Q1 A plant is kept in an atmosphere with normal light intensity but no

carbon dioxide. Explain why reduced NADP accumulates in the

chloroplasts under these conditions.

In the absence of CO₂, the Calvin cycle cannot proceed because rubisco cannot fix carbon. As
a result, GP cannot be reduced to TP, and reduced NADP and ATP from the light-dependent
stage are not used. The light reactions continue to generate electrons and reduce NADP⁺,
but since the Calvin cycle is halted, NADP⁺ is no longer regenerated. This causes an
accumulation of reduced NADP and eventually limits non-cyclic photophosphorylation.

Q3

Two pigment extracts, one from a green leaf and one from a red leaf, are
analyzed using chromatography. Explain how Rf values could help
determine whether both leaves carry out photosynthesis at similar rates.

If both extracts show similar Rf values for chlorophyll a and b, this indicates both possess the
same primary photosynthetic pigments. The presence of carotenoids or xanthophylls with
characteristic Rf values would show accessory pigments capable of absorbing additional
wavelengths. If both leaves contain comparable pigment profiles (same pigments and
proportions), their potential to absorb light and drive photosynthesis would be similar,
suggesting comparable photosynthetic rates despite color differences.

Q4.

The absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a shows two main peaks, whereas

the action spectrum of photosynthesis shows several. Explain what this
suggests about the roles of accessory pigments in photosynthesis.

Answer:

The broader action spectrum compared to chlorophyll a’s absorption peaks shows that other
pigments (chlorophyll b, carotene, xanthophyll) absorb light at additional wavelengths and
transfer that energy to chlorophyll a. This complementary absorption widens the usable
range of the visible spectrum and increases overall light capture efficiency for
photosynthesis.

An experiment using isolated chloroplasts and DCPIP is carried out under

two different light wavelengths: red and green. Predict and explain the
relative rates of DCPIP reduction observed.
The rate of DCPIP reduction will be faster under red light and slower under green light.
Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light effectively but reflects green light, so under green
light, fewer photons excite electrons in chlorophyll molecules. This reduces the rate of
photoreduction of DCPIP, which acts as an artificial electron acceptor replacing NADP⁺.

Q8.

A mutation in a plant prevents the enzyme rubisco from functioning

efficiently. Describe and explain the likely changes to concentrations of
RuBP, GP, and TP in the chloroplast stroma.

Rubisco catalyzes the fixation of CO₂ to RuBP. If rubisco is ineffective, CO₂ fixation slows or
stops. RuBP accumulates because it is not being used, while GP and TP levels fall since less
GP is formed and therefore less TP is produced. The lack of TP also limits regeneration of
RuBP through the Calvin cycle, gradually disturbing the entire cycle’s balance.

Q9.

When light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis rises sharply but
then plateaus. Explain why this plateau occurs, referring to limiting factors
and specific biochemical steps.

Initially, increased light intensity raises the rate of ATP and reduced NADP formation,
accelerating the Calvin cycle. Beyond a certain point, another factor—typically CO₂
concentration or temperature—becomes limiting. At the plateau, enzymes such as rubisco
cannot fix CO₂ faster or the supply of CO₂ is insufficient, so even though more light is
available, GP cannot be converted into TP any faster.

Q10.

A student investigates photosynthesis by measuring oxygen release from

an aquatic plant. Describe two improvements the student could make to
ensure that the results provide valid evidence for the effect of light
intensity on photosynthetic rate.

First, maintain constant temperature and CO₂ concentration throughout to ensure light
intensity is the only variable affecting rate. Second, allow the plant to equilibrate at each
light level before measuring oxygen, to avoid transient changes. Additional controls include
using the same distance/light source geometry and repeating trials for reliability.
Q13.

A mutation causes a defect in a chloroplast membrane protein responsible

for exporting triose phosphate (TP) to the cytoplasm. Over time, starch
granules in the chloroplast become abnormally large.

Explain why this occurs and how it affects the balance of photosynthetic
metabolism.

When TP cannot be exported, it accumulates in the stroma, driving its conversion into starch
for temporary storage. Over time, this starch buildup restricts space within the stroma,
reducing enzyme mobility and Calvin cycle efficiency. With continued light reactions, NADP⁺
regeneration slows as the Calvin cycle is backed up, causing feedback inhibition on non-cyclic
photophosphorylation. Thus, the block in TP export disrupts the coordination between light-
dependent and light-independent processes, eventually lowering photosynthetic rate.

Q14.

A graph shows the rate of photosynthesis increasing with temperature up

to 35°C, then sharply decreasing. A student concludes that “temperature
directly affects chlorophyll’s ability to absorb light.”

Evaluate this conclusion using your knowledge of photosynthesis.

The student’s conclusion is incorrect. Chlorophyll absorption is largely temperature-

independent; its function depends on photon energy, not kinetic energy. The observed
temperature dependence reflects enzyme-catalyzed steps in the Calvin cycle, particularly
rubisco and enzymes involved in GP → TP conversion. The sharp fall beyond 35°C indicates
enzyme denaturation or decreased CO₂ solubility, not pigment malfunction. Therefore, the
conclusion confuses a biochemical limitation with a photochemical one.

Q15.

During an investigation, a researcher finds that plants treated with an

herbicide show high rates of photolysis but low ATP and NADPH levels. The
herbicide is known to bind to the Qb site of Photosystem II.

Explain how this herbicide disrupts photosynthesis and predict its

downstream effects on the Calvin cycle.

Binding to the Qb site blocks the transfer of electrons from PSII to the plastoquinone pool,
halting electron flow through the chain. Water continues to be split, producing O₂ and
protons, but because electrons cannot move beyond PSII, ATP and NADPH synthesis stop.
The Calvin cycle stalls due to a lack of these energy carriers — GP cannot be reduced to TP,
and RuBP cannot be regenerated. Eventually, reduced NADP accumulates and feedback
inhibits photolysis, collapsing the entire photosynthetic process.

The renal artery delivers oxygenated blood containing urea and other
metabolic wastes from the aorta to the kidney.
Inside the kidney, the renal artery branches into smaller arteries which
further divide into afferent arterioles — each afferent arteriole supplies a
glomerulus within a Bowman’s capsule in the cortex.

Within the glomerulus, ultrafiltration occurs — high hydrostatic pressure

forces small molecules (like water, glucose, ions, urea) out of the blood
into the Bowman’s capsule.

Blood then leaves the glomerulus via a narrower efferent arteriole, which
maintains high pressure in the glomerulus.

The efferent arteriole branches further into a network of capillaries

surrounding the proximal and distal convoluted tubules and the loop of
Henle, allowing reabsorption and exchange of substances.

These capillaries then reunite into venules that merge to form the renal
vein, which carries deoxygenated, filtered blood back to the inferior vena
cava.

How is the effect of glucagon amplified inside liver cells after it binds to its
receptor?

When glucagon binds to its cell surface receptor on a liver cell, it causes a conformational
change that activates a G-protein on the inner membrane.
The G-protein then activates adenylyl cyclase, which converts many molecules of ATP into
cyclic AMP (cAMP).

Each cAMP molecule activates protein kinase A, which phosphorylates and activates many
other enzymes in the pathway.

This enzyme cascade means that each step activates many molecules of the next enzyme,
amplifying the original glucagon signal and resulting in a large increase in glycogen
breakdown (glycogenolysis) and glucose release into the blood.

The diagram below shows a graph of photosynthetic rate against

temperature for two plant species, A and B.

Species A peaks at 25°C, species B peaks at 35°C.

Explain why these two species show different temperature optima.

Each species has enzymes adapted to its habitat temperature. Rubisco and Calvin cycle
enzymes in species B have higher thermal stability, maintaining shape at higher
temperatures. In species A, enzymes denature sooner. Both species’ light reactions are less
temperature-sensitive, but the Calvin cycle determines the rate-limiting step.

Explain why photophosphorylation is described as a chemiosmotic

process.

ATP synthesis depends on the movement of protons across a membrane. Light energy drives
electrons along the transport chain, releasing energy to pump protons into the thylakoid
space. Their diffusion back through ATP synthase drives ATP formation — this coupling of
proton movement (chemiosmosis) and phosphorylation defines photophosphorylation.

Suggest how the pH of the stroma changes during the light-dependent

stage and explain the importance of this change for the Calvin cycle.

During illumination, protons are pumped into the thylakoid space, reducing proton
concentration in the stroma and raising its pH. The more alkaline stroma activates Calvin
cycle enzymes such as rubisco, optimizing conditions for CO₂ fixation.
Because only the nodes depolarise, far fewer ions need to be pumped
back by the sodium–potassium pump afterwards, reducing energy
demand and allowing much faster conduction. Myelinated neurones
therefore transmit impulses up to 100 m s⁻¹ or more, compared to around
1 m s⁻¹ in unmyelinated fibres.

Compared to myelinated neurones, this continuous conduction uses more

energy (more membrane to repolarise), is less efficient, and is much
slower because no saltatory jumping occurs.

In plants, action potentials are slower and last longer because their
signalling system is fundamentally weaker and less specialised than
animal neurons. Plants don’t have dedicated nerve cells, insulated axons,
or fast voltage-gated sodium channels. Instead, they rely on ion
movements through ordinary cells — mainly calcium and potassium — so
the depolarisation spreads sluggishly from cell to cell. The absence of
myelin and specialised synapses makes the signal drift rather than shoot,
which naturally prolongs the duration of the action potential and
dramatically slows its speed.

In barley seeds, it has been shown that gibberellin does this by regulating
genes involved in the synthesis of amylase, causing an increase in the
transcription of mRNA coding for amylase

If you think about it critically, the embryo is basically outsourcing

digestion: it doesn’t have the machinery or the space to digest enough
food on its own, so GA forces the surrounding tissue to supply it. If GA
were not produced, germination would fail because the seed would have
no usable energy.

So the chain is:

Water uptake → embryo produces gibberellin → GA reaches aleurone layer

GA triggers enzyme production (α-amylase, proteases, etc.)

Enzymes break down starch and proteins in the endosperm

Soluble sugars and amino acids fuel the embryo’s growth

In desert mammals, the long loop of Henle helps conserve water by

allowing sodium and chloride ions to be absorbed from the filtrate in the
ascending limb. This creates a steep concentration gradient in the
medulla, with the concentration of ions increasing deeper into the
medulla, so more water can be reabsorbed from the filtrate, helping the
animal retain water.

Glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) from the Calvin cycle is converted to GALP

using ATP and reduced NADP. Some GALP is then converted into hexose
sugar, α-glucose. The α-glucose molecules are joined by condensation
reactions, forming glycosidic bonds. These include 1–4 bonds to form
amylose (a straight-chain polymer) and 1–4 and 1–6 bonds to form
amylopectin, which is branched.

Describe the role of the human nervous system in returning a slightly

raised body temperature to its normal level.

Thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect the increase in core blood

temperature. This activates the heat loss centre, which sends signals via
the autonomic nervous system. Nerve impulses travel down motor
neurones to effectors, such as sweat glands and skin arterioles. As a
result, sweating increases and vasodilation occurs, leading to greater heat
loss and returning body temperature to normal.

In animal cells:
The cell surface membrane pinches inwards creating a cleavage furrow in
the middle of the cell which contracts, dividing the cytoplasm in half

In plant cells:

Vesicles from the Golgi apparatus gather along the equator of the spindle
(the cell plate). The vesicles merge with each other to form the new cell
surface membrane. Layers of cellulose are laid down to form the primary
and secondary walls of the cell

→Why is meiosis important for producing variation?

Meiosis is important for producing variation because it shuffles the genetic

material in a way that leads to the formation of new combinations of
alleles, or different versions of genes. This variation contributes to the
diversity of traits found in a population and is an important mechanism for
the evolution of species.

→How does meiosis lead to the production of new combinations of alleles?

Meiosis leads to the production of new combinations of alleles through the

process of genetic recombination. This occurs when homologous
chromosomes, or chromosomes that carry the same genes, pair up and
exchange segments of DNA during the first meiotic division. The result is
the production of daughter cells with a unique combination of alleles.

→What is the difference between mitosis and meiosis?

Mitosis and meiosis are both types of cell division, but they differ in
several important ways. Mitosis is the type of cell division that produces
identical daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes as the
parent cell. In contrast, meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half
and produces daughter cells with unique combinations of alleles.

→What are the stages of meiosis?

Meiosis is divided into two main stages: meiosis I and meiosis II. Meiosis I
is characterized by the separation of homologous chromosomes, while
meiosis II is characterized by the separation of sister chromatids, or
identical copies of a chromosome. The result is the production of four
genetically distinct daughter cells.

→How does meiosis contribute to evolution?

Meiosis contributes to evolution by producing genetic variation that can

be selected by natural selection. This variation allows species to adapt to
changing environments and helps to drive the process of evolution over
time.

→What happens if meiosis goes wrong?

If meiosis goes wrong, it can lead to a variety of genetic disorders,

including Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, and Klinefelter syndrome.
These disorders are caused by the presence of an extra or missing
chromosome, which can result from errors during meiosis.

The pregnancy testing stick detects the hormone human chorionic

gonadotrophin (hCG). This hormone is small, so it can pass from the blood
into the filtrate at Bowman’s capsule and is therefore present in the urine.
The stick contains immobilised monoclonal antibodies on its surface,
which have a marker or dye attached to them. The hCG hormone has a
complementary shape to the antibody and binds to it if present in the
urine. This binding triggers the appearance of a colour, so a coloured line
becomes visible on the stick, indicating pregnancy.

The nervous and endocrine systems work together through the

hypothalamus to increase water reabsorption from the collecting duct.
Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus, which is part of the nervous system,
detect a low water potential in the blood. In response, the hypothalamus
produces ADH, which is released from the posterior pituitary gland, an
extension of the hypothalamus, into the blood as part of the endocrine
system. ADH travels to the kidneys and binds to specific receptors on the
cell membranes of the collecting duct cells. This activates a cAMP second-
messenger system, causing aquaporins to be inserted into the membrane
and increasing its permeability to water. As a result, more water is
reabsorbed from the collecting duct into the blood. When blood water
potential returns to normal, ADH release is reduced by negative feedback.

In both allopatric and sympatric cases, the end result is the same: two (or
more) populations that no longer exchange genes and are therefore
distinct biological species. Genetic isolation is the critical first step; natural
selection, mutation, and drift then drive the observable differences we see
between species today.

Why plasmids are ideal as vectors for gene transfer

Small size — Typically 2–10 kilobases (kb) for basic cloning vectors (much
smaller than the bacterial chromosome, which is ~4.6 Mb in E. coli). This
makes them easy to manipulate, purify in large quantities, and introduce
into cells.

Autonomous replication — They do not integrate into the host genome

(unless designed to), so they remain as independent molecules that are
copied every time the host cell divides.

High copy number — Many engineered plasmids exist in dozens to

hundreds of copies per cell, leading to massive amplification of the
inserted gene.

Stability — Their circular structure makes them more resistant to

degradation by host nucleases compared to linear DNA.

1. Isolation of Human Gene

The gene for human insulin is obtained from pancreatic β-cells. The mRNA
coding for insulin is first extracted, as it represents the expressed gene
without introns.

Reverse transcriptase is then used to synthesise complementary DNA

(cDNA) from the mRNA template, producing a DNA copy of the insulin
gene.

This cDNA is subsequently treated with a restriction endonuclease, which

cuts the DNA at specific recognition sites to produce sticky ends. These
sticky ends are necessary for insertion into the vector.
The insulin gene may also be amplified using PCR to produce many
copies.

2. Preparation of Vector

A plasmid is isolated from a bacterium such as E. coli and used as a

vector. The plasmid is cut open using the same restriction endonuclease
used on the insulin cDNA.

This ensures that the plasmid also has complementary sticky ends.

The plasmid contains key features such as an origin of replication and a

selectable marker gene (e.g. antibiotic resistance), which are essential for
replication and identification of transformed cells.

3. Formation of Recombinant DNA, Identification and Cloning

The insulin gene is inserted into the plasmid by complementary base

pairing between sticky ends. DNA ligase then joins the sugar-phosphate
backbone, forming recombinant DNA.

The recombinant plasmid is introduced into bacterial cells by

transformation (e.g. heat shock).

To identify successful transformants, bacteria are grown on agar

containing an antibiotic. Only those cells that have taken up the plasmid
will survive.

Further screening (e.g. marker genes such as fluorescence) ensures that

the plasmid contains the insulin gene.

The selected bacteria are then cultured in large fermenters, where they
clone themselves and express the insulin gene. The insulin produced is
extracted and purified for medical use.

Today's techniques (e.g., microarrays and gene sequencing) to analyse

genes and proteins generate enormous quantities of data

The data being collected includes. The sequences of genomes

When genes are expressed during an organism’s life

The structure (amino acid sequence) and functions of proteins

The analysis of this data is called bioinformatics

The main benefits include the ability to compare sequences between
different organisms, which helps identify evolutionary relationships,
conserved genes, and genetic variations linked to diseases. By comparing
an unknown DNA or protein sequence with those already stored, scientists
can predict the function of genes or proteins and determine protein
structure and shape. These databases also support applications in genetic
engineering, drug design, and medical research by enabling the
identification of useful genes

Insulin (for diabetes):

Recombinant human insulin replaces insulin previously extracted from
pigs or cows. The key advantage is reduced immune response because
the amino acid sequence matches human insulin exactly, so allergic
reactions are rare. It provides an unlimited supply, is cheaper long-term.

Factor VIII (for haemophilia A):

Previously obtained from donated human blood plasma, which carried a
risk of transmitting infections such as HIV or hepatitis. It eliminates
infection risk, raises fewer ethical concerns (no human blood used) and
provides a safe, reliable supply for lifelong treatment.

Adenosine deaminase (ADA) (used to treat ADA-deficient severe combined

immunodeficiency – ADA-SCID): ADA is the enzyme missing in this genetic
disorder. Recombinant ADA allows enzyme replacement therapy,
restoring immune function without needing a bone marrow transplant. The
advantage is that it is targeted and safer, especially for patients who
lack suitable donors.

Advantages of genetic screening (examples: breast cancer

(BRCA1 and BRCA2), Huntington’s disease and cystic fibrosis)

Genetic screening analyses an individual’s DNA (from blood, saliva,

chorionic villus sampling, amniocentesis or pre-implantation embryos) to
detect specific disease-causing alleles.

Breast cancer (BRCA1 and BRCA2):

Screening identifies individuals at high genetic risk of breast and ovarian
cancer. It allows Preventive measures.
 Earlier and more frequent screening (e.g. MRI/mammography from a
younger age) for early detection.

Participation in clinical trials or research. Informed family planning (e.g.

sharing results with relatives).

Huntington’s disease:
This is a incurable genetic disorder. Screening allows individuals to know
their genetic status before symptoms appear. The main advantage is
informed life planning, including decisions about career, finances, and
whether to have children. It also allows prenatal or preimplantation
genetic diagnosis.

Cystic fibrosis (CF):

Screening can identify carriers of the recessive allele. The advantage is
that couples can assess the risk of having affected children. This
supports genetic counselling, enabling informed reproductive decisions
such as IVF with screening or prenatal testing.