
the composition of a common solid waste. 1. Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health : The
('Iii) Chronic pulmonary disease like bronchiti~, and the most susceptible to fluorine
air we breathe has not only life supporting properties but nlso toxics. Horse ap~J~ to be o
Tnbl• I asthma, is aggravated by a high concentratto1~ of quite itsistantto fluorinepoisoning.P~ul
life damaging properties. Under ideal conditions the [Link] l!)'art pro"3bl~~~
s. Typ• of Peru auge s. Typ•,of Percentage inhale has a qualitativ~ and quantitative balan'ee that maintains
SO,. N0 , particulat e matter, and photochemical mostn:sis1antto fluorine,ofollfunnan1uuls.~ 11
ckof3!"P.: '.' .· :I
~ o. Solid No. Solid Waste v 2 rap.,d loss' in weight, decline in health and ,,sor, l:im.:nc~,.
the well being of man, but when the balance among the air • smog. •
Waste
components is disturbed, or in other words, ifit is pollutedt it
..
( ...) Carbon monoxide ties up the haemoglobm m the pert IC d"--',.a ·oo·
1;u1u.... n1uscularweakncssanddeau, 1 '- It . e
,,. ch;ir:i-tcnll:
l I Org!lllic
mailer
60% 6 Textile 05% may affect human health. VIII blood and consequently increases stress on those. the ncutc onn
~ of fluorine poisonin~. It may ~ so re-;u m c
11 .- Butacu\[Link]-,ni11~
Average man breathes 22,000 times a day and take 16 suffering from cardioyascular and pulmonar) considerable incrcnsc ofbo~e ~o~n~.
2 Paper 10¾ 7 Rubber 01 ¾ due to fluorides is unlikely tn 1113JOnl) ofthe C3S -d.. I <S
3 Plastics 05¾ 8 Wood 05¾ kg of air each day. Which is much grater than the consumption disease. • I • poison under C{'n il1('ns ,, e
fl ·ne is o cumu atl\C 1
of food and water. It has been estimated that a man can live (b,)° Hydrogen fluorid~ causes di_seases of bone . uon • to sub-acute doses· F\u,,1111, ". a '" •'1 •~
-t Glass 02% 9 Metals 01% for S weeks-without food, for 5 days without water, but only contmuous _c x~sure nmru\;cd nffinil)' forcalcium a11, h
(fluoride) , orid mottling teeth.
protoplnsm1cpo1son.l1h:is I "{i ,·on ,\nimah hJ, c N-'' h
5 Lea1her 01¾ 10 Fine for S minutes without air. (x) Carcinoge nic ngents cause cancer. . . h onnal ca c1 ,ca , . r
07% interferes I humans,,, J.; ..,I""''; "'f ·r
fraclions All the impurities in the inhaled air do not necessarily (xi) Dusq ,articles cause · . t ry diseases Diseases reported wit n .
rcsp1ra o . . fi to be more resistant t iafn ucntl\· affr,;tt'd onimJ\, o
(< 10 m m) . ,ccp nre the 111osl l'l.'q
like silicosis, asbestosis, etc. result from spec, ic Cati

l
cause harm. Dependin g upon the chemical nature of the Ie 011d Sl •

' dusts.
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these effects to g~t m~tfested, it takes generally
~e P<>llutaiits Iii.
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,c:irs even generations m case of genetic chan
also used in dusts and sprays contain ing lead arsenate. In
Teeth in the process of fonnation are easilv affected. H~nce se,•ern1 ) . p II . ges. c,blonnc, Hc1 PAJN . c, 51Jlphur dio:uA. I . . ~~
of Air o ullon on Pinnts : Air pollut'ion ~ """""- -.. "'
tooth S)mptoms are a sensiti\'e and unique criterion ofchronic case ofacute lead poisoning the onset _is sudde~ an~ t_he course 3• ..:-erects
"' smog, herbicides ' •w,,= IJ>.idcs.. }..l! - fl-~
nuorosis. [Link]\'e wearing of incisor and molar teeth may rclat i,·ely short. Prostration. staggcnng :ind mabiluy to rise hi!S Jon& been kno"~ t~ ha~~ a~;d;rse effect on plants. At plant growth and ~~rs of "'ctd l il!~ ;~ -~ ~
are prominent S)mptoms. The pulse (s always fast but weak. it was only su p ur tox1 e at wns considered the dust etc red PhcnornenooofJlhotos- lll!:ric:t-,.llll
occur at high levels of fluorine intake.
Some animals may fall suddenly. stiffen !11~ legs and have first, rous pollutant Now with the advent ofvarious pesticides also by clo~ ~lhe amount of lildn ~ lti.i~ . ~
Bone lesions may develop aI any age. A bony over gTO\\Ul
may be observed on the leg bones,jaw bones and ribs. Titeir
conwlsions. There is complete loss of appetite, paralysis of ~ ge w industrial processes, the range ofharmfut pollutants to some cx1ent an;~ rrny~ ~ ~~,~ Ui
appearance indicates that there has been a high fluoride intlke the digesti\'e tract and diarrhea. Other nervous symptoms in Sil ;~tiplied tremendously. Sometimes, vegetation over I SO Fonns ofDaniaus rntaf"' -..ith Ph<¼)~~
o,·er along period. Lameness may occw- as a result of this cattle a re grinding of the teeth and rapid chewing of the cud ~:orneters awny from the source of the pollutnnt has been several fo gt to [Link]·ts . ~ --=
over growth on the leg bones. This may be followed by In case of horses, it may result in complete loss of appetite. "' dtobeaffected. rms : • ' . ctoJ~"ts'Qles
nerrnus depression. lethargy and death. ' faun (i) Necrosis N
stiffness ofjoints. Effects of fluorides on skeletal structures Strucwre of a Normal Leaf : Knowledge of the '. C0'1lsis [Link]!orco~
are usually of a pennanent nature. Chronic lead poisoning has been obser\'ed frequently in (ii) Chlorosi.s : ~ - of
ture of a leaf will help us to understand why damage
S)mptoms ofadvanced fluorosis include lack ofappetite. horses that have been grazing on forage near smelters, lead Cblorosis isthe l~or .
stfUCrs to plants on account of air pollutants. A generalized re.:!o..""tl,.~ of
general ill health due to malnutrition, lowered fertility. reduced mines, and in orchards that have been sprayed. Paralysis of occu the gJ"een 1..... •
diagram oflhe structure ofa normal leaf is given iri Fig. 4. If - P= pigmem_~
;;,ilk production and growth retardation. TI1e S)mptoms tJ1e muscles of the la')nX and difficulty in breathing are th
. -~m 'tne o leaf, one will normally see a network ofdenser The
in alossof~ill&:!ll-.
J)3)c • . ._:_~
......,
developed in other species such as rabbits, horses and poulb}' -main symptoms. Convulsions may occur from the paralyst we e,w,u . .
the veins, all interconnected to the base or stem Ch . green or yd!m. ...,,,_
ore similar to that for cattle and sheep, le., mottling, staining ofthe throat, and tJ1e difficulty in breathing may be unusuall; slJllCtures• loros15 l!cn ~ I . .,.._..._
and [Link] the teeth, bony o\'er gro\\ths on the skeleton, se\'ere and persistent, during and after exercise. of !lie leaf. Tiie leaf :eins act as the ~s~ort system foi- defi . - c Y rndu:atcs a
. I k bl d I I Th I c1c1Jcyofnlllrit:it n,quii?dt,, tlit
stiffuess and lethargy and general ill health from malnutrition Lead is a cumulative poison. Therefore. the continuous water nnd foo d, JUSt.th1 ·e k?o v~de s '". anl rma s. e eaf plant In many respects : .
tissue is in )ayers w1 a s ·tn or ept emJ_rs ayer qn l9p_an~ analogous . . • 11 1s
and starvation. ingestion of even very small daily doses will be finally as
· ceII s ·m bet\veen. · "fjjj\ o
Jbsi:••·r· n·. - to ~ m znimili_
(b) Aneolc : Arsenic occurs as an impurity in many effective as one toxic dose. Hence in case of slight bottom nnd the photosynthests \ W/ - Leaf abscission is d .
lta'l"es. roppmg of
ores and in-coal. It has been reported to cause poisoning of contamination death can occur after many montJ1s arid in case . / ',

ofsevere contamination deall1 can occur within 24 hours. _,._ .- -< ~ ; r -- . · ' ., ....,:: :-
lh·e stock near various industrial processes and smeltm. Just
It has also been reported tJ1at inadequate calcium in diet
-'"" .r~-=> . . (iv) Epinasty : Leaf epinuty is a do-..1111 tnl
like most of other industrial air contaminants, arsenic may Clln-aturc of !ht leaf dut to hldtcr
spread over a considerable area from a stack source. Arsenic increases the retention oflead in the animal body. Low calcium rate ofgn>l\,hoo the t!ppCrsurf.x-c.
is used in some insecticides. The use of insecticides in dusts diets may result in lead storage of as much as five times Ti~e SC\'en:ly injured Ir.· air "''llutants ft •··
0 m ...., a
charact · · J • r-
or sprays on plants cm lead to poisoning of cattle. ln acute more when compared to that found in animals that receive . . . ensue ~ or. _Bleaching is ~iJtcd with sulrbur
cases the symptoms are severe sali\•ation, thirst; vomiting, sufficient amounts of calcium. However, extra quantity of d_roxi~c, yello\\111~ \\ith amm.:mia, bro\\ning " ith Ouc-riJe.. A
calcium above Ilic amount considered sufficient will not offer sil\'~ngor bronzmgofthcundcrsurfa..'Cofst\.~ lca\"cs is
uneasiness. feeble and irregular pulse and respiration. The
additional protection against poisoning. associated \\ilh PAN inj111y. Pbototo.'UC!llt is the rumc ci"m
animal stamps, lies down and gets up. There is diarrhea, and to plant damaging substances. -
tJ1e feaces have a garlic odor nnd sometimes bloody. Ears It is also reported that pollutio~ is now beginning to affect
pets and domestic animals in Tok-yo and otJ1er smog affected Kinds oflnjlllJ to PlatrIJ
become cold; body trembles and develops abnonnal
temperature and convulsion. DeatJi may occur_in a few hours cities. Canine patients are fo und to be suffering from (a) Acute Injury: It results from shon time [Link]'SUTt
or some days. bronchitis, astJ1ma and lack ofappetite. Many dogs also suffer lo n:latil·ely high conctnlrations, sud) 35 might o..'\.--ur under
from coughs, nose and throat diseases due to increasing air fumigation conditions. The effc..-is an: ll(l(cd 11ithin a re"
Arsenic appears to have a depressing effect up,on the
pollution. It is interesting lo note that average life of pets in ~ X • S1cmocxll hours to a few days and~-TtSUh in ,isibleIIUri.:.ings on ~
central nervous system. llie animal becomes dul~ and [Link]>its
Japan is seven to eight years, whereas in developing countries O<icle leaves due ID a collapse and dC31h of cells. This [Link] to
a lack of appetite, with a resulting weight loss. Also, there
they enjoy a life span of 12 to 13 years. Radioactive fallout Fil· : Cross Section or a Luf neurotic patterns, that is. ar= ordc;id tissue.
may be chronic cough and diarrhea may occur continuously.
from the nuclear bombs testing in the atmosphere ionizes the. 11,e stomata are !he entrances in the leaf bottom (and in (b)Cbronk Injury : )t1'Slllts from longtcnn lo" lcl-d
There may be lli ickening ofthe skin,anemia and abortion or
radiation, which have severe biol6gical effects. The effects some leaves in the top) through which CO2 enters to play its exposure and usually causes cblorosis N le3fabscission.
sterility. Chronic poisoning can result in eventual paralyzing'
of radiation on animals are similar qualitath•ely to those in role in the photosynthesis process.1l1ese openings are protected (c) Growth or Yield Rctanlalion :This injury is in lhe
and death.
human beings. The effects may be either acute radiation by pairs of specialized guard cells which open_and close to fonn ofan effect on gro11th11ithool \isiblt nurun£S (in, isiblc
Arsenic as well'as its soluble compounds is extremely
effect or delayed lon_g term effect. Symptoms of acute injury). GC'llerally a suppression ofgro11th or )icldoccurs.
poisonous. It has been reported that sheep has been poisoned allow gases to enter or leave the leaf. Such gases, of co~e,
radiation injury develop within a period of hours to weeks, While deciding about the type of injury the pllnt h3.S
by as little as 025 to 0.50 gms of arsenic daily, where as cattle include pollutants like sulphur dioxide. The primary factorwh~ch
following exposure. Only fall-0ut occurring close to the nuclear suffered, one must carefully distinsuish bcl\ittn ad,e~
and horses may tolerate I.;3 to 1.9 gms daily. It has also been controls gas absorption by !lie leaves is the degree of op~mn_g
.bombs test site can produce acute radiation effects, because effects caused by air pollution 1111d adl"crst effects resultr_ng
reported from laboratory experiments that IO mg of arsenic ofthe stomata. When the stomata are wide open;absorpt1on tS
of high degree of radiation received by the animal body. from other factors. Plant diSCJSc mayshow 5>mpt~ms "h~,h ,
per kilogram of body weight per day has produced chronic maximum and vice versa. Consequently, the same conditionr . ·1 to those caused by air pollut1 on. High
111e long term effects are : are very s1m1or . .,
a~cnic poisoning in guinea pigs. that enhance the absorption ofthe gns (CO2 for photosynthesis )ant c•,. shortage of nutncnts anu"-:i1cr
Cancer (including Leukemia) [Link]. poorp _.., . • · h f
(c) Lead : Lead contamination of the atmosphere takes purpose), predispose the plnnt to injury (by absorbing pollutant arance ,ihich ,s s1m1lar to I al o a
Shortening oflifc span may also cause on oppc
place on account ofvarious industrial sources such as smelters, gas like SO1).
coke-ovens and oilier cool-combustion processes. Lead is .Genetic or mutation effect.
 --- - - - - - ~ Basic Civil Engfoeer1.n9 I' (
BCE.3 0 ) - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - -
plant damaged by air pollution. It may also be due to insect 4. Effects of Air Polluti~n ° 0 Mater~als : Presence 11!1
of SO2 acid gases cause corrosion of metallic surfaces a d _/•
damage . Therefore, while diagnosing the effects of air ' b 1'Id. material s liken
. tarnishing. They readily damage the ~ ing
po II ution one must consider factors such as plant disease,
nutrition history, weather damage, and the nature ofpollutants limestone, marble etc. and also affect pomts, paper and leather
in the area. Paints are discolored by I-!iS, SO2 and_o_ther pa~icu latcs. Pape; ~
The effects of various pollutants like sulphur dioxide, become brittle and leather und~rgo dismtegratton by SO2 and
ozone, fluorides etc., on plants is shown in table. other gases. Photochemical oxidants affect the material like
[Link] : Effects .or Pollutants or Plants textile fibres, rubber plants etc.
s. Effects of Air Pollution on Clim?te_: Destruction
s. Pollutant Dose Effect
of forests and excessive .burning of fu~ls m industries and
No. automobiles is respons ible for increase m CO2concentratio
. 1· n
I. Sulphur Mild lnterveinal in the atmosphere causing change c ,mate of earth b
m
dioxide chlorotic bleaching changing the factors controlling the climate. Increase in c(i
Severe of leaves concentration causing greenhouse effect. Rise in globai
Necrosis in temperature may lead to melting of glaciers and polar ice
iaterveinal areas caps, flooding of. low-lying coastal towns etc. Pattern of
and skeletonized rainfall, 1fchangfd (I.e. acid rain)will affect agricultural output,
leaves Thus acid rams are becoming a major political issues and there
2. Ozone MilQ Fleoks on upper is an urgent need for regular monitoring of forecast of
surfaces, acidification ofour environment.
Severe premature agmg The thinning ofozone layer in stratosphere by action of
and suppressed aerosols [Link] the earth harmful U-V radiations and this
growth. will cause blindness, sunburn, inactivation of proteins, RNA.,
Collapse of leaf, DNA etc. -
neurosis and .□□Q
bleaching
3. Fluorides Cumulative Necrosis at leaf tip
effect

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