BIOLOGY

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Be careful not to use the terms energy and
ATP interchangeably. Energy is the capacity
or power to do work. ATP is a molecule
which stores (chemical potential) energy
and carries it to places in the cell that need
energy to do work. For example, it is correct
to say that respiration 'produces ATP', but
you should never say that it 'produces
energy'.
Q2
A plant is kept in an atmosphere with normal light intensity but
no carbon dioxide. Explain why reduced NADP accumulates in
the chloroplasts under these conditions.

Answer:
In the absence of CO₂, the Calvin cycle cannot proceed because
rubisco cannot fix carbon. As a result, GP cannot be reduced to
TP, and reduced NADP and ATP from the light-dependent stage
are not used. The light reactions continue to generate electrons
and reduce NADP⁺, but since the Calvin cycle is halted, NADP⁺
is no longer regenerated. This causes an accumulation of
reduced NADP and eventually limits non-cyclic
photophosphorylation.

Q3
Two pigment extracts, one from a green leaf and one from a red
leaf, are analyzed using chromatography. Explain how Rf values
could help determine whether both leaves carry out
photosynthesis at similar rates.
Answer:
If both extracts show similar Rf values for chlorophyll a and b,
this indicates both possess the same primary photosynthetic
pigments. The presence of carotenoids or xanthophylls with
characteristic Rf values would show accessory pigments
capable of absorbing additional wavelengths. If both leaves
contain comparable pigment profiles (same pigments and
proportions), their potential to absorb light and drive
photosynthesis would be similar, suggesting comparable
photosynthetic rates despite color differences.

Q4.
The absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a shows two main
peaks, whereas the action spectrum of photosynthesis shows
several. Explain what this suggests about the roles of accessory
pigments in photosynthesis.

Answer:
The broader action spectrum compared to chlorophyll a’s
absorption peaks shows that other pigments (chlorophyll b,
carotene, xanthophyll) absorb light at additional wavelengths
and transfer that energy to chlorophyll a. This complementary
absorption widens the usable range of the visible spectrum and
increases overall light capture efficiency for photosynthesis.

Q) An experiment using isolated chloroplasts and DCPIP

is carried out under two different light wavelengths: red
and green. Predict and explain the relative rates of
DCPIP reduction observed.

Answer:
The rate of DCPIP reduction will be faster under red light and
slower under green light. Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light
effectively but reflects green light, so under green light, fewer
photons excite electrons in chlorophyll molecules. This reduces
the rate of photoreduction of DCPIP, which acts as an artificial
electron acceptor replacing NADP⁺.

Q8

A mutation in a plant prevents the enzyme rubisco from

functioning efficiently. Describe and explain the likely changes to
concentrations of RuBP, GP, and TP in the chloroplast stroma.

Answer:
Rubisco catalyzes the fixation of CO₂ to RuBP. If rubisco is ineffective, CO₂
fixation slows or stops. RuBP accumulates because it is not being used,
while GP and TP levels fall since less GP is formed and therefore less TP is
produced. The lack of TP also limits regeneration of RuBP through the
Calvin cycle, gradually disturbing the entire cycle’s balance.

Q9.

When light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis rises

sharply but then plateaus. Explain why this plateau occurs,
referring to limiting factors and specific biochemical steps.

Answer:

Initially, increased light intensity raises the rate of ATP and reduced NADP
formation, accelerating the Calvin cycle. Beyond a certain point, another
factor—typically CO₂ concentration or temperature—becomes limiting. At
the plateau, enzymes such as rubisco cannot fix CO₂ faster or the supply
of CO₂ is insufficient, so even though more light is available, GP cannot be
converted into TP any faster.

Q10.

A student investigates photosynthesis by measuring oxygen

release from an aquatic plant. Describe two improvements the
student could make to ensure that the results provide valid
evidence for the effect of light intensity on photosynthetic rate.

Answer:

First, maintain constant temperature and CO₂ concentration throughout to

ensure light intensity is the only variable affecting rate. Second, allow the
plant to equilibrate at each light level before measuring oxygen, to avoid
transient changes. Additional controls include using the same
distance/light source geometry and repeating trials for reliability.

Q13

A mutation causes a defect in a chloroplast membrane protein responsible for exporting triose
phosphate (TP) to the cytoplasm. Over time, starch granules in the chloroplast become abnormally
large.

Explain why this occurs and how it affects the balance of photosynthetic metabolism.
When TP cannot be exported, it accumulates in the stroma, driving its conversion into starch for
temporary storage. Over time, this starch buildup restricts space within the stroma, reducing enzyme
mobility and Calvin cycle efficiency. With continued light reactions, NADP⁺ regeneration slows as the
Calvin cycle is backed up, causing feedback inhibition on non-cyclic photophosphorylation. Thus, the
block in TP export disrupts the coordination between light-dependent and light-independent
processes, eventually lowering photosynthetic rate.

Q14.

A graph shows the rate of photosynthesis increasing with temperature up to 35°C, then sharply
decreasing. A student concludes that “temperature directly affects chlorophyll’s ability to absorb
light.”

Evaluate this conclusion using your knowledge of photosynthesis.

The student’s conclusion is incorrect. Chlorophyll absorption is largely temperature-independent; its

function depends on photon energy, not kinetic energy. The observed temperature dependence
reflects enzyme-catalyzed steps in the Calvin cycle, particularly rubisco and enzymes involved in GP
→ TP conversion. The sharp fall beyond 35°C indicates enzyme denaturation or decreased CO₂
solubility, not pigment malfunction. Therefore, the conclusion confuses a biochemical limitation with
a photochemical one.

Q15.

During an investigation, a researcher finds that plants treated with an herbicide show high rates of
photolysis but low ATP and NADPH levels. The herbicide is known to bind to the Qb site of
Photosystem II.

Explain how this herbicide disrupts photosynthesis and predict its downstream effects on the
Calvin cycle.

Answer:

Binding to the Qb site blocks the transfer of electrons from PSII to the plastoquinone pool, halting
electron flow through the chain. Water continues to be split, producing O₂ and protons, but because
electrons cannot move beyond PSII, ATP and NADPH synthesis stop. The Calvin cycle stalls due to a
lack of these energy carriers — GP cannot be reduced to TP, and RuBP cannot be regenerated.
Eventually, reduced NADP accumulates and feedback inhibits photolysis, collapsing the entire
photosynthetic process.
The renal artery delivers oxygenated blood containing urea and other metabolic wastes from the
aorta to the kidney.

Inside the kidney, the renal artery branches into smaller arteries which further divide into afferent
arterioles — each afferent arteriole supplies a glomerulus within a Bowman’s capsule in the cortex.

Within the glomerulus, ultrafiltration occurs — high hydrostatic pressure forces small molecules
(like water, glucose, ions, urea) out of the blood into the Bowman’s capsule.

Blood then leaves the glomerulus via a narrower efferent arteriole, which maintains high pressure
in the glomerulus.

The efferent arteriole branches further into a network of capillaries surrounding the proximal and
distal convoluted tubules and the loop of Henle, allowing reabsorption and exchange of
substances.

These capillaries then reunite into venules that merge to form the renal vein, which carries
deoxygenated, filtered blood back to the inferior vena cava.

How is the effect of glucagon amplified inside liver cells after it binds to its receptor?

(4 marks)

When glucagon binds to its cell surface receptor on a liver cell, it causes a conformational change
that activates a G-protein on the inner membrane.

The G-protein then activates adenylyl cyclase, which converts many molecules of ATP into cyclic AMP
(cAMP).

Each cAMP molecule activates protein kinase A, which phosphorylates and activates many other
enzymes in the pathway.

This enzyme cascade means that each step activates many molecules of the next enzyme, amplifying
the original glucagon signal and resulting in a large increase in glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis)
and glucose release into the blood.

The diagram below shows a graph of photosynthetic rate against temperature for two
plant species, A and B.

Species A peaks at 25°C, species B peaks at 35°C.

Explain why these two species show different temperature optima.

Each species has enzymes adapted to its habitat temperature. Rubisco and Calvin cycle enzymes in
species B have higher thermal stability, maintaining shape at higher temperatures. In species A,
enzymes denature sooner. Both species’ light reactions are less temperature-sensitive, but the Calvin
cycle determines the rate-limiting step.

q) Explain why photophosphorylation is described as a chemiosmotic process.

ATP synthesis depends on the movement of protons across a membrane. Light energy drives
electrons along the transport chain, releasing energy to pump protons into the thylakoid space. Their
diffusion back through ATP synthase drives ATP formation — this coupling of proton movement
(chemiosmosis) and phosphorylation defines photophosphorylation.

Q) Suggest how the pH of the stroma changes during the light-dependent stage
and explain the importance of this change for the Calvin cycle.

During illumination, protons are pumped into the thylakoid space, reducing proton concentration in
the stroma and raising its pH. The more alkaline stroma activates Calvin cycle enzymes such as
rubisco, optimizing conditions for CO₂ fixation.

Because only the nodes depolarise, far fewer ions need to be pumped
back by the sodium–potassium pump afterwards, reducing energy
demand and allowing much faster conduction. Myelinated neurones
therefore transmit impulses up to 100 m s⁻¹ or more, compared to
around 1 m s⁻¹ in unmyelinated fibres.

Compared to myelinated neurones, this continuous conduction uses

more energy (more membrane to repolarise), is less efficient, and is
much slower because no saltatory jumping occurs.

In plants, action potentials are slower and last longer because their signalling
system is fundamentally weaker and less specialised than animal neurons. Plants
don’t have dedicated nerve cells, insulated axons, or fast voltage-gated sodium
channels. Instead, they rely on ion movements through ordinary cells — mainly
calcium and potassium — so the depolarisation spreads sluggishly from cell to
cell. The absence of myelin and specialised synapses makes the signal drift
rather than shoot, which naturally prolongs the duration of the action potential
and dramatically slows its speed.
In barley seeds, it has been shown that gibberellin does this by regulating genes
involved in the synthesis of amylase, causing an increase in the transcription of
mRNA coding for amylase

the embryo is basically outsourcing digestion: it doesn’t have the machinery or

the space to digest enough food on its own, so GA forces the surrounding tissue
to supply it. If GA were not produced, germination would fail because the seed
would have no usable energy.

So the chain is

Water uptake → embryo produces gibberellin → GA reaches aleurone layer

GA triggers enzyme production (α-amylase, proteases, etc.)

Enzymes break down starch and proteins in the endosperm

Soluble sugars and amino acids fuel the embryo’s growth

Summary of Gel Electrophoresis (CIE A-Level Biology 9700)

Gel electrophoresis is a technique to separate charged molecules (mainly DNA fragments, RNA, or proteins)
based on size using an electric field in a gel matrix.

Key Principle

 DNA is negatively charged (due to phosphate backbone) → migrates towards the positive anode.

 Smaller fragments move faster through the gel pores than larger ones.

 Separation primarily by molecular size (base pairs for DNA; mass for proteins).

Basic Procedure (Agarose Gel for DNA)

1. Prepare and cast agarose gel with wells.

2. Load DNA samples (mixed with loading dye) + DNA ladder (size marker).

3. Run electric current (negative at wells, positive at far end).

 4. Stain DNA (e.g., ethidium bromide or SYBR Safe).

5. Visualize under UV light → bands show fragment sizes (smaller = farther from wells).

Applications

 DNA profiling/genetic fingerprinting (unique band patterns from VNTRs).

 Verifying PCR products or restriction enzyme digests.

 Detecting mutations (e.g., sickle cell via protein electrophoresis).

 Paternity testing and forensic analysis.

Interpretation

 Compare bands to ladder to estimate fragment size.

 Band intensity roughly indicates amount of DNA.

Safety & Limitations

 Hazards: Mutagenic stains, UV light, electricity → use protection and safer stains.

 Limitations: Poor resolution for similar-sized fragments; needs PCR amplification for tiny samples.

Essential for genetic engineering topics and common in Paper 5 questions (planning, analysis, or evaluating
results from hypothetical gels)