CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a novel manufacturing approach that builds

materials layer by layer, instead of removing them by conventional methods such as
machining or cutting. Additive Manufacturing is a game-changer in the product-based
industries, as it enables unprecedented levels of design flexibility, efficiency, and
diversity. Additive Manufacturing has applications in various sectors, such as
aerospace, automotive, healthcare, and architecture, revolutionizing how products are
conceived, created, and delivered. As Additive Manufacturing continues to advance,
fueled by innovation and research, it is set to reshape the future of production,
opening up new opportunities and benefits for the economy and society.

Fig. No.1.1 Difference between Additive & subtractive manufacturing

Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a term that encompasses various techniques such as

rapid prototyping, rapid manufacturing, 3D printing, etc. These techniques have
evolved from simple prototyping to actual manufacturing over the years, by using
different methods of printing the product. The raw material can be in different forms,
such as filament, resin, or powder particles, and each method requires different
equipment to fabricate the product from raw material to finished product. Post
processing is necessary to achieve the final appearance of the product.

The classification of AM techniques is based on the type of raw material, the final
output, and the technology used. Different organizations around the world have
categorized AM techniques over the decades. One of them is the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) group “ASTM F42 – Additive Manufacturing”,
which established a set of standards that divide AM techniques into seven categories.
 Fig. No. 1.2 Additive Manufacturing Technologies Categorization

1.1.1 Vat Photopolymerisation: Vat Photopolymerization is an additive

manufacturing process that involves selectively curing a liquid photopolymer resin in
a vat by light-induced polymerization. This process creates an object layer by layer,
using mirrors to direct ultraviolet light that cures the resin through
photopolymerization. In the medical field, Vat Photopolymerization technology
enables the production of patient-specific anatomical models, surgical guides, surgical
meshes, and even custom implants with high precision, transforming patient care.
Stereo Lithography (SLA) and Digital Light Processing (DLP) are the two different
types of machines which work on the principle of the vatphotopolymerization. The
main difference is in light source. In DLP projector is used and in SLA laser is used to
solidify the resign. There are two main SLA machine setups: the top-down orientation
and the bottom-up orientation
(i) Working of SLA Printer

Fig. No. 1.3 SLA Printer layout

The working principle of an SLA (Stereolithography) printer involves

photopolymerization, wherein a liquid resin is selectively cured layer by layer using
ultraviolet (UV) light. This process begins with the preparation of a digital 3D model,
which is sliced into thin layers. Components include a resin tank, build platform, UV
laser, optics system, and control system. A digital 3D model is prepared and sliced
into layers for printing. The build platform descends into the resin tank, and the UV
laser selectively cures each layer of resin. After printing, the object is rinsed in solvent
to remove excess resin. Optional post-curing may be performed for added strength.
Finishing processes like sanding or painting enhance the object's surface. SLA
printers offer high-resolution prints suitable for various industries.

(ii) Working of DLP Printer

Fig. No. 1.4 DLP Printer Layout

This technique is similar to the SL / SLA method. The main difference is in light
source. For SL and SLA methods a laser is used, in this method it has been replaced
by a DLP projector. This technology is extremely precise (dimensional accuracy up to
several dozen micrometres) and guarantees an excellent, very smooth surface of the
manufactured parts. The size of one pixel is important during projection. The smaller
is the dimensions of one pixel, the greater the geometric accuracy of the manufactured
part. The larger is the work table, the greater the distance between the projector and
work table. The greater is the distance the projector from the work table is, the larger
the pixels are and the quality of the parts manufactured is getting worse.

1.1.2 Material Extrusion

Material Extrusion is an additive manufacturing process, also known as Fused

Deposition Modeling (FDM) that involves selectively dispensing material through a
nozzle or orifice. The object is created by extruding molten material to form layers
that solidify immediately after exiting the nozzle. In the automotive and aerospace
sectors, this process enables the production of lightweight and robust components,
resulting in substantial weight savings and performance improvements.

(i) Working of FDM Printer

Fig. No. 1.5 layout of FDM Printer

An FDM 3D printer works by depositing melted filament material over a build

platform layer by layer until you have a completed part. FDM uses digital design files
that are uploaded to the machine itself and translates them into physical dimensions.
Materials for FDM include polymers such as ABS, PLA, PETG and PEI, which the
machine feeds as threads through a heated nozzle. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
3D printers work by heating and extruding thermoplastic filament through a nozzle
onto a build platform, layer by layer. The extruder assembly, build platform, and
frame structure are key mechanical components. The extruder heats the filament to its
melting point, while the build platform provides a stable surface for printing.
Materials like PLA, ABS, PETG, and TPU are commonly used in FDM printing.
FDM printers are versatile, finding applications in prototyping, manufacturing,
healthcare, aerospace, and education. They are used to create prototypes, functional
parts, customized products, medical implants, architectural models, and educational
tools. FDM printing enables efficient, cost-effective, and customizable manufacturing
processes. Its widespread adoption continues to drive innovation in additive
manufacturing across industries. These printers are also known as Fused Filament
Fabrication (FFF) and has wide range of applications.

1.1.3 Material Jetting

An additive manufacturing process in which droplets of build material are selectively

deposited. This material jetting technology, patented by XJet, uses a liquid containing
building nanoparticles or support nanoparticles that is loaded into the printer as a
cartridge and jetted onto the build tray in extremely thin layers of droplets. The main
drawbacks to printing with material jetting technologies are the high cost, and UV-
activated photopolymers lose mechanical properties over time and can become brittle.

(i) Working of Material Jetting Printers

The working of Material Jetting printers begins with digital models sliced into thin
layers using specialized software. The printer's print heads deposit droplets of
photopolymer materials onto the build platform in a precise pattern, guided by the
digital model. As each layer is deposited, UV lamps cure the material, solidifying it
and bonding it to the previous layer. This process repeats until the entire object is
created with exceptional accuracy and resolution.

Material Jetting printers can utilize a wide range of photopolymer materials, including
resins with varying properties such as transparency, flexibility, and heat resistance.
These materials offer exceptional detail, surface finish, and mechanical properties,
making them suitable for prototyping, product design, and manufacturing applications.
 Fig. No. 1.6 Layout of Material Jetting Printers

1.1.4 Direct Energy Deposition

Directed Energy Deposition (DED) is an additive manufacturing process that involves

using focused thermal energy to fuse materials by melting them as they are being
deposited. The typical equipment for DED 3D Printing consists of a head for material
wire supply that can move along multiple axes and an electron beam or high-power
laser beam that melts the wire by directing the high-power radiation.

(i) Working of Direct Energy Deposition

Fig. No. 1.7 Layout of Direct Energy Deposition

Direct Energy Deposition (DED) is an advanced additive manufacturing process that

utilizes a focused energy source to melt and deposit material, layer by layer, to create
intricate 3D objects. This essay delves into the intricacies of DED 3D printers,
elucidating their working principles, components, and applications. The operation of
DED printers begins with a digital model sliced into thin layers using specialized
software. The nozzle or laser head directs a focused energy source, such as a laser or
electron beam, onto the substrate's surface, melting the material feed (powder or wire)
as it is deposited. As each layer is deposited and solidified, the substrate or build
platform moves to accommodate the next layer, resulting in the gradual formation of
the desired object with precise geometry and material properties.

1.1.5 Binder Jetting

Binder Jetting is an additive manufacturing process that involves selectively

depositing a liquid bonding agent to join powder materials. A printer head scans over
the powder bed, dispensing binder droplets (that have a diameter of about 50 microns)
that adhere the powder particles together to create each layer of the final 3D model.

(i) Working of Binder Jetting Printer

The working of Binder Jetting printers commences with a digital model sliced into
thin layers using specialized software. The powdered material is spread in a uniform
layer across the build platform, and the print heads selectively deposit the binding
agent onto specific areas, binding the powdered material together to form each layer
of the object. This process repeats until the entire object is fabricated, with excess
powder supporting the structure during printing.

Fig. No. 1.8 layout of Binder Jetting Printer

Binder Jetting printers can utilize a variety of powdered materials, including

metals, ceramics, sand, and polymers. The choice of material depends on the desired
properties of the final object, such as strength, durability, and heat resistance. Binder
materials vary depending on the type of powder being used and may include water-
based or solvent-based solutions.

1.1.6 Powder Bed Fusion

Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) is an additive manufacturing process that involves using
thermal energy to selectively fuse regions of a powder bed. This 3D printing
technique allows the production of a wide range of geometrically complex products
by using a heat source, such as laser or electron beams, to fuse powder particles layer
by layer, creating a solid part. Manufacturers can enjoy significant design flexibility,
as PBF offers various technologies and materials to choose from.

Fig. No. 1.9 layout of Powder Bed Fusion

(i) Working of Powder Bed Fusion

The working of Powder Bed Fusion printers commences with a digital model sliced
into thin layers using specialized software. A thin layer of powdered material is
spread uniformly across the build platform by the recoating mechanism. The laser or
electron beam is then precisely directed onto specific areas of the powdered material,
melting and fusing it together to form each layer of the object being printed. This
process repeats until the entire object is fabricated, with un-melted powder providing
support for overhanging features.

Powder Bed Fusion printers comprise components, including a build platform,

a powder bed, a recoating mechanism, a laser or electron beam source, and a control
system. The build platform serves as a stable foundation for printing, while the
powder bed provides a layer of powdered material to be selectively fused. The
recoating mechanism spreads a fresh layer of powder after each fusion step, and the
laser beam selectively melts and fuses the powdered material.

1.1.7 Sheet Lamination

Sheet Lamination (SL) is an additive manufacturing process that involves bonding

sheets of material to form an object. The SL 3D printing technique, also called
Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM), consists of stacking several layers of foil
material to produce an object. The operator cuts each foil to shape with a knife or
laser to match the object’s cross-section. Sheet lamination can be divided into two
technologies: laminated object manufacturing (LOM) and ultrasonic additive
manufacturing (UAM). LOM is suitable for creating items with visual or aesthetic
appeal and uses alternating layers of paper and adhesive. UAM uses ultrasonic
welding to join thin metal sheets; a low energy, low temperature process, UAM can
work with various metals such as aluminium, stainless steel, and titanium

(i) Working of Sheet Lamination Printer

Fig. No. 1.10 Layout of Sheet Lamination Printer

The working of Sheet Lamination printers begins with digital models sliced into thin
layers using specialized software. Sheets of material, typically paper, plastic, or metal,
are fed into the printer. The adhesive applicator deposits adhesive onto each sheet,
bonding them together. The cutting mechanism trims excess material, ensuring
precise alignment between layers. This process repeats until the entire object is
fabricated, with layers bonded together to form the desired shape.

1.2 STEPS IN ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

Fig. No.1.11 Steps in Additive Manufacturing

1.2.1 Part Design

The 3D model of the part that needs to be printed is drafted using various
software applications such as AutoCAD, Solidworks, Catia, Creo, etc. These
applications facilitate the design of complex geometry in three dimensions and the
visualization of the part. If the design requires any modification, it can be easily done
and the final appearance of the part can be seen.

Fig. No. 1.12 Part Design

1.2.2 Converting to STL File

After the geometry is created, it can have a very complex shape. However, the
additive manufacturing machines cannot directly recognize this CAD geometry. This
is achieved by the tessellation of the CAD file or 3D model. STL files are the
universal format for 3D printing, which represent the geometry of a model by a mesh
of interconnected triangles. This format ensures compatibility across various AM
machines and software platforms, facilitating smooth data transfer throughout the
additive manufacturing workflow. For this reason, STL stands for Standard
Tessellation Language.

Fig. No. 1.13 Tessellation of the sphere is shown

1.2.3 Transfer of STL file

STL files are transferred to AM machines in a critical step that connects digital design
and physical production, enabling the creation of complex and customized parts with
high precision and accuracy. Various methods are used to transfer STL files to AM
machines, based on the specific technology and workflow needs. A common method
involves using specialized slicing software, which transforms the STL file into
machine-readable commands called G-code. This G-code provides information on
layer thickness, tool paths, and printing parameters, allowing the AM machine to
faithfully replicate the desired object layer by layer. The sliced file is then sent to the
AM machine via USB, Ethernet, or Wi-Fi connection, depending on the machine’s
features.

1.2.4 Machine Setup

Setting up an additive manufacturing machine is a critical process that guarantees

optimal performance. It involves unpacking and assembling the machine, connecting
it to a dependable power source and setting up network connectivity. Calibration and
bed leveling are vital steps to achieve precise prints. Installing and configuring the
required software allows smooth operation and control. Material preparation entails
choosing suitable materials and inserting them into the machine. Performing test
prints and adjusting parameters enhance print quality and performance.

1.2.5 Build

The build step in additive manufacturing is a core process where digital designs are
converted into physical objects layer by layer. It involves accurate material deposition
or solidification following instructions from CAD models or STL files. This
innovative step allows the production of complex geometries, personalized parts, and
functional prototypes with outstanding precision and efficiency. Ongoing
improvements in process optimization, materials, and machine features have
improved printing efficiency, part quality, and accessibility.

Fig. No. 1.14 Build

1.2.6 Part Removal

Part removal is a critical step to preserve the quality and integrity of the printed part.
Appropriate handling and post-processing steps guarantee that the part satisfies
desired specifications. Comprehending the specific requirements of part removal in
different AM technologies improves the workflow and produces high-quality,
functional parts for various applications.

Fig. No. 1.15 Part Removal

1.2.7 Post Processing:
Post-processing is a vital step in additive manufacturing (AM) that improves and
enhances printed parts. It involves techniques such as support structure removal,
surface finishing, heat treatment, machining, and surface coating. Post-processing
methods depend on AM technology, material properties, and intended end-use
applications.

Fig. No. 1.16 post processing

1.3 BIOADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a technology that has applications in various

industries, such as aerospace, automotive, healthcare, biomedical, food, consumer
goods, architecture, education, defense, energy, electronics, and art. It produces
lightweight, customized, and complex parts and prototypes by adding material layer
by layer. AM improves production by enabling customization, reducing lead times,
and minimizing material waste, making it a versatile and essential technology across
various sectors.

Bioadditive Manufacturing, also called Bioprinting, is a technology that

creates biological tissues and organs using 3D printing techniques. It deposits living
cells, biomaterials, and bioinks layer by layer, forming complex structures with
defined architectures and functionalities. It has applications in regenerative medicine,
tissue engineering, drug testing, and personalized medicine, offering alternatives to
traditional transplantation and personalized treatment solutions. It advances the
fabrication of biomimetic tissues with enhanced functionality and viability, using
bioinks, imaging techniques, and multi-cell printing. It has profound implications,
such as personalized medicine, reduced organ rejection rates, and accelerated drug
development. However, it also faces ethical and regulatory challenges. Overall,
Bioadditive Manufacturing has immense potential to transform healthcare, leading to
a new era of medical innovation and patient care.

As the technology continues to advance, bioadditive manufacturing has the

potential to revolutionize healthcare by providing patient-specific solutions for tissue
repair, organ replacement, and personalized medicine.

1.4 BIOIMPLANTS

Bioimplants refer to any artificial device or tissue that is implanted into the body to
replace or augment a natural body part. These implants can be made from a variety of
materials, including metals, ceramics, polymers, and, more recently, bioresorbable
materials. Bioimplants serve various purposes, such as supporting damaged tissues,
replacing missing body parts, or delivering therapeutic agents.

While some bioimplants may be produced using additive manufacturing

techniques, not all bioimplants are created through bioadditive manufacturing.
Bioimplants can be manufactured using a variety of traditional methods such as
machining, casting, and molding, in addition to additive manufacturing. Conversely,
bioadditive manufacturing specifically focuses on creating biological structures, such
as tissues and organs, using additive manufacturing techniques.

Fig. No. 1.17 Examples of Bioimplants

Bioimplants play a crucial role in modern medicine, improving the quality of life for
many individuals by restoring function, alleviating pain, and treating various medical
conditions. Advances in materials science, biomechanics, and biomedical engineering
continue to drive innovation in bioimplant design and manufacturing, leading to
improved biocompatibility, durability, and functionality.
 CHAPTER - 2

LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Introduction
Hernia is a condition in which a sac is formed by the lining of the abdominal cavity,
and it is usually treated by surgeons who reinforce the defect and restore the normal
anatomical structure with sutures or surgical meshes. Surgical meshes are the preferred
option for abdominal wall hernia repair, as they provide physical integrity and
compatibility with the musculofascial layers. Various types of surgical meshes have been
developed, but their fabrication requires a lot of time and money. Polymers are currently
being used to manufacture the meshes and the performance of the mesh depend upon the
mechanical properties of the material which is being used to fabricate. Hernia surgery is
the process of implanting the mesh into the body of the human and there are lot of side
effects after the implantation there has been lot of research has been done over the decades
and using the latest technology to develop a mesh which is biodegradable and
biocompatible and can be easily fabricated. A variety of materials have been has been used
to produce the mesh still there are side effects after the surgery.

2.2 Literature Review

B. Calvo. et. al., (2012) research article about the “Computational framework to model
and design surgical meshes for hernia repair” Surgical procedures for hernia surgery are
usually performed using prosthetic meshes. In spite of all the improvements in these
biomaterials, the perfect match between the prosthesis and the implant site has not been
achieved. This article suggests new designs of surgical meshes are still being developed.
Previous to implantation in humans, the validity of the meshes has to be addressed, and
to date experimental studies have been the gold standard in testing and validating new
implants. Nevertheless, these procedures involve long periods of time and are expensive.
Thus, a computational framework for the simulation of prosthesis and surgical
procedures may overcome some disadvantages of the experimental methods. The
computational framework includes two computational models for designing and
validating the behaviour of new meshes, respectively. Firstly, the beam model, which
reproduces the exact geometry of the mesh, is set to design the weave and determine the
stiffness of the surgical prosthesis, this implies a high computational cost whereas the
membrane model, defined within the framework of the large deformation hyperelasticity,
is a relatively inexpensive computational tool.
Ethan Gerhard. et. al., (2016) research article about the “Design strategies and
applications of biomaterials and devices for Hernia repair” is one of the most commonly
performed surgical procedures worldwide, with a multibillion-dollar global market.
Implant design remains a critical challenge for the successful repair and prevention of
recurrent hernias, and despite significant progress, there is no ideal mesh for every
surgery. This research article summarizes the evolution of prostheses design toward
successful hernia repair beginning with a description of the anatomy of the disease and
the classifications of hernias and the major milestones in implant design are discussed.
Commonly encountered complications and strategies to minimize these adverse effects
are described, followed by a thorough description of the implant characteristics necessary
for successful repair. Finally, available implants are categorized and their advantages and
limitations are clearly written with great detail.

E. Pena. et. al., (2011) research article about “Mechanical behaviour of synthetic
surgical meshes: Finite element simulation of the herniated abdominal wall”. The
material properties of meshes used in hernia surgery contribute to the overall mechanical
behaviour of the repaired abdominal wall. The mechanical response of a surgical mesh
has to be defined since the haphazard orientation of mesh can lead to inconsistent
surgical outcomes. This research article was designed to characterize the mechanical
behaviour of surgical meshes and to describe a mechanical constitutive law that
accurately reproduces the experimental results. Finally, through finite element simulation,
the behaviour of the abdominal wall was modelled before and after surgical mesh
implant. Uniaxial loading of mesh samples in two perpendicular directions revealed the
responses of the meshes. A phenomenological constitutive law was used to reproduce the
measured experimental curves.

Gloria Chyr. et. al., (2023) research article about the “Review of high-performance
sustainable polymers in additive manufacturing” Additive manufacturing is in a position
to change traditional methods of manufacturing. Scientists and engineers are equipped
with the wisdom to prevent a waste production caused by polymers from AM. While AM
has the potential to reduce the amount of material waste and CO 2 emissions compared to
traditional manufacturing, it does not entirely eliminate waste production. In all forms of
AM, high-performance polymers can be engineered to be more sustainable and still meet
material properties demands. Polymer sustainability may come from how raw materials
are sourced or how final materials are degraded and recycled. Degradability for recycling
comes in two forms: passive degradation and triggered degradation. For high-
performance use cases, triggered degradation shows the most promise in offering high
toughness, strength, strain-at-failure, or thermal and chemical resistance for polymers
that will have specific environmental demands. A high-performance polymer that is fully
recyclable under very specific but attainable conditions can both promote waste
collection and reduce the amount of raw material needed for production. Chemical
degradation of thermoset polymers for recycling may be the most promising pathway for
high-performance materials because it requires a reduced energy input as compared to
thermal degradation.

Li Gan. et. al., (2023) research article about the “Recent Advances in Biodegradable and
Biocompatible Synthetic Polymers Used in Skin Wound Healing” The treatment of skin
wounds caused by trauma and pathophysiological disorders has been a growing
healthcare challenge. The use of appropriate wound dressings can help to facilitate the
repair and healing rate of defective skin. Natural polymer biomaterials such as collagen
and hyaluronic acid with excellent biocompatibility have been shown to promote wound
healing and the restoration of skin. However, the low mechanical properties and fast
degradation rate have limited their applications. Skin wound dressings based on
biodegradable and biocompatible synthetic polymers can not only overcome the
shortcomings of natural polymer biomaterials but also possess favorable properties for
applications in the treatment of skin wounds. This listed several biodegradable and
biocompatible synthetic polymers used as wound dressing material focusing on their
composition, fabrication techniques, and functions promoting wound healing.

Mika Salmi. (2021) research article about the “Additive Manufacturing Processes in
Medical Applications”. Additive Manufacturing is used in many fields and different
industries. In the medical and dental field, every patient is unique and AM has significant
potential in personalized and customized solutions. This article explores what additive
manufacturing processes and materials are utilized in medical and dental applications,
especially focusing on processes that are less commonly used. The processes are
categorized powder bed fusion, material extrusion, VAT photopolymerization, material
jetting, binder jetting, sheet lamination and directed energy deposition combined with
classification of medical applications of AM. Based on the findings, it seems that
directed energy deposition is utilized rarely only in implants and sheet lamination rarely
for medical models or phantoms. Powder bed fusion, material extrusion and VAT
photopolymerization are utilized in all categories. Material jetting is not used for
implants and biomanufacturing, and binder jetting is not utilized for tools, instruments
and parts for medical devices. The most common materials are thermoplastics,
photopolymers and metals such as titanium alloys.

Qimanguli Saiding. et. al., (2023) research article about “Abdominal wall hernia repair:
from prosthetic meshes to smart materials”. Hernia reconstruction is one of the most
frequently practiced surgical procedures worldwide. Plastic surgery plays a pivotal role
in reestablishing desired abdominal wall structure and function without the drawbacks
traditionally associated with general surgery as excessive tension, postoperative pain,
poor repair outcomes, and frequent recurrence. Surgical meshes have been the
preferential choice for abdominal wall hernia repair to achieve the physical integrity and
equivalent components of musculofascial layers. Despite the relevant progress in recent
years, there are still unsolved challenges in surgical mesh design and complication
settlement. This research article provides a systemic summary of the hernia surgical
mesh development deeply related to abdominal wall hernia pathology and classification.
Commercial meshes, the first-generation prosthetic materials, and the most commonly
used repair materials in the clinic are described in detail, addressing constrain side effects
and rational strategies to establish characteristics of ideal hernia repair meshes. The
engineered prosthetics are defined as a transit to the biomimetic smart hernia repair
scaffolds with specific advantages and disadvantages, including hydrogel scaffolds,
electrospinning membranes, and three-dimensional patches.

Tiffany Kim. et. al., (2020) research article about “Hernia Mesh and Hernia Repair: A
Review” Hernia repair for primary and incisional hernia is the most commonly
performed abdominal surgery done with extremely high costs. Treatment for hernia
requires surgery to close the defect. There are different post-operative complications like
chronic pain, adhesion, and infection that are common. Hernia repair involves two types
of biomaterials they are fixation biomaterial and a mesh biomaterial to close the defect.
Synthetic meshes, mostly made from different polymers, provide adequate mechanical
support but are associated with postoperative complications like infection. Biological
meshes are derived from allografts and xenografts that are prone to less infection;
however, their mechanical strength may be too weak depending the characteristics of the
hernia defect. Novel meshes being developed try to combat the post-operative
complications of current surgical meshes. Composite meshes that have two different
surfaces have shown to have less adhesion effects but still produce varying inflammatory
responses. Drug-loaded meshes are also a novel mesh that is designed to reduce infection
with antibiotics.

Wei He. et. al., (2020) research article about the “A numerical method for guiding the
design of surgical meshes with suitable mechanical properties for specific abdominal
hernias”. Abdominal hernia is a common disease, and the most effective treatment of it is
using surgical meshes. It was found that due to the mismatch of the mechanical
properties between the mesh and the tissues around the hernia, there was still a
recurrence rate of more than 33% and a high probability of postoperative discomfort.
Currently, because of the complex mechanical environment provided by the abdominal
tissues and the lack of quantitative research, it is still difficult to select a mesh with
suitable mechanical properties for a hernia with specific position and size. This article
generates the numerical models to evaluate the mechanical behavior of both abdominal
wall and meshes after repair, and to determine the most suitable mechanical properties of
meshes for specific hernias, including elastic modulus and tensile strength. The
mechanical properties of the most suitable mesh determined. This data could give a
standard of mechanical properties which can be referenced in mesh design and
evaluation and provide surgeons with treatment advice for specific patients.

2.3 Summary of The Literature Review

Previous research indicates that there are various kinds of hernias and factors for where
they might occur in the human body. The surgeon will perform the fixing surgery in
accordance with the location and severity of the hernia. Hernia repairs are among the
most often done surgical operations in the world today, with a multibillion-dollar global
market and a recurrence rate of over 30%. Technology has advanced over time, and
studies in material science and engineering applications have produced a wide range of
surgical techniques and mesh-making materials.

2.4 Inference
Hernia mesh is implant which is used as an implant for curing the hernia, curing and
fixation of hernia are very crucial because of the erection of internal organs outside their
desired location and the working of abdominal wall which works as the wall between the
internal organs and the skin this wall has high strength which can withstand up to 4MPa
due to the weakness in the wall muscles and the internal forces from the organs the sac
will form this sac sometimes will be operated, due to change in technology and
advancement in the manufacturing a new approach has been using to fabricate the
meshes and the design considerations for a good mesh with good material qualities are
being produced and the advancement in the implant procedures from time to time.
 CHAPTER – 3

METHODOLOGY
 CAHPTER 3

METHDOLOGY

3.1 OBJECTIVES

 Designing the hernia mesh by varying the dimensions of the grid.

 Performing FEM analysis on the designed mesh to evaluate its performance.
 Selecting a suitable polymer that is biocompatible and biodegradable.
 Fabricating the mesh using additive manufacturing technique.

3.1.1 Introduction

The human abdominal wall is a well-structured assembly of skin, subcutaneous fat

tissues, several muscle layers, preperitoneal fascia, and peritoneum that connect to each
other and the bone to support the abdominal cavity contents. It plays a crucial role in
the protection of posture and stabilization of abdominal pressure. An abdominal hernia
occurs when weak, defective, or injured areas in the abdominal wall allow the
protrusion of abdominal organs or part of any organ. Both endogenous (gene, age,
gender) and exogenous (drug, smoking, and trauma) factors contribute to the
development of abdominal wall hernia. Anatomically, abdominal hernias can be
classified into ventral, parastomal, umbilical, and Spigelian hernias, as these regions
are susceptible to congenital defects, external trauma, and abdominal surgeries.

Fig No. 3.1 Abdominal Wall Hernia

Abdominal hernias are usually diagnosed as pain with an irregular bulge in the
abdominal wall, with low morbidity and mortality. However, if the herniated abdominal
organs are trapped, ischemia and death of the affected organs can occur if not treated
quickly. Surgically, surgeons often reinforce the defect and restore the normal
anatomical structure with sutures or surgical meshes. However, direct suturing often
leads to postoperative chronic pain and a high recurrence rate due to excessive tension.
It also often fails because of severe complications such as visceral adhesions, mesh
shrinkage-induced pain, bacterial infection, and intercourse difficulty, requiring
revision surgery. Researchers have suggested valid alternatives in the past decade to
reduce mesh-related side effects. One of the most explored approaches is modifying
commercial meshes with biocompatible agents such as proteins, peptides, and even
engineered hydrogels to improve hernia meshes’ histocompatibility. Expected
outcomes were achieved in the short term, but the hernia repair was unsatisfactory due
to the low stability of these modification methods. Additionally, some alternative
solutions, such as xenograft transplantation, decellularized matrices, and small
intestinal submucosa implantation, were also tested in the clinic. These approaches also
encountered new problems related to poor mechanical strength, disease transmission,
and donor site morbidity, limiting their widespread applications.

Considering the hernia repair evolution history over the decades, an optimal approach
should be designed with low risks of infection and visceral adhesion, high mechanical
properties to support internal content, cost efficiency for broad applications, and easy
handling properties to conveniently implant and fix to the abdominal wall. The urgent,
yet unmet need, for patient-friendly and tissue-biocompatible repairing approaches then
shifted to tissue engineering as it brought new insights into disease treatment and
prevention. Hydrogels, with simple composition or chemically modified or physically
doped, can produce adhesive and tough hydrogels, which can be used for tissue
regeneration including hernia. Due to the relatively weak mechanical strength,
hydrogels are used as surface coatings to reduce tissue adhesion or increase the
biocompatibility of hernia repair materials. Electrospinning, on the other hand, has
emerged as a leading strategy in tissue engineering to fabricate fibrous membranes with
large surface-area-to-volume ratios and nano-to-micro-sized fibers. Due to its diversity
in composition, electrospun fibrous membranes have been investigated in various tissue
engineering fields, such as cardiac patches, wound dressings and drug-delivering
carriers. The ideal mechanical strength of the fibers is also one of the significant
advantages of this technique, which made it an ideal mesh option for abdominal wall
hernia reconstruction in the past decade.
However, due to the inertness of the raw materials used for electrospinning, the
obtained fibers are mainly hydrophobic, which will hinder their histological integration
when applied in hernia repair.

3.1.2 Treatment of Hernia

The treatment options for hernia depend on the size and severity of the
condition. For mild hernia, a wait-and-see approach is adopted, where the hernia is
observed and monitored over time. This is a reasonable and safe strategy if the hernia
is not life threatening. For severe hernia, surgery is performed based on the location
and size of the abdominal defect. Patients usually undergo open repair surgery,
Lichtenstein procedure, where the surgeon makes an incision above the hernia defect
and closes the defect with various fixation methods. A less invasive method is the
laparoscopic technique, which is often done on recurrent hernias but not limited to them
and is less common. The open repair method uses a mesh to assist in closing the
abdominal defect. The mesh can be attached by tissue glues, tacks, staples, or sutures.
These attachment methods are also used in other types of surgeries. The mesh needs to
stay in place until tissue integration is complete, which usually takes around 2-3 weeks
after surgery.

Besides tissue integration, chronic pain after surgery is also an important

factor to consider and a bigger problem than hernia recurrence. Around 30% of patients
who undergo hernia repair surgery report chronic pain and this number is higher for
patients who undergo open repair surgery. During laparoscopic surgery, the mesh is
placed in the preperitoneal space to cover hernia sites through a small incision in the
abdomen. Like open repair surgery, tacks, glues, and sutures are used to secure the
mesh. Laparoscopic surgery results in shorter hospital stay and fewer complications
after surgery. The most significant benefit compared to open repair is the reduction of
surgical site infection. Pain studies are variable, with some studies showing that
laparoscopic surgery causes more chronic pain or less pain in early postoperative stages.
In another study, laparoscopic surgery was associated with lower rates of pain after one
year compared to open repair surgery, but a small percentage of patients had severe
hernia recurrences compared to open repair.

Additionally, secondary mesh infections can also occur. Laparoscopic

repair was observed to be associated with fewer but more severe complications for
incisional hernia repair. Both surgical methods have mixed results regarding pain, so it
is generally agreed that laparoscopic surgery is associated with shorter recovery period
compared to open repair surgery. Open repair surgery and laparoscopic surgery can
both be done on all types of hernias, so the decision is based on the surgeons’ preference
and the patients’ choice. The decision is based on the common outcomes and
circumstances of the patient.

Laparoscopic surgeries are beneficial because they are associated with

less pain and shorter hospitalization period. A patient might prefer laparoscopic surgery
to return to work early. A disadvantage of laparoscopic surgery is that it requires general
anesthesia with low chances of intraoperative problems. Open repair surgery has the
opposite problem of longer hospitalization period and requires local anesthesia. Open
repair surgery is also more widely available because it is a relatively simple surgery
that any general surgeon can perform, while laparoscopic surgery requires more skill.
Although both surgical methods have their own advantages and disadvantages, the
introduction of a mesh also changed the field. Mesh usage and proper fixation reduced
recurrence rates to below 5%, but more complications arose as a result of the
introduction of the mesh, such as mesh migration, chronic pain, infection and seroma
formation. The greatest concern about the physiology of mesh implantation is the
inflammation, wound healing effects and causes of pain.

Despite the extensive research on reducing these complications, the

causes of chronic pain remain elusive, hindering the research progress. The
development of a prosthetic mesh is also challenging because it may require
implantation in different parts or layers of the abdominal tissue, which demands
different mesh properties.

3.1.3 Fixation
Mesh implantation requires the use of a fixation device/material to secure
it on the defect. There are three options for mesh implantation: tissue glue, tacks, and
sutures. Tissue glue is mainly used in skin closures, suture reinforcement, and
abdominal wall defect repair. It was first introduced by Katkhouda et. al., for inguinal
hernias. The two types of adhesive glues available are fibrin glues and cyanoacrylic
glue. The two key components of fibrin glue are fibrinogen and thrombin. The
fibrinogen can be autologous, allografts, or synthetic. The fibrin glue can be modified
with other substances like growth factors, platelets and antibiotics. The fibrinogen
component provides the glue with tensile strength and adhesive properties. The original
function of fibrinogen is to stop bleeding by causing blood coagulation inside the body.
Unlike fibrin glue, cyanoacrylic glue is made of synthetic materials and is classified as
hybrid tissue sealants. Cyanoacrylic glue has rapid adhesive properties that ensure
strong bonding with biological tissues. Currently, there is no evidence to show which
glue performs better in mesh fixation procedures. There is no difference in chronic pain
and hernia recurrence outcomes when cyanoacrylic glue is used compared to absorbable
sutures in long term outcomes.

However, early chronic pain is shown to be less frequent with glue

fixation compared to suture fixation, 3-6 months after surgery. Glue fixation is also
faster and less painful in open repair surgeries. Glue fixation may be a safer alternative
approach to staple fixation without increasing the postoperative morbidity.

Tack fixation is usually done in laparoscopic hernia repairs and there are
three types that are currently used in practice. Tacks are categorized into the helical
titanium tacks, helical non titanium tacks and absorbable tacks. Helical titanium tacks
place a helical coil into the muscle of the anterior side of the abdominal wall. The tack
is a helical coil that is 4 mm × 3 mm and penetrates about 3-4mm of tissue. Helical non
titanium tacks are made of a polymer-based material called polyacetal. The tack is
hollow with a tip that is 6.7mm long. Absorbable tacks are made of polymers that
degrade in tissue. Longer tacks provide better tensile strength, which is good for
keeping the mesh in place over time. Tacks in general have great overall tensile strength
and are easy to use. However, in recent years, negative side effects have been seen with
permanent tacks, like titanium tacks, in long term implantation. Though they have
greater mechanical strength than absorbable tacks, disadvantages like serious adhesion
effects and increased chronic pain over time have been observed.

Despite these disadvantages, tack fixation is still used in laparoscopic

mesh fixation. There are two different types of sutures available: absorbable and non-
absorbable. Absorbable sutures are known to lose their strength too fast, therefore
causing more hernia recurrences. Non absorbable sutures can retain their strength
indefinitely in the body. Higher chronic pain and longer time for pain disappearance
are caused by non-absorbable sutures compared to absorbable sutures. Nonabsorbable
sutures also have lower recurrence rates in laparoscopic surgeries. Pore size is the main
factor that affects tissue reaction because it is proportional to the amount of host tissue
incorporation. The porosity of a material is the ratio of open to solid space with respect
to volume, area, or weight. Earle et al. characterized hernia mesh pore sizes into 5 types.
A pore size larger than 75 μm can facilitate rapid infiltration of fibroblasts and
macrophages because the cells can penetrate and colonize the mesh more easily.

The recruited cells will synthesize collagen that will form the new connective tissue
and secure the mesh. However, this will also increase the risk of adhesion to the
adjacent viscera. When meshes with pore sizes smaller than 800 μm are implanted, a
rigid plate forms on the implant site that reduces flexibility. This is because granulomas
are formed around the individual mesh fibers and then merge and cover the mesh.
Granulomas bridging occurs when they coalesce with each other. Pore size larger than
1mm facilitates more flexible soft tissue growth because of lower granulomas bridging
due to a larger space. Therefore, larger mesh pore sizes induce less foreign body
reactions and fibrosis of local tissues than small pores. Moreover, the relationship
between porosity and biofilm formation is also related to the bacterial growth on the
biofilm. Small pores are associated with more biofilm formation because of less tissue
integration than large pore size.

Table No. 3.1 Mesh Categories associated pore size

Pore Type Size (μm)
Very Large Pore >2,000
Large Pore 1,000-2,000
Medium Pore 600-1,000

Small Pore 100-600

Microporous (Foil) <100

Table No. 3.2 Mesh Categories associated with weight

Weight Type Density g/m2
Heavyweight >90
Medium Weight 50-90
Light Weight 35-50
Ultra-lightweight <35
3.2 FLOW CHAT

The below flow chart which gives the methodology of our work which will help
and guide us to the final objectives of our work.

Preliminary
Study

Studying
Different
Journals

Design &
Analysis

Fabrication

Final
Product/Result

Fig No. 3.2 Abdominal Wall Hernia

3.2.1 Preliminary Study

The preliminary study provides an overview of the different types of

hernia and the factors that cause them, as well as the surgical procedures and the side
effects of the hernia mesh after the surgery. It also discusses additive manufacturing, a
novel approach in manufacturing that is advancing biomedical applications and
delivering remarkable outcomes and patient satisfaction by developing implants. This
approach suggests the possibility of printing the hernia mesh because of its ease of
fabrication. It also reviews the different materials that are used to fabricate the mesh.
3.2.2 Studying Different Journals

The review of different journals enables us to comprehend the fabrication

process of different meshes and the meshes that are available in the current market, as
well as the materials that are used to fabricate the hernia meshes and the different
surgical procedures that use meshes as implants. Bioadditive manufacturing facilitates
the development of the mesh and the research in the field of materials and additive
manufacturing provides implants with less weight and more advantages, such as high
flexibility and comfort.

3.2.3 Design & Analysis

(a) Design: Design is the art and science of developing innovative solutions to complex
challenges, from designing machinery and systems to creating consumer products.
Design engineers evaluate requirements, constraints, and objectives to create efficient
and effective solutions. Design requires a profound understanding of materials and
manufacturing processes. Engineers must choose suitable materials based on their
properties and features, taking into account factors such as strength, durability, and cost.
Moreover, knowledge of manufacturing processes such as machining, casting, and
additive manufacturing is crucial to ensure that designs can be converted into functional
prototypes and products.

(b) Analysis: Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is a simulation of any given physical
phenomenon using the numerical technique called Finite Element Method (FEM).
Engineers use it to reduce the number of physical prototypes and experiments and
optimize components in their design phase to develop better products, faster.
Mathematics is necessary to understand and quantify any physical phenomena, such as
structural or fluid behaviour, thermal transport, wave propagation, the growth of
biological cells, etc. Most of these processes are described using Partial Differential
Equations (PDEs). However, to solve these PDEs on a computer, numerical techniques
have been developed over the last few decades and one of the prominent ones, today,
is the Finite Element Analysis. Differential equations can describe not only natural
processes, but also physical phenomena encountered in engineering mechanics. These
partial differential equations (PDEs) are complex equations that need to be solved to
compute relevant quantities of a structure and estimate its behaviour under a given load.
It is important to know that FEA only gives an approximate solution of the problem and
is a numerical approach to get the real result of these partial differential equations.

In simple terms, FEA is a numerical method used for predicting how a part or assembly
behaves under given conditions. It is used as the basis for modern simulation software
and helps engineers to find weak spots, areas of tension, etc. in their designs. The results
of a simulation based on the FEA method are usually depicted by a colour scale that
shows, for example, the pressure distribution over the object. Finite element analysis
(FEA) is a computerized method for predicting how a product reacts to real-world
forces, vibration, and other physical effects. Finite element analysis shows whether a
product will break, wear out, or work the way it was designed. Here we divide the roll
cage into small parts known as elements and the collective elements on the model form
a mesh. The analysis is carried out in ABAQUS where simulation is done in static
structural.

3.2.4 Fabrication

Fabrication is the process of producing the designed product by performing various

operations. We use additive manufacturing to fabricate the mesh, which simplifies the
process. However, it requires skilled professionals to operate the machinery. There are
different technologies that are classified into groups based on the type of raw material
and equipment used to create the part.

3.2.5 Final Product

The product is finalized after the complete fabrication, which includes post-processing,
curing, and surface finishing. The product meets the objectives and the customer
satisfaction. An inspection is conducted to verify that the produced part conforms to the
customer and the design requirements.
 CHAPTER - 4

MODELING & FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

A large number of finite element codes are presented using different

programming languages such as FORTRAN, BASIC, C, C++, etc. In these codes, the
modeler used an input file to feed all the data regarding nodes, elements, materials,
constants and used loops to generate nodes and elements. The manual method used to
feed in the data was time-consuming, boring and needed revision and correction;
therefore, interactive methods, especially the Graphic User Interface (GUI), have
become the most desired methods in all finite element packages. In processing input
files, the GUI method helps to identify any error in the geometry as well as saving time.

The overall approach that was used in this research was to conduct
computational simulations using the general-purpose finite element analysis program
ABAQUS. More specifically, analyses were conducted using ABAQUS Version 6.14.1,
following the instructions in ABAQUS Version 6.14.1 Documentations. This chapter
provides a brief overview of ABAQUS program and its structural models. This is
followed by a discussion about several key modeling issues in the use of ABAQUS for
conducting the analyses.

ABAQUS is a set of finite element analytical programs originally developed by

Hibbitt, Karlsson & Sorensen, Inc. and currently maintained by SIMULIA Corp.
ABAQUS is a general-purpose simulation tool, and can solve a wide range of
engineering problems, including structural analysis and heat transfer problems.
ABAQUS has extensive element and material libraries capable of modeling a variety
of geometries and material constitutive laws.

ABAQUS consists of three main products: ABAQUS/Standard,

ABAQUS/Explicit and ABAQUS/CAE. While ABAQUS/Standard and
ABAQUS/Explicit perform analysis, ABAQUS/CAE provides a graphical
environment for pre and post-processing. ABAQUS/Standard is a general-purpose
analysis program for solving linear, nonlinear, static and dynamic problems.
ABAQUS/Explicit is a special-purpose analysis program that uses an explicit dynamic
finite element formulation. It is suitable for modeling brief, transient dynamic events,
such as impact and blast problems (ABAQUS 2008a). ABAQUS/Standard and
ABAQUS/CAE are used in this thesis for structural analysis. ABAQUS has the ability
cover a wide range of fields, e.g. static/dynamic stress analysis, fluid dynamic, electrical
analysis, coupled pore fluid flow and stress analysis. Each analyse in Abaqus involves
three stages, The first one is called preprocessing or modelling (Kuntjoro 2005). In this
stage the geometry of the current part or assembly is created. Some of the parameters
that have to be considered are loads, material properties, boundary conditions and what
output is required. This is also called creating an input file. This stage can be performed
by a compatible CAD software or text editor.

In the second step the actual analysis is performed which is called

processing/solution. In this stage an output file is created and the nodal field values are
calculated. The third and final stage is called post-processing. It is a visual rendering
stage where the results can be described visually from the output file.

Pre-processing Processing Post-processing

Fig. No.4.1 Stages in Abaqus

Abaqus consists of five core software Processing products which are based on the
solution sequence described above.

4.1.1 Abaqus/CAE
CAE means Complete Abaqus Environment. The application can be used to
create the model as part of the pre-processing stage. It can also be used during the
processing stage by monitoring and visualizing the results from the analysis, post-
processing. (Dassault Systèmes 2015)

4.1.2 Abaqus/Standard
Abaqus/Standard performs traditional calculations with an implicit
integration scheme. The application is well suited for analyses which are static and low-
speed dynamic and also steady state transport. It is possible to analyse the model in
time and frequency domain in the same simulation. Combined with the CAE application
where one can perform pre- and postprocessing the whole solution sequence is fulfilled
as the standard application perform the processing stage. (ibid.)

4.1.3 Abaqus/Explicit
 The explicit application provides the opportunity to solve severely nonlinear
systems. It is suitable to simulate transient dynamic problems. The application is part
of the processing stage and can be combined with the CAE application and its
modelling environment where both pre- and post-processing occurs

4.1.4 Abaqus/ CFD

With the support for pre- and post-processing provided in the CAE application the CFD
(Computational fluid dynamics) software supply advanced computational fluid
dynamics capabilities in the processing stage. The application is able to solve
incompressible flow problems such as laminar and turbulent, thermal convective and
deforming- mesh arbitrary langrangian eulerian problems.

4.1.5 Abaqus/Multiphysics
The application solves computational multi-physics problem such as hydrodynamic
wave
loading and electrical coupling. (ibid.)

4.2 Modules in Abaqus

Each analytical model in ABAQUS includes 10 modules: Part, Property, Assembly,
Step, Interaction, Load, Mesh, Job, Visualization, and Sketch. To create a complete
analysis model, it is usually necessary to go through most of these modules, as
described below:

+ Build up the geometry of the structure under a set of parts.

(Part module, Sketch module, Mesh module)
+ Create element sections (Property module)
+ Introduce material data (Property module)
+ Assign section and material properties to the members
+ Assemble parts to create the entire structure
(Assembly module, Mesh module and Interaction module)
+ Create steps and choose analysis method (Step module) Modules In Abaqus
+ Introduce load and boundary conditions (Load module)
+ Create jobs and submit for analysis (Job module)
+ Visualize the result. (Visualization module)
 Geometry Property Assembly

Loading and
boundary Step
conditions

Mesh Submission Post-

processing

Fig. No. 4.2 Flow Chart of Modules in Abaqus

ABAQUS/CAE 6.14.1 has a wide range of commands that enable any complicated
structures to be built easily and precisely. In the finite element analyses, the choice of
the best simulation of a specific physical problem depends on the understanding and
modelling
of its behaviour rather than the precision of drawings.

Any structure can be divided into subparts that are assembled together to form
the final geometry using merge and/or interaction facilities. All the parts that are used
to form the entire structure should have a specific material definition. ABAQUS enables
the modeller to define any material properties, either through its huge library or by
using a special subroutine which can be written to assign the required material model.

Any model can be meshed using one element type or any number of element
types depending on the modeller’s decision and the nature of the problem under
consideration. Structural elements such as solid, beam, truss, shell and special purpose
like spring elements and connectors are available that provide a flexible tool to simulate
different components of structures.
 Different loading types are available in ABAQUS as well as the ability to use
special subroutines to incorporate the user loading which is not included in the library.
Boundary conditions are provided using the boundary condition module using pinned
support and/or fixed support as well as the symmetry.

ABAQUS does not consider the parts connected or embedded although they
appear connected in the ASSEMBLY module until the modeller specifies the
interaction or contact between these parts.

4.2.1 Geometry
While Abaqus is primarily focused on structural mechanics and thermal
analysis, it does support some basic geometric operations and capabilities. However,
for detailed geometric modeling, especially for complex shapes, it is more common to
use dedicated CAD (Computer-Aided Design) software and then import the geometry
into Abaqus for analysis.

4.2.2 Property
Properties are used to define various material and section characteristics that are
essential for performing finite element analysis (FEA). These properties provide the
necessary information for the analysis to accurately simulate the behavior of materials
and structural component. Material properties define the mechanical behavior of the
material being simulated. This includes properties such as Young's modulus, Poisson's
ratio, density, thermal conductivity, specific heat, etc. Depending on the type of analysis
being performed (e.g., linear, nonlinear, thermal, etc.), different material models and
associated properties may be required.

4.2.3 Assembly
In Abaqus, each component of the assembly is typically defined as a separate
"part." Parts can represent individual components such as beams, plates, shells, or solid
bodies. Parts can be created within Abaqus/CAE or imported from external CAD
software.
Once the individual parts are defined, they are assembled together to form the
complete model. This involves positioning and orienting the parts relative to each other
to accurately represent the physical assembly being analyzed.
4.2.4 Step
In step, the analysis which you need to perform should be selected and the field
and history outputs should be defined by selecting the appropriate sections in the
geometry model.

4.2.5 Loading & Boundary Conditions

In Abaqus, loads and boundary conditions are typically defined in the "Load" module.
Concentrated and distributed loads can be applied using various load types available in
Abaqus, such as force, pressure, moment, temperature, etc.

Loading & Boundary Conditions define how the model interacts with external
forces, constraints, and environmental conditions. Boundary conditions also include
how the model interacts with its environment, such as contact interactions between parts
or surfaces, frictional behavior, and thermal contact conductance.

4.2.6 Mesh
Mesh in Abaqus is the process of dividing the geometry of a model into small
finite elements to discretize it for finite element analysis (FEA). The quality of the mesh
directly impacts the accuracy and efficiency of the simulation results. Abaqus provides
various meshing techniques and tools to generate high-quality meshes suitable for
different types of analyses.

Abaqus provides various mesh controls to refine, coarsen, or control the quality
of the mesh elements. These controls include element size, element shape, mesh
transition, and element deviation criteria.

Abaqus provides visualization tools to review and visualize the generated mesh,
including displaying element edges, node labels, mesh quality indicators, and other
mesh-related information. Users can inspect the mesh visually to ensure it meets the
desired quality and criteria.

Partitioning divides the geometry into smaller regions or parts, making it easier
to generate a mesh with finer control. Partitioning can be performed manually or
automatically based on predefined criteria.
4.2.7 Submission

Typically refers to the process of submitting a job for analysis. Once you have set up
your finite element model, defined the analysis steps, specified boundary conditions
and loads, and prepared the input file, you need to submit the job to the Abaqus solver
for computation.

4.2.8 Post-processing
In Abaqus, post-processing refers to the process of analyzing and visualizing the
results obtained from a finite element analysis (FEA) simulation. After running a
simulation and obtaining the output data, post-processing tools are used to interpret and
present the results in a meaningful way.

4.3 Modelling & Analysis of Hernia Mesh

4.3.1 Geometry
In Abaqus Version 6.14.1 is not specifically designed for geometry creation or
manipulation like CAD software, it does provide some tools for working with geometry
within the context of finite element analysis. These tools are good enough to sketch the
hernia mesh which is going to get simulated.

25
5
5
25

All the dimensions are in

mm
Fig. No. 4.3 Geometry of mesh

As the above figure gives the sketch of the hernia mesh that need to be studied how the
it is behaving while the load is applied on it the dimensions comprise of 25 x 25 x 3
mm3 and the pore (i.e., the hole that is generated in the solid) of size 4.6 x 4.6 mm 2
has been shown which gives the completion of the sketch there are totally 9 pores and
12 half pores which are used as the support structures and in the above figure all
dimensions are in mm, the distance between the adjacent pores is 1.3 mm

4.3.2 Property
Material properties define the mechanical behavior of the material being simulated.
This includes properties such as Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, density, thermal
conductivity, specific heat, etc.

a) Material Selection
Material selection plays a crucial role in the behavior of the implant that has been
developed, the material should have less stiffness and high deformation and should be
able to take high loads and shouldn’t harm the human body and any other parts and
should easily available and economical too.

(i) POLYPROPELENE (PP)

Polypropylene is a member of the polyolefin family and is derived from

propylene monomers through polymerization. The production process typically
involves the polymerization of propylene gas using a catalyst under controlled
conditions. This process yields a polymer with a high molecular weight, characterized
by its semi-crystalline structure, excellent chemical resistance, and high melting point,
typically ranging from 130°C to 171°C.

One of the most notable properties of polypropylene is its exceptional mechanical

strength and stiffness, making it suitable for a wide range of structural applications.
Additionally, polypropylene exhibits excellent resistance to moisture, chemicals, and
fatigue, rendering it ideal for outdoor and industrial applications where exposure to
harsh environments is common.

Polypropylene is not commonly used as a material for bio implants due to

concerns about long-term biocompatibility and complications, it does play a role in the
manufacturing of certain medical devices and components, including mesh implants
used in soft tissue reinforcement procedures.

Fig. No. 4.4 Structure of PP

Here are some properties which are assigned to the sketch/model in the property module
the properties are tabulated below (Table No. 4.1)

Table No. 4.1 Properties of PP

Density (g/cm3) 0.92

Young's Modulus (Pa) 3.8x108

Poisson’s ratio 0.43

Tensile Strength (GPa) 29.3

(ii) POLYLACTIC ACID (PLA)

Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable and bio-based thermoplastic polymer

derived from renewable resources such as corn starch or sugarcane. It is a versatile
material with a wide range of applications across various industries due to its
biocompatibility, mechanical properties, and environmental sustainability.

PLA exhibits good mechanical properties, including stiffness and strength,

which make it suitable for a variety of applications. However, its mechanical properties
are not as high as some petroleum-based plastics like polyethylene or polypropylene,
which may limit its use in certain demanding applications.

PLA has gained significant attention in the biomedical field due to its
biocompatibility and biodegradability. It is used in various medical applications,
including sutures, drug delivery systems, tissue engineering scaffolds, and orthopedic
implants. PLA-based implants offer the advantage of gradual degradation over time,
reducing the need for additional surgeries for implant removal.

Fig. No. 4.5 Structure of PLA

PLA hernia mesh offers several potential advantages over traditional non-
biodegradable mesh materials, including reduced foreign body response, enhanced
tissue healing, and sustainability.

Table No. 4.2 Properties of PLA

Density (g/cm3) 1.24

Young's Modulus (GPa) 2.16

Poisson ratio 0.35

4.3.3 Assembly
As the above mesh is an independent part by clicking the create instance select the
independent in the create instance dialogue box generated after the selecting the part
and then click ok, the independent instance will be created.

Fig. No. 4.6 Instance Dialogue Box

4.3.4 Step
Step includes the three sub modules which are step manager, Field Output Manager,
History Output Manager
(i) Step Manager

Step manager helps in the creation of the analysis which is to be performed to the
developed sketch. click on the step manager a dialogue box will opened and then click
on the create and then select the type of analysis you need to perform and at present
static structural has been selected.

Fig. No. 4.7 Step Manager Dialogue Box

(ii) Field Output Manager

By Clicking on the field output manager, the field output manager dialogue box will be
opened in this box need to select the field output for the model for conducting the static
structural general analysis, in the dialogue box in the output variable section need to

Fig. No. 4.8 Field Output Manager Dialogue Box

select the output that is Displacement and domain should be the whole model for the
present sketch after selecting and given the all the needy things click ok.

(iii) History Output Manager

History output manager is same as the field output manager which creates the output
request here in this model, after clicking on the History output manager the History
output manager dialogue box will be opened and need to define the outputs for the
present model here, they require output is displacement when the displacement is
highlighted the displacement tree will be opened and need to select U1, U2, U3 and select
the set that need to be perform the analysis

Fig. No. 4.9 History Output Manager Dialogue Box

4.3.5 Loading & Boundary Conditions

(i) Loading

Loading refers to the application of forces, displacements, temperatures, or other types

of boundary conditions to a finite element model in order to simulate real-world
conditions and analyze the response of the structure or system being studied. Loading
is a critical aspect of finite element analysis (FEA) as it directly influences the behavior
and performance of the model under various operating conditions.
 Fig. No. 4.10 Creating the Load

To apply 4MPa you need to select the load module and select the load manager
and then click on the create and then a dialogue box will be opened in category select
mechanical and select pressure in the type of selected step box and click on continue
after that select the face on which the load needs to be applied and then click ok after
that a dialogue box will be opened type the magnitude of 4MPa in the dialogue box
and click ok the load of 4MPa has been applied successfully.

(ii) Boundary Conditions

Boundary condition (BC) is a set of constraints or prescribed conditions applied

to the finite element model to simulate the interaction between the model and its
surrounding environment. Boundary conditions are essential for accurately
representing real-world scenarios and analyzing the behavior of structures or systems
under various loading and environmental conditions.
In the present model the boundary conditions are the fixed supports which are the
extensions of the mesh so to apply the boundary conditions to the present model select
the load module and then click on the boundary conditions a dialogue box will be
opened in that dialogue box in category section select the mechanical and then select
symmetry/anti-symmetry/encastre from the types of selected steps window and click
on continue.

After that select the surface on the model which is going to be the boundary
condition/fixed support and then click ok and a dialogue box will be opened and select
encastre and click ok by this the load and boundary conditions have been applied
successfully.

4.3.6 Mesh
Meshing refers to the process of dividing a geometric model into discrete elements in
order to perform finite element analysis (FEA). Meshing is a critical step in the FEA
workflow as it directly affects the accuracy, convergence, and computational efficiency
of the analysis. Abaqus provides several meshing options and tools to generate high-
quality meshes tailored to specific analysis requirements.
It's essential to ensure that the geometric model is properly prepared. This includes
defining the geometry, creating part instances, and specifying material properties and
boundary conditions.
 To generate the mesh the mesh module is been selected and then and click on
the seed part instance by clicking on it a dialogue box will be opened and enter the
global seed size click on apply and then click ok.

Fig. No. 4.13 Seed Part Instance Dialogue Box

After the seed part instance click on the assign element type and need to select the
model for which the element is to be assigned and click on done and then the assign
element type dialogue box will be opened in that dialogue box select the type of element
library, geometric order, family, element and then formulations that needs to be assign
to the model and then click ok and then done. After this click on the mesh part instance
and then click ok to generate mesh to the selected model and there are different options
to check or control the mesh such as verify mesh (which verifies the generated mesh)
and assign mesh controls (which controls element type to be assigned and technique).
4.3.7 Submission

Submission is the procedure to submit the model with all the boundary conditions,
material properties with generated mesh to the analysis to do this go to the job module
and click on the create job and create job dialogue box will be opened name the job and
select the source and click on continue and edit job dialogue box will be opened and
enter the description and click ok.

Click on the job manager and the job manager dialogue box will be opened from this
submit the job for the analysis and monitor the analysis by clicking on the monitor tab
available in the job manager dialogue box once the analysis is completed it will a pop
up will be shown and by clicking on the results tab available in the dialogue box one
can visualize the results.

4.3.8 Post-processing

Visualization in Abaqus is a crucial aspect of post-processing finite element analysis

(FEA) results. Abaqus offers a comprehensive set of visualization tools within its
graphical user interface (GUI), known as Abaqus/CAE (Complete Abaqus
Environment), to effectively visualize and analyze simulation results.

The primary visualizations in Abaqus is the deformed shape of the model under
applied loads. Users can visualize the deformation of the model relative to its original
(undeformed) state to understand how it responds to loading conditions.
 Abaqus/CAE supports animation of simulation results, allowing users to
visualize the time-dependent behavior of the model. Users can animate the deformed
shape, contour plots, vector plots, or any other visualization over time to observe
transient phenomena

The above model with the pore size of 4.6 mm with two different materials have the
deformation of:

Thickness (mm) Material Deformation (mm)

PP 2.8
3
PLA 0.5

The same procedure has been followed for the different pore sizes varying from 1.1 mm
to 9.2 mm.
CHAPTER – 5

FABRICATION
5.1 Introduction to Fabrication

Fabrication is the process of creating, manufacturing something by

assembling & manipulating materials, components & parts according to a specific
design. It involves various techniques and processes such as cutting, bending, welding,
machining, and assembling to transform raw materials into finished products.
Fabrication is essential across a wide range of industries, including manufacturing,
construction, engineering, and product development. It encompasses both traditional
methods, such as metal fabrication in workshops, and advanced technologies like
additive manufacturing (3D printing). Fabrication in additive manufacturing, involves
creating three dimensional objects by layering material based on a digital model. This
process differs from traditional subtractive manufacturing methods, where material is
removed from a solid block to create the desired shape.

Design

Slicing

Material
selection

Printing

Post
Processing

Fig 5.1 Flow Chart Fabrication

5.1.1 Design

The process begins with the creation of a digital 3D model using

computer-aided design (CAD) software or by scanning an existing object using 3D
scanners. This digital model serves as the blueprint for the physical object.

5.1.2 Slicing

The digital model is sliced into thin horizontal layers using slicing software.
Each layer represents a cross-section of the final object. The slicing software generates
instructions (G-code) for the 3D printer, specifying the path the printer's nozzle or laser
will follow to deposit material layer by layer.

5.1.3 Material Selection

Various materials can be used for 3D printing, including plastics, metals,

ceramics, and composites. The choice of material depends on factors such as the desired
properties of the final object, its intended use, and the capabilities of the 3D printer.

5.1.4 Printing

The 3D printer follows the instructions from the slicing software to deposit or
solidify material layer by layer, gradually building up the object from the bottom up.
Different types of 3D printing technologies exist, including fused deposition modeling
(FDM), stereolithography (SLA), selective laser sintering (SLS), and others, each with
its own specific process and materials.

5.1.5 Post Processing

Once the printing is complete, the object may require post-processing to

improve its surface finish or mechanical properties. Post-processing techniques may
include sanding, painting, polishing, heat treatment, or additional machining.

Fabrication in 3D printing offers several advantages over traditional

manufacturing methods, including the ability to create complex geometries, rapid
prototyping, reduced material waste, and customization.
5.2 FABRICATION OF HERNIA MESH

Hernia repairs involved sutures and techniques that aimed to close the hernia defect.
The concept of using a mesh to reinforce hernia repairs began to gain traction in the
mid-20th century. The initial meshes were made of materials like stainless steel and
nylon. These early attempts showed promise in reducing recurrence rates but presented
challenges in terms of biocompatibility and complications. the materials used for hernia
mesh manufacturing. Today, mesh materials are typically made from synthetic
polymers like polypropylene, which is known for its biocompatibility and strength.
These materials are designed to be inert in the body, allowing tissue to grow into and
around the mesh, providing additional support to the weakened area. Hernia mesh
manufacturing has seen significant advancements in production techniques.
Manufacturing processes involve weaving or knitting together the synthetic fibers to
create a three-dimensional mesh structure. structure allows for optimal tissue ingrowth
while maintaining flexibility for the patient’s comfort.

Fig. No. 5.2 Knitted Hernia Mesh

This knitting and weaving are very difficult and time consuming and they get impurities
while fabricating and required the skilled labour. The development of additive
manufacturing has overcome all these disadvantages and have high customization just
they need a CAD model to give input to the printer to fabricate the mesh.
The modelling and analysis of hernia mesh has been discussed in the chapter 4 and now
we are going to discuss the how the 3d model has been converted into the prototype.
The designed model has been converted into the Standard Tessellation Language (stl).

5.2.1 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D printing has emerged as a revolutionary

manufacturing technology, transforming the way products are designed, prototyped,
and manufactured. This additive manufacturing process, also known as Fused Filament
Fabrication (FFF), has gained widespread popularity due to its accessibility, versatility,
and cost-effectiveness. In this essay, we will delve into the workings of FDM 3D
printing, its applications across various industries, its advantages and limitations, and
its impact on the future of manufacturing and design.

Fig 5.3 Layout of FDM Printer

FDM 3D printing operates on a simple yet ingenious principle of layer-by-layer

additive manufacturing. The process begins with a digital 3D model created using
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software or obtained through 3D scanning. This digital
model is sliced into thin horizontal layers using slicing software, generating instructions
in the form of G-code that dictate the movement of the FDM printer's nozzle or extruder.

The FDM printer then heats a thermoplastic filament, typically made of

materials such as PLA& ABS to its melting point. The molten filament is extruded
through a nozzle onto a build platform, where it quickly cools and solidifies, forming a
layer of the desired object. This process is repeated layer by layer until the entire object
is fabricate.
 FDM technology is driving innovation and transforming the way products are
conceptualized, prototyped, and manufactured. While FDM 3D printing has its
limitations, ongoing advancements in materials, technology, and software are
expanding its capabilities

5.2.2 Working of FDM Printer

(i) Filament Feed

The filament feed involves the continuous supply of filament from a spool to the
printer's extruder assembly. The filament is guided through a feed tube and into the
extruder, where it is heated to its melting point. The feed mechanism ensures a
consistent and controlled flow of filament during the printing process, enabling precise
layer deposition.

Filament
feed

Extrusion

Layer
Deposition

Support
Structures

Cooling

Completion

Fig-5.4 Flow chart of working of FDM printer

(ii) Extrusion

Extrusion in FDM printers is the process of pushing molten material through a nozzle
to create layers of the desired shape and size. This process is essential in additive
manufacturing, where successive layers of material are deposited to build up a three-
dimensional object. Filament is heated to its melting point within an extruder assembly.
The molten filament is then extruded through a nozzle onto the build platform.
Extrusion plays a crucial role in achieving precise layer deposition and maintaining the
structural integrity of the printed parts.

(iii) Layer Deposition

Layer deposition is a fundamental concept in 3D printing, enabling the fabrication of
complex geometries and intricate designs with precise layer-by-layer control. Additive
manufacturing process offers numerous advantages, including rapid prototyping,
customization, and cost-effective production of functional prototypes and end-use parts.

(iv) Support Structures

Support structures in 3D printing are temporary structures generated during the printing
process to provide stability and prevent sagging or collapsing of overhanging or
complex geometries. These structures are necessary when printing objects with features
that do not have sufficient support from the layer below, such as horizontal or angled
sections that extend beyond a certain value.

(v) Cooling
Cooling in 3D printers is an essential process that helps ensure the quality and structural
integrity of printed [Link] cooling is crucial for achieving high-quality prints
with accurate dimensions, smooth surfaces, and minimal warping or distortion. By
carefully controlling the cooling process, printers can produce precise and reliable parts
suitable for a wide range of applications in industries.

(vi) Completion
Completion in printing involves a combination of printing, post-processing, and quality
control steps to ensure that the final printed object meets the desired requirements in
terms of accuracy, surface finish, and functionality. By carefully managing each stage
of the completion process, printers can produce high-quality, reliable parts suitable for
a wide range of applications across various industries.
5.2.3 Ultimaker S5
For current fabrication Ultimaker S5 printer has been used.

Fig 5.5 Ultimaker S5

The Ultimaker S5 is a professional-grade Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D

printer known for its reliability and versatility. It features a large build volume of 223
x 223 x 205 mm, suitable for a wide range of applications. With dual extrusion
capability, it can print with two different materials or colors simultaneously, enabling
complex prints. The printer offers a user-friendly touchscreen interface for easy
navigation and control of settings. It supports various connectivity options, including
Wi-Fi, Ethernet, and USB, for remote monitoring and control. Active bed leveling
ensures accurate prints by automatically adjusting the build platform. The S5 is
compatible with a wide range of materials, allowing for flexibility in material selection.
Optional enclosure enhances print quality, especially for temperature-sensitive
materials like ABS. Ultimaker Cura software simplifies the slicing process, making it
suitable for both beginners and experienced users.
 Table No- 5.1 Specifications of Ultimaker S5
Build volume 223 x 223 x 205 mm
Layer resolution 20 - 200 micron
Positioning precision (X/Y/Z) 12.5 / 12.5 / 5 micron
Filament diameter 2.85 mm
Nozzle diameter 0.4 mm
Nozzle temperature 180 - 260 ºC
Print Surface 50-100 ºC
Print: 30 mm/s – 300 mm/s
Speed
Travel: 30 mm/s – 350 mm/s

For the fabrication the best analysed mesh has been selected and fabricated through the
Ultimaker S5 as we see the below images had been printed.

(a) Grid Size 4.6x4.6 mm (b) Grid Size 2.3x2.3 mm

Fig 5.6 Selected Designs for fabrication (25x25x3 mm)

(i) Slicing

Before the slicing the designed mesh is converted in to the stl file and
uploaded the slicing software called cura which has been developed by the Ultimaker
and it is a free source software. Slicing refers to the process of converting a 3D model
into a set of instructions (G-code) that a 3D printer can understand and execute. This
process involves dividing the 3D model into thin horizontal layers and determining the
toolpath for the printer's extruder to follow for each layer. During slicing, various
parameters such as layer height, printing speed, infill density, support structures, and
temperature settings are configured based on the desired quality and properties of the
final print.
 Fig 5.7 Mesh after slicing

For our design the various slicing parameters are

Table No- 5.2 Slicing Parameters

Layer Height 0.1mm

Infill Density 100 %
Infill Pattern Triangles
Printing Temperature 220 ºC
Print Surface Temperature 60 ºC
Print Speed 30 mm/s
Total Number of Layers 33
Print Time 48 minutes

(ii) Machine Setup

After the slicing operation machine setup is crucial it includes the importing the sliced
file into the pendrive and that pendrive will be attached to printer which gives the input
of the design that needs to be print in the form of G -codes and adding the
polypropylene material spool to the system which is been the form of filament and
guided through the tubes into the nozzle assembly after successful setup of the machine
with material and input data press start the print it will calibrate the input data and starts
the printing, after the calibration the a small portion of material will be extruded which
has been left in the nozzle assembly in previous print ,if supports structures are given
these structures will help in better surface finish.
 Fig 5.8 Image while printing the mesh

(iii) Printing

The 3D printer follows the instructions from the slicing software to deposit or
solidify material layer by layer, gradually building up the object from the bottom up.
Extruder follows the G-codes that are given as the input and prints the part layer by
layer with the parameters that are given as the inputs in the slicing software.
(iv) Post Processing

Fig 5.9 Part after Printed

Once the printing is complete, the object may require post-processing to

improve its surface finish or mechanical properties. Post processing includes the
cooling the printed part until it reaches the room if required the part is kept in the curing
chamber after the curing the support structures are removed and the printed part is
inspected and the surface finish is checked and the rough surface is been smoothed by
using the accessorize.