MODULE IN ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY

A. DISCOVERY OF ELECTRICITY

Ancient Egyptian (2750 BCE)

• Were aware of shocks from electric fish Thunderer of the Nile (protectors of all other
fish).
• Electric fish were again reported millennia later by ancient Greek, Roman, and Arabic
naturalists and physicians.
• They attested to the numbing effect of electric shocks delivered by catfish and electric
rays, and knew that such shocks could travel along conducting objects.
• Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of
amber, could be rubbed with cat’s fur to attract light objects like feathers.

Thales of Miletus- made a series of observations on static electricity around 600 BCE.

Parthians (old Persia), (247 BC- 224 AD)

• may have had knowledge of electroplating, based on the 1936 discovery of the Baghdad
battery, which resembles a galvanic cell and nearest approach to the discovery of the
identity of lightning, and electricity from any other source, is to be attributed to the
Arabs, who before the 15th century had the Arabic word for lightning “raad” applied to
the electric rays.

William Gilbert (English scientist)- Father of Electricity and Magnetism)

• Made a careful study of electricity and magnetism, distinguishing the lodestone effect
from static electricity produced by rubbing amber.
• He coined the term electricity from the new Latin word “electricus”, Greek word for
amber in 1600.
• Further work was conducted by Otto von Guericke, Robert Boyle Stephen Gray and C.F.
du Fay.
• Had experiments with magnets, coining the terms electric force, magnetic pole, and
electric attraction.

Pieter van Musschenbroek (Dutch physicist) invented the “Leyden Jar”, a device that stored
static electricity in 1745. This was the first capacitor.

William Watson- discharged a Leyden Jar through a circuit in 1747. This begins the
comprehension of current and circuits.

Benjamin Franklin – conducted an experiment with a kite, a key and a storm in 1752.
• This experiment simply proved that lightning and tiny electric sparks were the same
thing.
• In 18th century, most people give credit to him for discovering electricity.
 • Until this time, scientists had mainly known about and experimented with static
electricity.
• He took things a big step ahead. He came up with the idea that electricity had positive
and negative elements and that electricity flowed between these elements.
Luigi Galvani
• In 1791, published his discovery of bioelectromagnetics, demonstrating that electricity
was the medium by which neurons passed signals to the muscles.

Alessandro Volta
• In 1800, he invented the first electric battery or voltaic pile that is made up of
alternating layers of zinc and copper which provided scientists with a more reliable
source of electrical energy than the electrostatic machines.
• When a wire was connected to both ends of the pile, a steady current flowed.
• He also proved that electricity could travel over wires.

Oersted and Ampere observe that a coil of wires acts like a magnet when a current is passed
through it in 1820.

Michael Faraday (1821)- invented the first electric motor.

George Simon Ohm- states a relationship between potential, current, and circuit resistance in
1826.

Hippolyte pixie (1832)- invented the first dynamo, an electric generator capable of delivering
power for industry (using Faraday’s Principle).
• His light bulb burned out quickly.

Sir William Robert Grove (1839-1842)

• Developed the first fuel cell, a device that produces electrical energy by combining
hydrogen and oxygen.

Maxwell writes equations that described the electromagnetic field in 1873.

Joseph Swan (1878)- an Englishman who invented the first incandescent light bulb/electric
lamp.
1879 – First commercial power station opens in San Francisco, uses a Brush generator and arc
Lights
1883 – Transformer invented
William Stanley – developed an alternating current electric system 1886.
J.J. Thompson – discovered an electron in 1897.
Charles Brush – developed an arc lamp that could be powered by a generator.
• First used of a large windmill to generate electricity in 1888.
• Used the windmill to charge batteries in the cellar of his home in Cleveland, Ohio.

Thomas Edison- founded the Edison Electric Light Co. (US), in New York City.
• He bought a number of patents related to electric lighting.
 • In 1879, he invented an incandescent light bulb that could be used for about 40 hours
without burning out.
• In 1879, electric lights were first used for public street lighting in Cleveland, Ohio.
• By 1880 his bulbs could be used for 1200 hours.
• California electric Light Company, Inc. in San Francisco was the first electric company
to sell electricity to customers.
• The company used two small brush generators to power 21 brush arc light lamps.
• In 1882, he opened the Pearl Street Power Station in New York City. It was one of the
world’s first central electric power plants and could power 5,000 lights. It was also a
direct current (DC) power system.

E. W. v. Siemens invented the electric streetcar in 1881.

Nikola Tesla (1883)- invented the “Tesla coil:, a transformer that changes electricity from low
voltage to high voltage making it easier to transport over long distances.

Sir Charles Algernon Parsons- invented the steam turbine generator, capable of generating
huge amounts of electricity.

Others who worked to bring the use of electricity to where it is today include Scottish inventor
James Watt, Andre Ampere, a French mathematician, and German mathematician and physicist
George Ohm.

And so, it was not just one person who discovered electricity. While the concept of electricity
was known for thousands of years, when it came time to develop it commercially and
scientifically, there were several great minds working on the problem at the same time

B. ELECTRICAL NATURE OF MATTER

Atom – Smallest particle of an element that retains all the characteristics of that element.
• Consists of positively charge protons and uncharged neutrons in the nucleus, and several
negatively charge electrons that surround the nucleus.
• Have equal numbers of protons and electrons.
• When atoms become charged, only the electrons move from atom to atom.
• If an atom gains an extra electron, the overall (net) charge is called a negative ion.
• If the atom loses an electron, the overall charge is positive, and the atom is called a
positive ion.
• Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.

Parts of the Atom

TYPES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE

Protons- positively charge particle. It cannot move.

Electrons- occupy specific energy levels, or “shells” around the nucleus.

• It moves from one shell to another.

Protons and electrons- have the same amount of charge, but their charges are opposite.
When charges are forced to move from their normal positions, say by being rubbed together,
they become “charged” with “electricity”.

Electrostatics- the study of charge separation (static electricity).

FORMS OF ELECTRICITY
1. Static – a build-up of charge on an objects
2. Current – a steady flow of electrons through a conductor

LAW OF ELECTRIC CHARGES

• Like charges repel

• Opposite charges attract
▪ The electric force between two objects is directly proportional to the net
charge on each object.
▪ The electric force is indirectly proportional to the square of the distance
between each object.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF CHARGES

• Charge can neither be created nor destroyed.
C. COULOMB’S LAW

Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806)- French Physicist

Coulomb’s Law- the force on one charge exerts on another is directly proportional to the
magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.

F = kq1q2 q1 and q2 = electric charge

r2 r = distance separating the charges
k = proportionality constant
9.0 x 109 N.m2/C2
Experiment shows that the electric force between two charges is proportional to the
product of the charges and inversely proportional to the distance between them.

The force is along the line connecting the charges, and is attractive if the charges are
opposite, and repulsive if they are the same.

Comparison of Coulomb’s Law and Newton’s Law

Coulomb’s Law Newton’s Law

Electric charge is quantized in units of the electron charge.

Sample Problem 1

Two point charges are 5.0 m apart. If the charges are 0.020 C and 0.030 C, what is the
force between them and is it attractive or repulsive?

1 q1q2 Nm 2  ( 0.020 C )( 0.030 C ) 

F= = 8.99 x 109  
4 0 r 2 C 2  ( 5.0 m )2 


F = 0.000216 x 109 N = 2.2 x 105 N

The force is repulsive - both charges are positive.

Sample Problem 2

What is the net force acting on q3?

4.00m F23 F13

q2- +
37.00
q2 = 2.00 x 10−9 C q q3 = 5.00 x 10−9 C
3
3.00m
5.00m
+
q
1

Sample Problem 3

Object A has a positive charge of 6.0 x 10^-6C. Object B, carrying a positive charge of 3.0 x
10^-6 C, is 0.030m away.

A. Calculate the force of B acting on A.

B. What would be the force (the same charge and magnitude of A and B) on B if it
were negative?

Sample Problem 4

Two-point charges are located on the y- axis as follows:

q1= 3.80nC at y= 0.60m

q2= -2.50nC at the origin

what is the total electric force (magnitude and direction) exerted by these two charges
on the third charge, q3= +6nC located at y = -0.40m?

Sample Problem 5

A charge q1= -3nC is placed at the origin of an x-y coordinate system and a charge q2=
+2nC is placed on the y-axis at y= 4cm. If a q3= +5nC is placed at x= 3cm, y=4cm, find
the net force exerted on q3 due on the other two charges.

Sample Problem 6

Sphere A with a charge of 6µC located at the origin is near two other charged spheres.
Sphere B, -3µC is located 4 cm to the right of Sphere A. Sphere C, +1.5µC is located 3
cm directly underneath the origin. Determine the net force acting on Sphere A.
D. TRANSFER OF ELECTRIC CHARGE

1. Friction- electrons are transferred from one material to another by direct rubbing.
2. Conduction- charge is transferred by contact.
3. Induction- transfer of charge without physical contact.

Conservation of Charge
• The overall charge in the isolated system remains constant.

E. NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRIC FIELD

Electrical Energy- energy associated with electrical charges.

Electrical Charges- a property that causes subatomic particles such as protons and electrons to
attract and repel each other.

KINDS OF MATERIALS

Insulator- it is a material in which electrons cannot move freely from atom to atom.
Example: rubber, glass
Conductor- it is a material in which electrons can move freely from one atom to another.
Example: metal
Semiconductors-A semiconductor material has an electrical conductivity value falling between
that of a conductor, such as metallic copper, and an insulator, such as glass. Its resistivity
falls as its temperature rises; metals are the opposite.
Example: ceramics

F. ELECTRIC FIELDS/LINES OF FORCE

• The space around the electric charge over which the charge exerts a force.
 • Electric field strength depends on:
o The amount of charge that produces the field.
o The distance from the charge.
• The arrows are always showing the direction that a positive charge would move in the
field.

• The electric field is stronger where the field lines are closer together.
• Electric field between two closely spaced, oppositely charged parallel
plates are constant.

COMPARISON BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH AND GRAVITATIONAL

FILED STRENGTH

Electric Field Strength Gravitational Filed Strength

The force per unit charge experienced by a The force per unit mass experienced
Small positive test charge placed in the field. by a small test mass placed in the
field.

G. ELECTRIC LINES
• Because there are two charges that move in different directions in a field it has been
decided that field lines should show the direction that a positive charge would accelerate
if placed in the field.

• The number of field lines starting (ending) on a positive (negative) charge is proportional
to the magnitude of the charge.
• Field lines indicate the direction of the field; the field is tangent to the line.
• The magnitude of the field is proportional to the density of the lines.
• Field lines start on positive charges and end on negative charges; the number is
proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

1. Circuit
• Is any arrangement of materials that provides a path for electrons to flow.
• It consists of a source of electrical energy, connecting wires and a load.

Kinds of Circuit
a. Closed Circuit- allows a complete path for electrons to travel
b. Open Circuit- does not allow a complete path for the electrons to travel
Flow of Charge
• Potential Difference: When the ends of an electric conductor are at different
electric potentials (voltages).
• Charge continues to flow until the ends of the conductor has the same voltage.

2. Electrical Current
• It is the movement of charged particles in a specific direction.
• It is the flow of charged particles.
• The electrons in a current flow from negative to positive.
• Electrons flows in the direction which is opposite to the direction of electric current.
• It flows from higher electric potential to lower electric potential.
• It is a measure of the number of electrical charges passing through a cross section of a
conductor in a given time.
• I = q/t
• Where:
o I= current
o q=electrical charge
 o t=time
• The unit, ampere (A) is named after Andre Marie Ampere, a French Physicist who
made important contributions to the theory of electricity and magnetism.
• 1 ampere means that there is 1 coulomb of charge passing through a cross section of a
wire every 1 second.
• Ammeter measures electric current or measures how much charges flow in a certain
cross section at a given time, it has to be connected in series.

• Shows how the ammeter is connected in a circuit. The positive terminal of an

ammeter is connected to the positive terminal of the energy source (e.g. battery) while
the negative terminal is connected to the negative terminal of the energy source.

Conventional Current or Simply Current

• It is the movement of charges from the positive side of the battery to the negative
side.

Electron Current
• It is the direction of the flow of electrons is from negative terminal to the positive
terminal.
• The direction of current does not affect what the current does.

Level of current that is dangerous to people

Current in Amps Effect on a Person

0.001 Amps Can be felt

0.005 Amps Painful

0.010 Amps Involuntary muscle spasms

 0.015 Amps Loss of muscle control

0.070 Amps If through heart, serious injury, likely

fatal if its lasts more than 1 second

Kinds of Electrical Current:

A. Alternating Current (AC)
• It is an electric current which periodically reverses direction and changes its
magnitude continuously with time.
• It is commonly used in homes and businesses throughout the world.
• It is created by an AC electric generator, which determines the frequency.
• An AC waveform can be sinusoidal, square or sawtooth-shaped.
• Some AC waveforms are irregular or complicated.
Advantages of AC:
• The single greatest advantage of alternating current is that AC current can be
transformed and DC current cannot be transformed.
• It can be controlled by a wide range of components (e.g. resistors, capacitors
and inductors).
• This allows high-voltage electrical power to be distributed with smaller wires
and lower amperage.

How to generate?

AC in Capacitors
• In an AC circuit, the current can continue to flow, as the plates become alternately
charged positively and negatively.
• For both AC and DC circuits, the voltage across the resistor is related to the current
by V=IR.
• Similar relationship exists for a capacitor.

AC in Inductors
• In an AC circuit, the current is always changing so the inductor is always producing
an opposing voltage so is always limiting the amount of current that can flow.
• For both AC and DC circuits, the voltage across the resistor is related to the current
by V=IR.
• A similar relationship exists for an inductor.

History of Alternating Current

 William Stanley, Jr.- designed one of the first practical devices to transfer AC power
efficiently
between isolated circuits.
Nikola Tesla and Carl Wilhelm Siemens- contributed to the AC power system used today
that was developed after 1886.

B. Direct Current (DC)

• Electrons move in one direction.
• Batteries produce direct current.

How to generate?
Sample Problem

A charge of 825 coulombs was passed through a wire in 1 minute. What was the average
electric current during that interval?

Solution:
Given: q= 825 C I = q/t
t=1 minute I= 825 C/1 minute
I=? I= 825 C/60 seconds
I= 13.75 C/s
I= 13.75 A

What makes the charges move in a closed circuit?

3. Voltage
• The electric pressure that causes current to flow.
• It is the potential difference between two points in an electric field.
• It is the work done on the charges as it passes through a load is measured as the
voltage across the load.

• V = W/q
• Where:
o V = voltage
o W= work
 o q=charge
• Voltmeter measures voltage.
• The unit of voltage is volt (V), named after Alessandro Volta who invented the
voltaic pile, the forerunner of what we now call the dry cell.

• The voltmeter must be connected parallel or across the load. The positive terminal of
a voltmeter is connected to the positive terminal of the bulb while the negative
terminal of a voltmeter is connected to the negative terminal of the bulb.

Sample Problem

Calculate the voltage if 300 Joules of work is used to move a charge of 150C?

Solution:

Given: W= 300 Joules V = W/q

q=150 C V = 300 J/150C
V=? V = 2 J/C
V = 2V
4. Resistance
• It opposes the flow of charges.
• It is the opposition of a material offers to current.
• It can also be measured and expressed in units called Ohms (Ω), named after the
German Physicist George Simon Ohm.

Resistors- an object that has a given resistance.

• Circuit component that resists (limits) the flow of electrons in an electric circuit.
Factors Affecting Resistance
1. A lower resistance would mean that there is less opposition in the flow of charges
and therefore bigger current.
2. Different material have different amounts of resistance.
o Conductors definitely have very little resistance and therefore allow more
charges to pass through.
o Insulators are materials that have very high resistance and therefore flow
of charges would be difficult.
3. The length and thickness of the conducting wires are factors that affect resistance
encountered by current. The longer the wire, the greater will be its resistance and
the greater the cross sectional area (a measurement of the thickness of the wire),
the lower will be its resistance.
4. The resistance of an object also changes when the object becomes wet.

Laws of Resistance
1. Law of lengths- the resistance of a uniform conductor is directly proportional to its
length.
R1 = l1
R2 = l2
A wire with a length of 5 m have a resistance of 2Ω. What will be the
resistance of an 8m wire?

Given: l1 = 5m Solution: R1 = l1
R1 = 2Ω R2 = l2
l2 = 8m 2Ω = 5m
R2 = ? R2 8m
R2 = 3.2 Ω

2. Law of Diameters- the resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the

square of its diameter or its cross-sectional area.
R1 = d22
R2 = d12

An iron wire with a diameter of 0.80 mm will have a resistance of 0.4Ω.

What resistance will an iron wire of 0.40mm diameter have if it has the same
length as iron wire?

Given: R1 = 0.4Ω Solution: R1 = d22

d1 = 0.80 mm R2 = d12
d2 = 0.40mm 0.4Ω = (0.40mm)2
R2 = ? R2 (0.80mm)2
R2 = 1.60 Ω
 3. Law of the nature of the material- wires of different materials offer different
amounts of resistance.
R = ρl where: ρ= resistivity in ohm-meters (Ω.m)
A l = length of the wire in meters
A = area of the wire in square meters

What is the resistance of a silver wire 15m long at 200C and whose
diameter is 0.00085m? The resistivity of silver at 200C is 1.60 x 10-8 Ω.m.

Given: l = 15 m
d = 0.0085 m
ρ = 1.60 x 10-8 Ω.m
t = 200C

Solution: R = ρl A = πr2 Radius = diameter

A 2

Radius = diameter 0.0085 m = 0.000425 m

2 2
A = 3.14 (4.25 x 10 m) = 56.72 x 10-8m2
-4 2

R = (1.60 x 10-8 Ω.m) (15m)

56.72 x 10-8m2
R = 0.42 Ω

4. Law of Temperature- all substance changes electrical resistance as the temperature

changes.
R = Ro (1 + αT)
Where: Ro = resistance of the metal at 00C
α = temperature coefficient of resistance
T = temperature in oC

Resistivities and Temperature Coefficients of Resistivity for Various Materials

Color Coded Resistors

Mnemonic Device Color First Second Multiplier Tolerance

Band Band

Bright Bad Black 0 0 x100

Boys Boy Brown 1 1 x101 1%

Rise Raped Red 2 2 x102 2%

Over Our Orange 3 3 x103

Your Young Yellow 4 4 x104

Grades Girl Green 5 5 x105

By But Blue 6 6 x106

Very Violeta Violet 7 7 x107

 Good Gave it Gray 8 8 x108

Work Willingly White 9 9 x109

Gold 0.1 5%

Silver 0.01 10%

None 20%

Example

Bands Color Value

First Band Blue 6

Second Band Red 2

Multiplier Black x100

Tolerance Gold 5%
 Bands Color Value

First Band Orange 3

Second Band White 9

Multiplier Yellow x104

Tolerance Silver 10%

A. ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
B. OHM’S LAW

• states that “Current I (Ampere, A) is directly proportional to the Voltage (Volt, V) and
inversely proportional to the Resistance R (ohms, Ω).
• A formula used to calculate the relationship between voltage, current and resistance.
• Named for German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854).

• Voltage= current x resistance (V=IR)

• Voltage (volts), current (amperes), resistance (ohms)
• Volts= amps ohms

Ohm’s Law Triangle

Examples:

1. How much current will flow through a lamp that as a resistance of 60Ω when 12V are
impressed across it?

Given: Solution:

V – 12V I=V/R
R - 60Ω I= 12V/60Ω
 I – unknown I=0.20A

2. What is the resistance of an electric frying pan that draws 12A when connected to a 120V
circuit?

Given: Solution:

I- 12A I=V/R
V- 120V R=V/I
R= unknown R= 120V/12A
R =10Ω

C. SIMPLE CIRCUITS

• A closed loop of a conductor that electrons can travel around, usually consisting of a
power source, (a battery, for example) and an electrical component or device (like a
resistor or a light bulb) and conducting wire.

Types of Circuit

1. Series Circuit
• A circuit with the components arranged in a straight line, so all the current flows through
each component in turn.
• If you made a basic loop circuit with a battery connected to two resistors and then have a
connection running back to the battery, the two resistors would be in series.
• So, the current would go from the positive terminal of the battery (by convention you
treat current as if it emerges from the positive end) to the first resistor, from that to the
second resistor and then back to the battery.
• Has only one (1) path in which charge can flow. There will be no alternative route.
 • Has more than one (1) resistors. Since there is only one path for the current to travel, the
current through each of the resistors is the same.
• As more resistors are added, the overall current in the circuit decreases.

Resistors in Series

Resistance in Series Circuit

• The total resistance is just the sum of the individual resistances, so:

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 +…… Rn

• The fact that it’s a series circuit means the total resistance on the path is just the sum of the
individual resistances on it.

Current in Series Circuit

• The current is the same everywhere
• Itotal = I1 =I2 = I3…..= In

Voltage in Series Circuit

• The total resistance is just the sum of the individual resistances, so:

Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3 +…… Vn
Sample Problem

1. Imagine a series circuit with three resistances: R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 4Ω, and R3 = 6Ω, and V= 12V.
Calculate the total resistance, individual voltage, and current in the circuit.

Given: Solution:

R1 = 2Ω RT = R1 + R2 + R3
R2 = 4Ω RT = 2Ω + 4Ω +6Ω
R3 = 6Ω RT = 12 Ω
VT = 12V
RT= unknown IT= VT/RT
V1= unknown IT= 12V/12 Ω
V2=unknown IT= 1A
V3=unknown
IT=unknown VT= ITRT
VT= 1A (12 Ω)
VT= 12V

V1= I1R1 V2= I2R2 V3= I3R3

V1= 1A (2Ω) V2= 1A (4Ω) V3= 1A (6Ω)
V1= 2V V1= 4V V3= 6V

VT = V1 =V2 = V3
VT = 2V + 4V + 6V
VT = 12V

Note:
• Itotal = I1 =I2 = I3…..= In
• IT= 1A, therefore I1 = 1A, I2 = 1A, and I3= 1A

Resistance Value Voltage V Current Value

R1 2Ω V1 2V I1 1A
R2 4Ω V2 4V I2 1A
R3 6Ω V3 6V I3 1A
RT 12Ω VT 12V IT 1A
Sample Problem 2

Complete the table based on the illustration above.

Resistance Value Voltage V Current Value

R1 5Ω V1 5V I1 1A
R2 7Ω V2 7V I2 1A
R3 3Ω V3 3V I3 1A
RT 15Ω VT 15V IT 1A

RT = R1 + R2 + R3
RT = 5Ω + 7Ω + 3Ω
RT = 15Ω

IT = VT/RT
IT = 15V/15Ω
IT = 1A

Note:
Since the current flowing in the circuit is the same, therefore I1, I2, I3, and IT have the same value
which is 1A.

V1 = I1R1 V2 = I2R2 V3 = I3R3 VT = ITRT

V1 = 1A (5Ω) V2 = 1A (7Ω) V3 = 1A (3Ω) VT = 1A (15Ω)
V1 = 5V V2 = 7V V3 = 3V VT = 15V

VT = V 1 + V 2 + V 3
VT = 5V + 7V + 3V
VT = 15V
Sample Problem 3

Four resistors are connected in series circuit where R1= 3Ω, R2= 4Ω, R3=6Ω, and R4= 7Ω, with
total voltage of 9V. Compute the following:

Resistance Value Voltage V Current Value

R1 3Ω V1 1.35V I1 0.45A
R2 4Ω V2 1.8V I2 0.45A
R3 6Ω V3 2.7V I3 0.45A
R4 7Ω V4 3.15V I4 0.45A
RT 20Ω VT 9V IT 0.45A

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
RT = 3Ω + 4Ω + 6Ω + 7Ω
RT = 20Ω

IT = VT/RT
IT = 9V/20Ω
IT = 0.45A

Note:
Since the current flowing in the circuit is the same, therefore I1, I2, I3, I4 and IT have the same
value which is 0.45A.

V1 = I1R1 V2 = I2R2 V3 = I3R3 V4 = I4R4 VT = ITRT

V1 = 0.45A (3Ω) V2 = 0.45A (4Ω) V3 = 0.45A (6Ω) V4 = 0.45A (7Ω) VT = 0.45A
(20Ω)
V1 = 1.35V V2 = 1.8V V3 = 2.7V V4 = 3.15A VT = 9V

VT = V 1 + V 2 + V 3 + V 4
VT = 1.35V + 1.8V + 2.7V + 3.15V
VT = 9V

2. Parallel Circuit
• Two or more components are connected between the same two points.
• Has more than one resistor and gets its name from having multiple paths to move along.
• Charges can move through any of the several paths.
 • If one (1) of the items in the circuit is broken, then no charge will continue to have charges
flow through them. But other paths will continue to have charges flow through them.

Resistance in Parallel Circuit

• Resistors are connected across the same two nodes.

• Each resistor forms its own separate branch.
• The total resistance is less than the smallest individual resistor.
• Formula for total resistance:

• Adding more resistors in parallel decreases total resistance.

Current in Parallel Circuit

• The total current splits among the branches.

• Each branch receives current depending on its resistance.
• Lower resistance → higher current
• Higher resistance → lower current

• Current is not the same in each branch (unless the resistances are equal).
Voltage in Parallel Circuit

• The voltage is the same across all branches.

• Each resistor receives the full source voltage.
 • Unlike series circuits, voltage does not divide in parallel circuits.

Sample Problem 1

Complete the table based on the illustration above.

Resistance Value Voltage V Current Value

R1 10 Ω V1 9V I1 0.9A
R2 2Ω V2 9V I2 4.5A
R3 1Ω V3 9V I3 9A
RT 0.63 Ω VT 9V IT 14.4A

1/RT = 1/10Ω + 1/2Ω + 1/1Ω

1/RT = 0.1Ω + 0.5Ω + 1Ω
1/RT = 1.6 Ω
RT = 0.63Ω

I1 = V1/R1 I2 = V2/R2 I3 = V3/R3 IT = VT/RT IT = I1 + I2 + I3

I1 = 9V/10Ω I2 = 9V/2Ω I3 = 9V/1Ω IT = 9V/0.63Ω IT = 0.9A + 4.5A + 9A
I1 = 0.9A I2 = 4.5A I3 = 9A IT = 14.29A IT = 14.4A

Note: Voltage is the same althroughout, therefore VT, V1, V2, and V3 have the same value which is
9V.

Sample Problem 2

Four resistors are connected in parallel circuit where R1= 2Ω, R2= 5Ω, R3=8Ω, and R4= 10Ω,
with total voltage of 15V. Compute the following:

Resistance Value Voltage V Current Value

 R1 2Ω V1 15V I1 7.5A
R2 5Ω V2 15V I2 3A
R3 8Ω V3 15V I3 1.88A
R4 10Ω V4 15V I4 1.5A
RT 1.08Ω VT 15V IT 13.89A

1/RT = 1/2Ω + 1/5Ω + 1/8Ω + 1/10Ω

1/RT = 0.5Ω + 0.2Ω + 0.13Ω + 0.1Ω
1/RT = 0.93 Ω
RT = 1.08Ω

I1 = V1/R1 I2 = V2/R2 I3 = V3/R3 I4 = V4/R4

I1 = 15V/2Ω I2 = 15V/5Ω I3 = 15V/8Ω I4 = 15V/10Ω
I1 = 7.5A I2 = 3A I3 = 1.88A I4 = 1.5A

IT = VT/RT IT = I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + I 4
IT = 15V/1.08Ω IT = 7.5A + 3A + 1.88A + 1.5A
IT = 13.89A IT = 13.88A