Introduction

of
science

1
 Definition of science
Science is the systematic study of the natural world through
observation and experimentation to gain knowledge and
understand how things work. It involves making testable
explanations and predictions about the universe.

The main branches of science are:

Natural Science: Studies the natural world and includes

life science (biology, study of living things), physical science
(physics and chemistry, study of matter and energy), and Earth
science (study of Earth and its processes).

Social Science: Focuses on human behavior and

societies, including psychology, sociology, economics, and
history.

Formal Science: Deals with abstract concepts using

logic and mathematics rather than experiments, including
mathematics, logic, and computer science.

Scientific Method:
The scientific method is a step-by-step process scientists
use to study and understand the world by testing ideas through
experiments and observations. It involves making an
observation, asking a specific question, researching the topic,
forming a hypothesis (a testable prediction), conducting
experiments to test the hypothesis, analyzing the data collected,
and drawing a conclusion based on the results. This method
helps ensure that scientific discoveries are reliable and unbiased
by repeating and verifying the results.

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 The basic steps of the scientific method are:

 Make an observation about something interesting or

curious.
 Ask a question related to the observation.
 Gather background information or research what is
already known.
 Formulate a hypothesis that can be tested.
 Design and conduct an experiment to test the
hypothesis.
 Record and analyze the experiment data.
 Draw a conclusion that supports or refutes the
hypothesis.
 Share results so others can repeat or expand on the
work.

Important Terminology
In science, these important terms have specific meanings:

Fact: A fact is an observation that has been repeatedly

confirmed and is accepted as true for now. For example, water
boils at 100°C at sea level. Although facts are trusted, new
evidence could change them.

Hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated guess or a

testable explanation for an observation or question. It must be
able to be tested and proven false or true through experiments.

Theory: A theory is a well-tested explanation that unifies

many facts and hypotheses. Theories explain why things happen
and are supported by lots of evidence.

3
 Law: A scientific law describes a consistent natural
relationship or pattern. Laws explain how things happen, often
using mathematical formulas, but do not explain why

Chemistry
Portion
4
Matter defination
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. It is
made up of tiny particles like atoms and molecules. Matter
exists mainly in four states: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.

States of Matter
There are four states of matter

 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas
 Plasma

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Solid:
The particles are tightly packed and only vibrate in place.
Solids have a definite shape and volume, like ice or a rock

Properties
Properties of solids in simple terms:

 Solids keep their own shape and size without

needing a container.
 Solids cannot be easily compressed because
their particles are tightly packed.
 Particles in solids are held together by strong
forces, making solids rigid.
 particles are close together, solids usually have
higher density.
 The particles in solids do not move freely but
vibrate in fixed positions.

Liquid:
The particles are close but can move around each other, so
liquids have a fixed volume but take the shape of their container,
like water.

Properties
 Having no definite shape
 Having definit volume
 Liquids resistance to flow
 They can not be compress they are in-
compressible

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 Gas: The particles are spread out and move freely, so
gases have neither a fixed shape nor volume, like air.

Properties
 Having no definite shape
 They can not be compress they are in-
compressible
 They can vibrate with each other (and perform
random motion)

Plasma: A high-energy state where particles are very

spread out and charged, like lightning or the sun.

Atom
An atom is the smallest building block of matter that still
has the properties of an element. It is made up of even smaller
particles: a nucleus containing positively charged protons and
neutral neutrons, with negatively charged electrons moving
around this nucleus. Atoms combine to form everything around
us, and each element's atoms have a unique number of protons
called the atomic number, which defines the element. For
example, hydrogen atoms have one proton, while oxygen atoms
have eight. Atoms are incredibly tiny but are the basic units that
make up all matter.

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 Molecules
A molecule is a group of two or more atoms joined
together by chemical bonds. It is the smallest part of a substance
that still keeps the chemical properties of that substance. For
example, water is made of molecules where two hydrogen atoms
and one oxygen atom are bonded together. Molecules can be
made of the same kind of atoms, like oxygen (O2), or different
kinds, like water (H2O).

Types of Molecules:
 Mono-atomic molecules: made of just one atom, like
helium gas.
 Diatomic molecules: made of two atoms, either the
same (oxygen O2) or different (carbon monoxide CO).
 Poly-atomic molecules: made of more than two
atoms, like water (H2O) or carbon dioxide (CO2).
 Biological molecules: large molecules essential for
life, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Molecules can also be classified as:

 Homo-nuclear: containing atoms of the same element

(like O2).
 Hetero-nuclear: containing different kinds of atoms
(like H2O).

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 Atomic Sturcture
Atomic structure is the way an atom is built. An atom has
a tiny, dense center called the nucleus that contains protons
(positively charged particles) and neutrons (neutral particles
with no charge). Around the nucleus, there are electrons
(negatively charged particles) that move in spaces called shells
or energy levels. Protons and neutrons give most of the atom's
mass, while electrons are much lighter and move around the
nucleus. The number of protons determines what element the
atom is, and the arrangement of electrons affects how the atom
reacts with other atoms.

In simple terms:

 The nucleus is the center with protons and

neutrons.
 Electrons circle around the nucleus in layers.
 Protons are positive, electrons are negative,
and neutrons have no charge.
 The structure explains how atoms connect and
form different materials.

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Periodic Table
The periodic table is a chart that organizes all known
chemical elements in order of increasing atomic number, which
is the number of protons in an atom's nucleus. It groups
elements with similar properties into columns called groups and
arranges them in rows called periods. This organization helps
show patterns in element behaviors and properties, making it
easier to understand and predict how elements will react
chemically. The periodic table started with Dmitri Mendeleev's
work in the 19th century and is now a fundamental tool in
chemistry for studying elements and their relationships.

Periods (The Rows)

Definition:

The horizontal rows that go ACROSS the table (from left

to right). There are 7 Periods.

What they represent:

The period number tells you the number of electron shells

(energy levels) an atom has.

For example, every element in Period 3 (like Sodium Na

and Chlorine Cl) has three electron shells

The Trend:

As you move across a period, the properties of the

elements change gradually. For example, elements on the far left
are typically metals, and as you move right, they become less
metallic and eventually become non-metals.

2. Groups (The Columns)

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Definition:

The vertical columns that go DOWN the table. There are

18 Groups.

What they represent:

The group number (for most elements) tells you the

number of valence electrons (the electrons in the outermost
shell) an atom has.

The Key Rule:

All elements within the same group have very similar

chemical properties because they have the same number of
outer electrons.

For example, all elements in Group 1 (Alkali Metals, like

Lithium Li and Potassium K) react strongly with water because
they all have just one outer electron they want to give away.

Similarly, all elements in Group 18 (Noble Gases, like Neon

Ne and Argon Ar) are very nonreactive because they have a full
set of outer electrons, making them stable.

Atomic properties
Atomic properties are characteristics of atoms that describe
their physical and chemical behavior. These include:

Atomic number: The number of protons in an atom's nucleus,

which defines the element.

Atomic mass: The total number of protons and neutrons in the

nucleus.

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Electron arrangement: The way electrons are organized in
shells or energy levels around the nucleus, influencing chemical
reactivity.

Nuclear stability: Whether the nucleus is stable or

radioactive.

Chemical properties: How atoms interact and bond with

other atoms, mainly determined by electrons in the outer shell
(valence electrons).

Chemical Bonding: Chemical bonding is the process

where atoms join together to form molecules or compounds by
sharing or transferring electrons to become more stable.

Type of chemical Bonding

Ionic Bond:
This happens when one atom gives up one or more
electrons to another atom, creating positive and negative ions
that attract each other. For example, sodium loses an electron to
chlorine, forming table salt (NaCl).

Covalent Bond
: This occurs when two atoms share electrons. This type of
bond usually forms between non-metal atoms. For example, in a
water molecule (H2O), hydrogen and oxygen share electrons.

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Coordinate-Covalent Bond
(also called dative bond): This is a special type of
covalent bond where one atom donates both electrons to be
shared in the bond. For example, in ammonium ion (NH4+), the
nitrogen donates a pair of electrons to bond with a hydrogen ion.

Acid
An acid is a substance that tastes sour and can give away
hydrogen ions (protons) when dissolved in water. It changes
blue litmus paper to red, reacts with some metals to release
hydrogen gas, and has a pH less than 7. Common examples of
acids include lemon juice and vinegar.

Key simple points about acids:

 They taste sour.

 They turn blue litmus paper red.
 They react with certain metals to produce
hydrogen gas.
 Their pH is below 7 on the pH scale.
 They donate hydrogen ions in water.

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Base
A base is a substance that feels slippery or soapy and tastes
bitter. When dissolved in water, it produces hydroxide ions
(OH-) and can turn red litmus paper blue. Bases can accept
hydrogen ions from acids and neutralize them, forming water
and salts. Common examples are baking soda and soap.

Key Simple points about bases:

 They taste bitter and feel slippery.
 They turn red litmus paper blue.
 They release hydroxide ions (OH-) in water.
 Their pH is above 7.
 They accept hydrogen ions from acids.

Salt
In simple words, salts are chemical compounds made when
an acid reacts with a base. They are usually solid, crystalline,
and made up of positive ions (cations) and negative ions
(anions). Salts taste salty, like table salt, and can dissolve in
water to conduct [Link] example, cooking salt or
sodium chloride is a salt formed when sodium (a metal) reacts
with chlorine (a non-metal). Salts are found naturally in the
earth and oceans and are used in many everyday products.

In summary:
 Salts are compounds made from acids and bases.
 They consist of positive and negative ions that stick
together.
 Salts are usually solid, salty-tasting, and dissolve in
water

14
Physic
Portion

15
Energy
Energy is the ability to do work or cause change. It can
take many forms like moving things (kinetic energy), stored
energy (potential energy), heat, light, or electricity. Energy
makes things happen, such as moving your body, lighting a bulb,
or heating food. It can change from one form to another but
cannot be created or destroyed.

In simple terms:

 Energy is what allows work or change to happen.

 It can be moving energy, stored energy, heat, light, or
electrical energy.
 Energy changes forms but the total amount stays the same.

The two main types of energy are kinetic energy (energy

of motion) and potential energy (stored energy). Other
common types include thermal (heat), chemical, electrical,
nuclear, and light/radiant energy. Energy can transform from
one type to another, like a battery converting chemical energy to
electrical energy.
Main types
 Kinetic Energy: The energy an object has because it is
moving.
Example: A car driving down the road or a person running.
 Potential Energy: Stored energy that has the potential to do
work.
Example: A stretched rubber band or a book held up high.
Other types
Thermal Energy: The energy of heat, caused by the vibration
of atoms and molecules.

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Example: A fireplace or a hot stove.
Chemical Energy: Energy stored in the bonds between atoms
and molecules.
Example: The energy in food, fuel, or a battery.
Electrical Energy: Energy from the flow of charged particles
called electrons.
Example: Powering a light bulb or a computer.
Nuclear Energy: Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom.
Example: Nuclear power plants or the sun.
Light/Radiant Energy: Energy that travels as light waves,
including visible light and other forms of electromagnetic
radiation.
Example: Sunlight or the light from a lamp.
Sound Energy: Energy produced by vibrations that travel
through the air.
Example: Music from a speaker or a person talking

Law of Conservation of Energy

This law state that the total energy of an isolated system
remain constant energy can neither be created nor destroyed
Energy can be converted from one form into another form but
LawType equation here. in One form = Gain in another form

Motion

Simple Definition:

The simple act of an object changing its position over a

period of time. Everything in the universe, from planets to
subatomic particles, is in motion.

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Mathematical Form

: Motion itself is a concept, but it is mathematically described

by relating position to time.

Change in Position = f (Time)

Displacement

Simple Definition:

The shortest, straight-line distance from where an object

started to where it ended, including the direction. It is not the
total distance traveled.

Analogy: If you walk 5 steps forward and 5 steps back,

your total distance is 10 steps, but your displacement is zero.

Mathematical Form:

△ � = ������ _ ��������

Where the ������ final position and �������� is the initial

position. (The arrow over the symbol indicates a vector,
meaning it has direction).

Velocity
Simple Definition:

The rate at which displacement changes over time. It is

speed plus direction.

Mathematical Form (Average Velocity)

△x
Vavg =
△t

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Uniform Velocity
Definition:
Having no change in direction is called as uniform velocity.

Non-Uniform Velocity
Defination:
Having change in magnitude and also in its direction is
called non-uniform velocity

Acceleration (a)

Simple Definition:

The rate at which velocity changes over time. This

means an object is accelerating if it is speeding up, slowing
down, or changing direction.

Mathematical Form (Average Acceleration):

change in velocity △v vfinal _ vinital
���� = = =
time △t △t
Gravity (F g or g)

Simple Definition:

A force of attraction that exists between any two objects

that have mass. On Earth, it is the force that pulls everything
toward the planet's center.

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 Mathematical Forms:

The Force of Gravity (F g) (Newton's Universal Law):

This calculates the attractive force between any two masses, m1
and m2 separated by distance r
m1 m2
F=G
r2
(G is the universal gravitational constant)

Acceleration due to Gravity (g):

This is the constant rate at which objects accelerate when

falling freely near the Earth's surface (approximately 9.8 m/s2.
For a specific planet (mass M) and radius (R):
GM
g= 2
R

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 Laws of Motion
The Laws of Motion are three simple, fundamental rules
formulated by Sir Isaac Newton that explain how objects move
and how forces affect them.

They form the foundation of classical physics and describe

the relationship between an object, its mass, and the forces
acting on it.

1. First Law: The Law of Inertia (Things are lazy)

Simple Definition:

An object will keep doing what it is currently doing

(staying still or moving at a constant speed in a straight line)
unless an unbalanced force (a push or a pull that isn't canceled
out) acts on [Link]: This tendency to resist changes in
motion is called [Link]: When a car brakes suddenly,
your body keeps moving forward because of its inertia, which is
why you need a seat-belt (the force) to stop you.

Mathematical Form (State of Equilibrium):

Fne t= 0
(The net force on the object is zero when velocity is
constant or zero.)

2. Second Law: The Law of Force and Acceleration

(The more force, the faster it goes)

Simple Definition: The acceleration (speeding up,

slowing down, or changing direction) of an object depends on
two things:

The Force applied (more push = more acceleration).

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 The object's Mass (heavier objects require a bigger push to
accelerate the same amount).

Mathematical Form:

F = ma
F is the Net Force (in Newtons, N)

m is the Mass of the object (in kilograms, kg)

a is the Acceleration (in m/s2)

This equation shows that the force and the resulting

acceleration always point in the same direction.

Third Law: The Law of Action and Reaction (Every push

gets a push back)

Simple Definition:

For every force (Action), there is an equal and opposite force

(Reaction). Forces always come in pairs.

Example: When you jump off a small boat onto a dock,

your feet push the boat backward (Action), and the boat pushes
your feet, and thus your body, forward (Reaction).

Mathematical Form (For two objects, A and B):

FAB = - FBA

FAB is the force object A exerts on object B.

FBA is the force object B exerts on object A (the reaction force).

The negative sign means the forces are in opposite directions.

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Biology
portion

23
The difference between living things and non-living things
comes down to whether something has life and can perform
certain essential activities on its own.

Living Things

Living things (also called organisms) are things that are alive.
They have a complex structure and can perform the basic
functions necessary for life.

Key Characteristics:

Need Food and Energy: They must take in energy (like food or
sunlight) to survive and grow.

Grow and Develop: They increase in size and change over time
(e.g., a baby grows into an adult, a seed grows into a plant).

Move: They can move parts of their body or move from one
place to another on their own (e.g., animals walking, plants
bending toward the sun).

Breathe (Respiration): They take in gases (like oxygen) and

give out others (like carbon dioxide) to release energy from food.

Reproduce: They can make new organisms like themselves

(e.g., a cat has kittens, a plant makes seeds).

Respond to Stimuli (Sensitivity): They can sense changes in

their surroundings and react to them (e.g., pulling your hand
away from something hot).

Examples: Humans, animals, plants, insects, bacteria.

Non-Living Things

Non-living things are things that are not alive and do not have
the ability to perform the essential life functions on their own.

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Key Characteristics:

Do Not Need Food or Energy: They don't eat or need energy to

stay as they are.

Do Not Grow or Develop: They don't grow from within; they

may only get bigger if material is added to the outside (like a
pile of sand getting bigger).

Do Not Move on Their Own: They only move if an external

force pushes or pulls them (e.g., a car moves when the engine is
on, or a rock moves when kicked).

Do Not Reproduce: They cannot make new things like

themselves.

Do Not Respond to Stimuli: They don't react to changes in the

environment in a biological way.

Examples: Rocks, water, air, chairs, cars, books, mountains.

Cell
The Building Block

A cell is the tiny, essential piece that everything living is

built from. Just as a brick is the basic unit of a wall, a cell is the
basic unit of a plant, an animal, or a human. Your entire body is
made of trillions of these microscopic units.

The Cell as a Tiny Factory

For something so small, a cell does all the jobs necessary for life.
A helpful analogy is to see a cell as a miniature factory that is
protected by a wall and has its own control center and power
supply.

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 The Wall (Cell Membrane): The outer layer that acts like a
security gate. It controls what materials (like food) get to
come in and what waste gets sent out.
 The Brain (Nucleus): The central control room that holds
the DNA (the cell's blueprints or instructions) and directs all
the factory's activities.
 The Power Plant (Mitochondria): The part that converts
energy from food into a form the cell can use to run the
whole operation.

Cell theory
The Cell Theory is a fundamental idea in biology that explains
what living things are made of and how they grow.

In simple terms, it has three main points:

 All living things are made of one or more cells.

 Think of the cell as the basic building block of life.
Everything that is alive—from tiny bacteria to huge trees and
humans—is composed of cells.
 The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in all
living things.
 It's the smallest part of an organism that can still be
considered alive. Cells carry out all the necessary life
processes, like getting energy and reproducing.
 All cells arise from per existing cells.
 New cells don't appear out of thin air (spontaneously); they
are created when existing cells divide. This is how
organisms grow and repair damaged tissue.

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Structure of cell
The structure of a cell can be explained by dividing it into three
main areas, like a tiny, specialized city. Every cell, whether
from a plant, animal, or bacteria, has these core components:

1. The Outer Boundary: The City Wall and Gates

This is the layer that separates the cell from the outside world.

Cell Membrane (or Plasma Membrane):

This is like the outer skin or the city gate. It's a thin,
flexible barrier that controls what enters and leaves the cell,
making sure good things (like nutrients) get in and bad things
(like waste) get out.

Cell Wall (in Plants and Bacteria):

This is an extra, rigid layer outside the cell membrane,

only found in plants, fungi, and bacteria. It acts like a
supportive brick wall to give the cell a strong, fixed shape and
protection.

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2. The Interior Fluid: The City Ground

The space inside the cell membrane is filled with a watery, jelly-
like substance.

Cytoplasm (or Cytosol): This is the jelly-like fluid that fills the
cell and holds everything in place. It's where many of the cell's
chemical reactions happen.

3. Internal Machinery: The Specialized Buildings

(Organelles)

These are the small, membrane-bound structures floating in the

cytoplasm, each with a specific job. Think of them as the cell's
organs (which is where the name "organelle" comes from).

Nucleus (The Control Center): Found in animal, plant, and

fungal cells, this is the brain or city hall. It contains the cell's
DNA (genetic instructions) and controls all the cell's activities,
like growth and reproduction.

Mitochondria (The Powerhouse): These are the power plants

of the cell. They take food (like sugar) and convert it into
energy (ATP) that the cell can use to do work.

Ribosomes (The Factories): These are tiny workers that build

proteins. Proteins are essential for almost every structure and
function in the cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) and Golgi Apparatus (The

Transport System):

The ER is a network of membranes that helps build and move

proteins and fats.

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The Golgi is like the post office, packaging up the proteins and
fats made by the ER and sending them to their correct
destination inside or outside the cell.

Chloroplasts (The Kitchen, only in Plants):

These are the food-making factories in plant cells. They

capture sunlight to make food through a process called
photosynthesis.

Vacuole (The Storage Unit):

This is a storage sac for water, food, and waste. It is

typically very large in plant cells, helping the plant maintain its
shape.

Difference Between Plant and Animal Cell

Plant cells and animal cells are both basic building blocks of life
but differ in key structures that affect their shape, food-making,
and storage. Plant cells have extras like a stiff wall and green
parts for sunlight energy, while animal cells are more flexible
without them. These differences help plants stand tall and make
food, but animals move and eat others.

Key Differences

Feature Plant Cell Animal Cell

Yes, made of cellulose for shape and
Cell Wall No, just a soft membrane
protection
Shape Fixed, box-like Round or irregular
Chloroplasts Yes, for making food from sunlight No
One large central one for storage and
Vacuole Many small ones
water
Centrioles Usually absent Present for cell division
Common for breaking down
Lysosomes Rare or absent
waste

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Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms
Unicellular Organisms (Single-Celled)

The word "uni" means one.

Definition:

These organisms are made up of just one single cell.

Multicellular Organisms (Many-Celled)

The word "multi" means many.

Definition:

These organisms are made up of many, many cells

working together.

Bacteria (The Single-Celled Workers)

Structure: Bacteria are full, single-celled organisms with all the

machinery they need to live on their own. They are the smallest, simplest
type of cell (called a prokaryote).

Life & Reproduction: They are definitely alive. They reproduce quickly
by simply splitting into two identical copies (binary fission)

Size: They are small, but still the largest of the three (10 to 100 times
bigger than a virus).

Role: Most bacteria are harmless or helpful (like the bacteria in your gut
that help you digest food). Only a small percentage are "bad" and cause
diseases like Strep Throat or food poisoning.

Treatment: Bacterial infections are treated with antibiotics.

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Viruses (The Hijackers)
Structure: Viruses are not full cells and are often not considered truly
"alive." They are just a piece of genetic instruction (DNA or RNA)
wrapped in a protein coat.

Life & Reproduction: They cannot reproduce on their own. They are
like tiny, high-tech parasites. They must hijack a living cell (your cell)
and force it to stop doing its own job and start making copies of the virus
instead.

Size: They are the smallest of the three—so small you need a very
powerful electron microscope to see them.

Role: Viruses are always harmful when they infect us, causing diseases
like the Common Cold, Flu, or Chickenpox.

Treatment: Antibiotics do not work on viruses. Viral infections are

sometimes treated with antiviral drugs or prevented with vaccines.

Fungi (The Decomposes)

Structure: Fungi are more complex than bacteria, with a nucleus and
internal structures (called eukaryotes). They can be single-celled (like
yeast) or multicellular (like mold and mushrooms).

Life & Reproduction: They are definitely alive. They get their food by
secreting enzymes onto surfaces (like skin, soil, or food) and absorbing
the broken-down material.

Size: Individual fungal cells are often larger than bacteria, and
multicellular fungi (mushrooms) are clearly visible.

Role: Most fungi are harmless decomposes (breaking down dead matter
in the soil) or helpful (like yeast for baking). They mainly cause
infections on the skin or lungs, like Athlete's Foot or Ringworm.

Treatment: Fungal infections are treated with anti-fungal medications.

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Hereditary (Inherited)
These traits are part of your genetic blueprint that you get from
your parents.

Simple Explanation: A hereditary trait is one that is coded in

your genes (DNA) and can be passed down from one
generation to the next. You are born with the potential or
certainty of having this trait.

Source: Your parents' egg and sperm cells.

Examples of Traits:

Physical: Your natural eye color (blue, brown, green), hair type
(straight, curly), dimples, and blood type.

Conditions (Hereditary Diseases): Conditions caused by gene

or chromosome defects that are passed down, such as Cystic
Fibrosis, Sickle Cell Disease, and some forms of color
blindness.

Non-Hereditary (Acquired)

These traits develop after birth and are usually due to lifestyle,
environment, or accidents.

Simple Explanation: A non-hereditary trait is one that you

develop during your lifetime. It is not coded in the DNA you
received from your parents, so you cannot pass it to your
children.

Source: Environmental factors, lifestyle choices, injury, or

disease (like an infection).

32
Examples of Traits:

Physical/Skills: Getting a tattoo, developing large muscles

from working out, a scar from an injury, or learning a specific
language.

Conditions (Acquired Diseases): Diseases caused by external

factors like infectious diseases (e.g., the Flu or a cold), or
lifestyle diseases that are not purely genetic (e.g., Type 2
Diabetes caused by poor diet and inactivity).

33
Chapter
NO 5
34
Nanotechnoogy

Introduction
Nanotechnology is the science of working with super tiny things,
like atoms and molecules, at a scale of 1 to 100 nanometre—one
billionth of a meter. At this size, materials act differently,
becoming stronger, more reactive, or better at conducting
electricity. It lets scientists build new tools and products by
controlling matter like building with Lego bricks.

Application
 Medicine: Targets drugs to cancer cells, better vaccines, and
quick disease tests.
 Electronics: Smaller chips, flexible screens, and longer-
lasting batteries.
 Energy: Improved solar panels, fuel cells, and efficient
batteries.
 Environment: Cleans water, air filters, and reduces
pollution.
 Daily Items: Stain-proof clothes, stronger materials, and
antibacterial cleaners.

Biotechnology
Introduction
Biotechnology is the use of living things like cells, bacteria, or
plants to make useful products or solve problems, often by
changing their genes. It combines biology with technology to
create things like medicines, better crops, or fuels. People have
used simple forms for thousands of years, like making bread or
cheese with yeast.

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Key Applications

 Medicine: Makes insulin for diabetes or vaccines using

modified bacteria.
 Agriculture: Creates pest-resistant plants for more food.
 Industry: Produces bio-fuels or eco-friendly chemicals.
 Environment: Helps clean water or soil with special
microbes.

Bioinformatics
Introduction
Bio-informatics uses computers and math to study big biological
data like DNA and proteins in simple ways. It combines biology
with tech to store, analyze, and understand life info quickly.
This field grew fast from projects like mapping human genes.​

Key Applications

 Genomics: Analyzes DNA/RNA sequences to find genes

and mutations for diseases like cancer.
 Drug Design: Helps create new medicines by predicting
protein shapes and interactions.
 Personalized Medicine: Matches treatments to a person's
genes for better health care.
 Evolution Studies: Compares species' data to trace how life
changes over time.

Greenhouse Effect
The Greenhouse Effect is the way Earth's atmosphere naturally
traps some of the Sun's heat, keeping our planet warm enough
for life to exist.

Imagine the Earth is wrapped in a cozy blanket made of special

gases.

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How It Works

 Sunlight In: Energy from the Sun (in the form of light)
passes easily through the atmosphere and hits the Earth's
surface.
 Heat Radiated: The Earth's surface absorbs this energy and
then gives it off as heat (infrared radiation).
 Heat Trapped: This heat tries to escape back into space, but
the special gases in the atmosphere, called greenhouse gases
(like carbon dioxide and methane), absorb and re-emit a lot
of it.
 Earth Stays Warm: This process effectively traps the heat
near the Earth's surface, just like glass traps heat inside a
gardener's greenhouse. Without this natural process, the
Earth would be an incredibly cold, frozen place where life
couldn't survive.

The Problem (The Enhanced Effect)

 The issue we face today is the Enhanced Greenhouse
Effect.
 Humans are adding extra greenhouse gases to the
atmosphere—mainly by burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
for electricity, transportation, and industry.

 This is making the "blanket" thicker, causing more heat to

be trapped.
 This extra trapped heat is causing the planet's average
temperature to rise, which is known as global warming and
leads to climate change.

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Pollution
Pollution is the act of putting something harmful or unwanted
into the environment, which negatively affects living things and
nature.

Types of pollution
The types of pollution are usually classified by where the
contamination occurs, or what kind of energy is released.

1. Air Pollution (Dirty Air)

This is the contamination of the atmosphere with harmful gases

and tiny particles.

 Simple Explanation: Releasing smoke, gases (like carbon

dioxide from cars and factories), and fine dust into the air we
breathe.
 Source: Vehicle exhaust, power plants burning fossil fuels,
and industrial emissions.
 Impact: Causes breathing problems (like asthma) and
contributes to global issues like smog and climate change.

2. Water Pollution (Dirty Water)

This is the contamination of bodies of water like rivers, lakes,

and oceans.

 Simple Explanation: Dumping sewage, chemical waste, oil,

or trash (especially plastic) into water sources.
 Source: Industrial discharge, agricultural runoff (fertilizers
and pesticides), and untreated sewage.
 Impact: Kills fish and other aquatic life, and makes the
water unsafe for humans to drink or use.

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3. Land/Soil Pollution (Dirty Ground)

 This is the contamination of the Earth's surface and soil.

 Simple Explanation: Putting toxic chemicals, excessive
garbage, or hazardous waste directly onto or into the ground.
 Source: Landfills, illegal dumping, excessive use of
chemical fertilizers and pesticides on farms, and industrial
spills.
 Impact: Reduces the ability of the soil to grow food (fertility)
and can poison crops and groundwater.

4. Noise Pollution?

Most noise pollution comes from human activity in modern

society. Common sources include:

 Transportation: The most widespread source, including

loud road traffic (cars, trucks, motorcycles, honking),
airplanes, and trains.
 Industrial and Construction Noise: Loud machinery,
drilling, heavy equipment, and generators used at factories
and building sites.
 Public and Domestic Sources: Loud music from concerts
or parties, leaf blowers, vacuum cleaners, and household
appliances.

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Global warming
Global warming is the slow rise in Earth's temperature due to
extra heat-trapping gases in the air, mostly from human actions
like burning coal, oil, and gas. These gases act like a blanket,
keeping heat from escaping to space. Natural events like
volcanoes add a little, but people cause most of it.

Main Causes

 Burning fossil fuels in cars, factories, and power plants

releases carbon dioxide (CO2).
 Cutting forests removes trees that absorb CO2, plus farming
and waste create methane.
 Other gases from fridges, sprays, and rice fields trap more
heat.

Key Impacts

 Weather gets wilder with stronger storms, floods, and

droughts hurting farms and homes.
 Seas rise as ice melts, flooding coasts and killing sea life.
 Animals lose homes, diseases spread, and food shortages
grow worldwide.