Revision Notes: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

1. Frédéric Sorrieu’s Vision (1848)

 The Prints: French artist Frédéric Sorrieu prepared four prints visualizing a world of
"democratic and social Republics."
 Utopian Vision: He depicted people of Europe and America marching toward the
Statue of Liberty, which bears the Torch of Enlightenment and the Charter of
the Rights of Man.
 Key Concept: The transition from Absolutist (repressive monarchical) regimes to
Nation-States where citizens share a common identity.

2. The French Revolution and Collective Identity

 First Expression: The 1789 French Revolution was the first clear expression of
nationalism.
 Measures for Unity:
o Ideas of la patrie (fatherland) and le citoyen (citizen).
o New tricolour flag replacing the royal standard.
o Formation of the National Assembly.
o Standardized weights, measures, and a centralized administrative system.
o French promoted as the common language.
 Napoleon’s Civil Code (1804): Also called the Napoleonic Code, it abolished birth
privileges, ensured equality before the law, and secured property rights.

3. The Making of Nationalism: Liberalism & Conservatism

 The Middle Class: Industrialization led to a new middle class (industrialists,
professionals) who championed Liberalism.
 Liberal Nationalism:
o Political: Focused on individual freedom, government by consent, and a constitution.
o Economic: Demanded freedom of markets and the abolition of state restrictions.
 Zollverein (1834): A customs union formed by Prussia to abolish tariff barriers and
reduce currencies, strengthening economic nationalism.
 The Treaty of Vienna (1815): After Napoleon's defeat, European powers (Britain,
Russia, Prussia, Austria) met to restore monarchies and establish a Conservative
order.
 The Revolutionaries: Under repressive conservative regimes, secret societies
formed. Giuseppe Mazzini founded "Young Italy" to fight for a unified Italian
Republic.

4. The Age of Revolutions (1830–1848)

 Greek War of Independence (1821–1832): Mobilized nationalist feelings among
the educated elite; independence was recognized by the Treaty of Constantinople.
 Romanticism: A cultural movement emphasizing emotions and intuition over
reason.
o Johann Gottfried Herder claimed true German culture was found in the common
people (das volk).
o Language (e.g., Polish in Russia-occupied Poland) became a tool of national
resistance.
 1848 Revolution of the Liberals: Middle classes demanded a constitution and
national unification. The Frankfurt Parliament was convened but failed after the
Prussian King rejected the crown.
 Revision Notes: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

5. Unification Movements
 Germany (1866–1871):
o Architect: Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck.
o Method: Used the Prussian army/bureaucracy; fought three wars (Austria, Denmark,
France).
o Result: Kaiser William I proclaimed Emperor in 1871.
 Italy (1859–1870):
o Divided into seven states; only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian house.
o Led by Cavour (diplomacy) and Garibaldi (armed volunteers/Red Shirts).
o Victor Emmanuel II became King of united Italy in 1861.
 Britain: Not a revolution, but a long process. The Act of Union (1707) allowed
England to dominate Scotland. Ireland was forcibly incorporated in 1801.

6. Visualizing the Nation & Imperialism

 Allegories: Nations were personified as female figures.
o Marianne: Represented the French Republic (liberty, unity).
o Germania: Represented Germany (heroism, wearing oak leaves).
 Balkans Crisis: After 1871, the Balkans (Slavs) became an area of intense conflict
due to the Ottoman Empire's decline and big-power rivalry, eventually leading to
World War I.

Terminology to Remember
 Absolutist: A monarchical government that is centralized, militarized, and repressive.
 Utopian: A vision of a society so ideal it is unlikely to exist.
 Plebiscite: A direct vote to accept or reject a proposal.
 Suffrage: The right to vote.
 Allegory: An abstract idea expressed through a person or thing.

Year Country/ Key Event Significant Underlying Outcome or National

Region Historical Cause or Impact
Figure Ideology
1789 France French French Liberalism; end of Transfer of sovereignty from
Revolution Revolutionarie autocracy and monarchy to a body of
s clerical privileges citizens; creation of a sense
of collective identity
1804 France Napoleonic Napoleon Administrative Establishment of equality
and Code (Civil Bonaparte efficiency and before the law; abolition of
conquere Code) rationality; feudal system and serfdom
d revolutionary
territories principles
1815 Europe Congress of Duke Conservatism; Restoration of Bourbon
(Vienna) Vienna / Metternich restoration of dynasty; creation of a new
Treaty of monarchies conservative order;
Vienna redistribution of European
territories
 Revision Notes: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

1821 Greece Greek War of Lord Byron Revolutionary Treaty of Constantinople

- Independenc nationalism; recognized Greece as an
1832 e romanticism independent nation
1830 France July Louis Philippe Liberal- Overthrow of Bourbon
Revolution nationalism kings; installation of
constitutional monarchy
1831 Italy Exile and Giuseppe Republicanism; Founding of secret societies
revolutionary Mazzini Young Italy to work toward a single
activity unified republic
1848 German Frankfurt Friedrich Liberal middle- Drafted a constitution for a
states Parliament Wilhelm IV class demands German nation; ultimately
(Frankfurt for repressed by the monarchy
) constitutionalism and military
1859 Italy Unification of Cavour, Diplomatic Sardinia-Piedmont leads the
- Italy Giuseppe alliances and defeat of Austrians and
1870 Garibaldi, military Spanish rulers; Victor
Victor campaigns Emmanuel II proclaimed
Emmanuel II king
1866 Germany Unification of Otto von Conservative-led Three wars ending in
- Germany Bismarck, state power and Prussian victory;
1871 Kaiser William military victory proclamation of the German
I Empire at Versailles
1867 Habsburg Granting of Habsburg Pressure from Hungarians granted more
Empire Autonomy rulers liberal-nationalist autonomy
revolutionaries

Textual Questions and Answers

1(1). Write a note on Guiseppe Mazzini.

[Link] Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary, born in Genoa on June 22, 1807,
in a middle class family. He was a patriot, political activist, writer, founder of
young Italy and played a very important role in liberal nationalism. He was an
Italian journalist and politician who lived back in the 19th century. He was sent
into exile at the age of 24 in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He
founded underground societies named ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles and ‘Young
Europe’ in Berne, whose members were like-minded young men from Poland,
France, Italy and the German States. He was one among many who supported
free democratic Italy rather than its monarch. Chancellor Duke Metternich once
described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.
 Revision Notes: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

1(2). Write a note on Count Camillo de Cavour.

[Link] Camillo de Cavour was Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont state who led
the movement to unify the regions of Italy. He was neither a revolutionary nor a
democrat. Like many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite,
he spoke French much better than he did Italian. He engineered a careful
diplomatic alliance with France, which helped Sardinia-Piedmont defeat the
Austrian forces in 1859, and thereby free the northern part of Italy from the
Austrian Habsburgs.

1(3). Write a note on The Greek war of independence.

[Link] war of independence was a successful war of independence waged
by Greek revolutionaries between 1821 and 1829 against the Ottoman Empire.
Greek nationalists were influenced by the idea of liberal nationalism. They were
supported by the West European countries in this war of independence. Great
Britain and the Russian Empire, while poets and artists hailed Greece as the
cradle of European civilisation. Further, the poets and artists, who added
romanticism to the Greek struggle of independence, participated in Greek war
against the Ottoman empire. With the Treaty of Constantinople in July 1832,
Greece was recognised as an independent nation.

1(4). Write a note on the Frankfurt parliament.

Sol.  Frankfurt parliament was an all-German National Assembly formed by the
middle-class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans belonging to
the different German regions.
 The German middle class decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly
in 1848 and 831 persons were elected. It was convened on 18 May 1848 in the
Church of St. Paul, in the city of Frankfurt.
 The assembly decided that the German nation would be a constitutional
monarchy controlled by Parliament and offered the crown to the Prussian King,
Friedrich Wilhelm IV. But he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose
the elected assembly.
 This assembly drafted a constitution for the German nation to be headed by a
monarchy subject to a parliament. However, it faced opposition from the
aristocracy and military.
 Also, as it was dominated by the middle classes, it lost its mass support base.
In the end, it was forced to disband on 31 May 1849.

1(5). Write a note on The role of women in nationalist struggles.

Sol.  Women actively participated in movements, faced the tortures of police, stood
by their male counterparts, spread the idea of liberal nationalism and also were
members of various revolutionary organisations. They faced the torture of
police but still, they stood by their male counterparts.
 The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within
 Revision Notes: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women had participated

actively over the years.
 Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and
taken part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this, they were
denied suffrage during the election of the Assembly. They were given little or
no political rights or the right to vote till the end of the 19th century.

2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective
identity among the French people?
[Link] French revolutionaries took many important steps to create a sense
of collective identity among the French people:
i. Ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) popularised
the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
ii. A new French flag replaced the royal standard.
iii. The Estates General was renamed the National Assembly and was elected
by a group of active citizens.
iv. A central administrative system made uniform laws for the entire nation,
and regional dialects were discouraged in favour of French as the national
language.

3. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which
they were portrayed?
Sol.i. Marianne : In France, nation was christened as Marianne, a popular
Christian name which underlined the idea of a people's nation. Statues of
Marianne with red cap, the tricolor and the cockade, were erected at public
squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity. Marianne images
were marked on coins and stamps as well.
ii. Germania: In Germany, Germania became the allegory of German nation.
In visual representations, she is shown wearing a crown of oak leave, as the
German oak stands for heroism.

4. Briefly describe the process of German unification.

[Link] Process of unification of Germany:
i. In the 1800s, nationalist feelings were strong in the hearts of the middle-
class Germans. They united in 1848 to create a nation-state out of the numerous
German states.
ii. By 1848, the popular effort of political associations failed in installing a
constitutional monarchy in Germany.
iii. The failure of Frankfurt Parliament made it clear that German unification
had to come through the combined effort of monarchy and army supported by
large landowners.
iv. Prussia soon became the leader of German unification movement.
v. Chief Minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of the process with
 Revision Notes: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

support from Prussian army and Prussian bureaucracy.

vi. The unification process was completed after Prussia won wars with Austria,
Denmark and France over seven years’ time.
vii. In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed the German
Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.

5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more
efficient in the territories ruled by him?
[Link] introduced the following changes to make the administrative
system more efficient in the areas ruled by him:
i. He established the Civil Code of 1804, also known as the Napoleonic Code.
This code did away with all privileges based on birth. It established equality
before Law and also secured the right to property.
ii. He simplified administrative divisions.
iii. He abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and
manorial dues.
iv. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed many freedoms
that were not given to them.
v. In towns too, guild systems were removed.
vi. Transport and communication systems were improved.

6. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the
political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?
[Link] 1848 revolution of the liberals:
The 1848 revolution was led by the educated middle class along with the poor,
unemployed, starving peasants and workers in many European countries for
fulfilling their demands of constitutionalism with national unification.
Following were the political, social and economic ideas supported by
the liberals:
i. Political ideas: The ideology of liberalism supported the ideas of national
unity and abolition of aristocratic privileges. In German regions, a large number
of political associations whose members were middle-class professionals,
businessman and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and
decided to vote for all German National Assembly.
ii. Social ideas: A large number of women had participated actively and
formed their own political associations founded a newspaper, took part in
political meetings and struggled for the right to vote. They supported freedom
for the individual and the idea of equality of all before the law.
iii. Economic ideas: Liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the
abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.

7. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of

nationalism in Europe.
 Revision Notes: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

[Link] from wars and territorial expansion, culture also played a crucial role in the
development of nationalism.
i. Romanticism was a European cultural movement aimed at developing
national unity by creating a sense of shared heritage and common history. The
Romantic artists’ emphasis on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings gave
shape and expression to nationalist sentiments. The strength of art in promoting
nationalism is well exemplified in the role played by European poets and artists
in mobilising public opinion to support the Greeks in their struggle to establish
their national identity.
ii. Folk songs, dances and poetry contributed to popularising the spirit of
nationalism and patriotic fervour in Europe. German philosopher Johann Gottfried
claimed that the German culture was to be discovered among the common
people through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances. So collecting and
recording these forms of folk culture was essential to the project of nation-
building.
iii. Language also played a distinctive role in developing nationalist feelings
in Europe. An example of this is how during Russian occupation, the use of
Polish came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian
dominance. During this period, Polish language was forced out of schools and
Russian language was imposed everywhere. Following the defeat of an armed
rebellion against Russian rule in 1831, many members of the clergy in Poland
began using language as a weapon of national resistance. They did so by
refusing to preach in Russian, and by using Polish for Church gatherings
and religious instruction. The emphasis on the use of vernacular language, the
language of the masses, helped spread the message of national unity.

8. Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the
nineteenth century.
[Link] of Germany as a nation state:
i. A large number of political associations whose members were middle class
professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans as members were formed in
Germany.
ii. Romantic imagination and national feelings also became a major factor for
formation of nation-state. Johann Gottfried Herder of Germany popularised the
true spirit of nation through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances.
iii. Otto von Bismarck had architected the process of unification with the help
of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. In Germany, three wars against Austria,
Denmark and France were fought over seven years.
Development of nation state in Italy:
i. Like Germany, Italy too had a long history of political fragmentation.
Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multi-national
Habsburg Empire.
ii. Italy was divided into several states. These were being ruled by dynasties
 Revision Notes: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

like Habsburg, Pope and Bourbon dynasty. Only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by
an Italian princely house.
iii. Caricature of Garibaldi of Italy helped a lot in stimulating nationalistic
feeling among masses.
iv. Cavour established a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and won two
Sicilies.

9. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?
[Link] history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe because:
i. The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were
ethnic ones-such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. All of these ethnic groups had
their own cultural and political traditions. But as the English nation steadily grew
in wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its influence over the
other nations of the islands.
ii. The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the
formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England
was able to impose its influence on Scotland. The British parliament was
henceforth dominated by its English members.
iii. The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or
wear their national dress and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their
homeland.
iv. The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance
over a largely Catholic country. Catholic revolts against British dominance were
suppressed. Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
v. The symbols of the new Britain - the British flag, the national anthem, the
English language were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as
subordinate partners in this union.

10. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

[Link] tension emerged in the Balkans because the Balkan states were
aspiring for nationalism. The Balkans was a region comprising modern-day
Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina,
Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro and their inhabitants were called Slavs. In
the19th century, the major portion of the Balkans was under the Ottoman
Empire. The ideas of romantic nationalism developed in the Balkans.
Nationalist tensions emerged in the Balkans because of the spread of ideas of
romantic nationalism as also the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire that had
previously ruled over this area.