Environmental Science

Environment: The environment is everything that surrounds us and influences our

life. Think of it as the total "world" in which any living organism exists — not just the trees
and rivers, but also the air, sunlight, buildings, and even other people.
It has two main categories:
 Biotic (living things): humans, animals, plants, bacteria, fungi
 Abiotic (non-living things): air, water, sunlight, soil, temperature, minerals
And two types:
 Natural Environment: forests, rivers, oceans, mountains, climate — things that exist
without human creation
 Artificial/Built Environment: roads, buildings, dams, cities — things humans have
constructed
Importance of Environment:
The environment is important because it provides basic needs like air, water, and food,
supports all living organisms, and maintains the balance of nature necessary for life to survive.
Damage to the environment directly threatens human survival.
Four main components of environment:
Atmosphere – This is the layer of gases surrounding the Earth. It provides oxygen for
breathing, carbon dioxide for plants, and protects us from harmful radiation. It also controls
weather and climate. It helps in maintaining the temperature of the Earth. Without it, life
would not be possible.
Key functions:
 Supplies oxygen (for breathing) and CO₂ (for plant photosynthesis)
 Shields Earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation via the ozone layer
 Traps heat to keep Earth warm (greenhouse effect)
 Controls weather and climate

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Example: On the Moon, there is no atmosphere. Daytime temperatures reach +127°C and
nighttime drops to -173°C. On Earth, our atmosphere acts like a thermostat keeping
temperatures stable and livable.

Hydrosphere – This includes all forms of water on Earth such as oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers,
and groundwater. It is essential for life, supports aquatic organisms, and helps regulate
temperature. It plays a key role in the water cycle. It also provides water for drinking,
agriculture, and industry.
Key functions:
 Drinking water, agriculture, and industry
 Supports all aquatic life
 Regulates Earth's temperature (water absorbs and releases heat slowly)
 Drives the water cycle (more on this below)
Example: The ocean acts as Earth's "air conditioner." Coastal cities are cooler in summer and
warmer in winter than inland cities because the ocean absorbs and releases heat slowly.

Lithosphere – This is the solid outer part of the Earth, including land, soil, and rocks. It
provides space for living organisms, supports plant growth, and contains natural resources
like minerals. It is important for agriculture and human settlements. It also supplies resources
like metals and fuels.
Key functions:
 Provides land for human settlements and agriculture
 Contains minerals, metals, fossil fuels — all the natural resources we extract
 Soil supports plant growth, which feeds all animals
 Provides the physical space where most life exists
Example: The coal we burn, the iron in buildings, the phosphorus in fertilizers —lithosphere

Biosphere – The biosphere is the zone of life — it's not a separate physical layer but rather
the "life layer" that overlaps with the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. It includes
every living organism on Earth. It maintains ecological balance through interactions. It supports
biodiversity and life processes.

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Key functions:
 Maintains ecological balance (food chains, food webs)
 Recycles nutrients (carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle)
 Supports biodiversity — the variety of life on Earth
 Humans are part of the biosphere.
Example: A forest is biosphere. The trees breathe in CO₂ and release oxygen (interacting with
the atmosphere), their roots draw groundwater (interacting with the hydrosphere), and they
grow in soil (interacting with the lithosphere). All four spheres interact in one place.
🔗 Relationship Between the Four Spheres
The four spheres of the environment are not separate — they are deeply interconnected through continuous
cycles and exchanges that keep Earth balanced and life possible:

Interaction Example What it really means

Atmosphere + Rain forms when water vapor Water moves from oceans into air and returns as rain
Hydrosphere condenses → drives the entire water cycle

Atmosphere + Wind erodes rocks; volcanoes

Air shapes land, and land affects air composition
Lithosphere release gases

Hydrosphere + Rivers carve valleys;

Water reshapes land and also gets stored within it
Lithosphere groundwater seeps

Plants need CO₂, water, and Life depends on all spheres at once — no life without
Biosphere + All three
soil this connection

Atmosphere: This is the layer of gases surrounding the Earth. It provides oxygen for
breathing, carbon dioxide for plants, and protects us from harmful radiation. It also controls
weather and climate. It helps in maintaining the temperature of the Earth. Without it, life
would not be possible.
Composition of atmosphere: Atmosphere is a mixture of gases that surrounds the [Link] is
made up of the following components.
1) Major constituents: These are the gases that make up the bulk of the atmosphere.
They are present in large and relatively constant amounts.

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Nitrogen (N₂) – 78%

 Most abundant gas in the atmosphere.

 Essential for plants as part of the nitrogen cycle.
 Helps maintain the balance of other gases.
Oxygen (O₂) – 21%

 Needed for respiration by humans and animals.

 Supports combustion (fire).
 Vital for life on Earth

2. Minor constituents: These gases are present in smaller amounts, but are still very
important for life and climate.
Argon (Ar) – 0.93%

 Inert gas, does not react chemically.

 Stable and does not support life directly.
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) – 0.04%

 Essential for photosynthesis in plants.

 Helps trap heat in the atmosphere (greenhouse effect).
Neon (Ne), Helium (He), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe)

 Present in trace amounts.

 inert gases, do not react with other elements.

3. Trace Constituents:
 Neon, Helium, Krypton, Xenon — present in tiny amounts. Generally inert; used in industry (e.g., neon
signs, helium balloons). No major environmental role.

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Layers of atmosphere: the total height of atmosphere from earth surface is about 500km.
atmosphere is divided into several layers on the basis of temperature difference.

1) Troposphere: it is the lowest layer of atmosphere. "Tropos" = Greek for

"turning/mixing" — this layer is constantly stirring and mixing. this is the layer we live in.
Characteristics:
a) Height: its height depends upon latitudes, seasons, and pressure. At equator its
height is 16km from earth surface and at 45-degree latitude is 9.65km. however its
average height is 11km.
b) Temperature range: 15.C at surface and -56.C at top. Temperature changes at rate of
6.5.C per km.
c) Major components: nitrogen, oxygen, CO2, water vapors, Ar. About 75 percent of the
atmosphere gases are present in this layer.
d) Phenomenon occurring in troposphere:
 we live in this layer
 most of the weather phenomenon.
 Cloud formation.
e) Chemical reactions in troposphere.
 this layer contains SOx and NOx gases which are responsible for acid rain.
 N2 and O2 reacts to form NO. N2+O2 2NO
 Carbon mono oxide is produced due to incomplete combustion of
hydrocarbons.

2) Stratosphere: This layer sits directly above the troposphere, extending up to the
stratopause. "Stratos" = Greek for "layer" — stable, calm, no mixing. This layer is home
to the ozone layer, Earth's sunscreen.

Characteristics:
a) Height: It extends from the top of the troposphere (avg. 11km) to about 50km above the
Earth's surface.

b) Temperature range: Temperatures increase with height, moving from -56°C at the
bottom to nearly -2°C at the top due to UV absorption.

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c) Major components: Primarily Ozone (O₃), which forms the "Ozone Layer," along with very
dry air (trace nitrogen and oxygen).

d) Phenomenon occurring:
 Absorption of harmful UV radiation.
 Commercial jet aircraft fly here to avoid weather turbulence.
 Very few clouds (mostly polar stratospheric clouds).

e) Chemical reactions:
 Ozone formation: O2+U O+O Then O+O2 O3

 Ozone depletion: Cl+O3 ClO+O2 caused by CFCS

3) Mesosphere: "Meso" = Greek for "middle." This is the coldest layer of the
atmosphere.

Characteristics
a) Height: It extends from 50km to approximately 85km.
b) Temperature range: Temperatures decrease as altitude increases, reaching as low as
-90°C or lower at the "mesopause."

c) Major components: Low density of oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide; presence
of metal atoms from melting meteors.

d) Phenomenon occurring:
 Meteors burn up in this layer due to friction.
 Formation of noctilucent clouds (highest clouds in the atmosphere).

e) Chemical reactions:
 Ionization of molecules begins here due to solar radiation.
 Atomic oxygen reactions occur, though the air is too thin for complex chemistry.

4) Thermosphere: "Thermo" = Greek for "heat." Extremely hot. This layer includes the
ionosphere and transitions into the vacuum of space.
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Characteristics
a) Height: Extends from 85km to roughly 600km (the boundary is fuzzy).
b) Temperature range: Temperatures rise sharply, potentially reaching 1,500°C or higher,
though it wouldn't feel "hot" because the air is so thin.

c) Major components: atomic oxygen, helium, and hydrogen. Most gases

are ionized (electrically charged).

d) Phenomenon occurring:
 The Aurora Borealis (Northern Lights) and Aurora Australis occur here.
 The International Space Station (ISS) orbits in this layer.
 Reflection of radio waves for long-distance communication.

e) Chemical reactions:
Photo-dissociation: Solar energy breaks molecules into atoms.
Ionization: Neutral atoms lose electrons to become ions.

Atmosphere Layers — Quick Summary Table

Layer Height Temp Trend Key Feature

Troposphere 0–11 km Decreases with altitude Weather, life, most gases

Stratosphere 11–50 km Increases with altitude Ozone layer, UV absorption

Mesosphere 50–85 km Decreases with altitude Coldest layer, meteors burn

Thermosphere 85–600 km Increases with altitude Aurora, ISS, radio waves

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Water cycle/hydrological cycle: The continuous movement
of water as it changes between liquid, solid (ice), and gas (vapor)
states across the Earth’s surface, atmosphere, and underground is
called water cycle. It is natural process that recycles water and
maintains life on our planet.
Core Processes of the Water Cycle: The cycle is primarily driven by energy from the Sun, which
causes water to change states and move between reservoirs.
1. Evaporation: Evaporation is the process in which water from oceans, rivers, lakes, and soil
changes into water vapor due to heat from the sun. It mainly occurs from large water bodies
like oceans. This is the starting point of the water cycle.
Example: Leave a wet towel in the sun — it dries. The water didn't disappear; it evaporated
into the air.
2. Transpiration: Transpiration is the process by which plants release water vapor into the air
through small openings in their leaves(stomata). It adds moisture to the atmosphere. Together
with evaporation, it is called evapotranspiration.
Example: The Amazon rainforest is so large and transpires so much water that it creates its
own weather — it literally makes its own rain through transpiration.
3. Condensation: Condensation is the process in which water vapor cools down and changes
back into tiny water droplets. As water vapor rises into the cooler upper atmosphere, it
transforms back into tiny liquid droplets or ice crystals, which cluster together to
form clouds and fog.
Example: A cold glass of water on a humid day gets covered in water droplets on the outside.
The warm humid air touches the cold glass surface, cools down, and its water vapor condenses
on the glass.
4. Precipitation: Precipitation occurs when water droplets in clouds become heavy and fall to
Earth. It can be in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail. This process returns water to the Earth’s
surface.
5. Infiltration: Infiltration is when some of the rainwater soaks into the ground. It helps
recharge underground water (groundwater). This water is stored in aquifers (a body of
permeable rock which can contain or transmit groundwater).

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Example: Pakistan's major cities depend on tube wells that tap underground aquifers. This
water originally came from rainfall that infiltrated through soil over years.
6. Runoff: Runoff is the flow of water over the surface of the land into rivers, lakes, and oceans.
It occurs when the ground cannot absorb more water. It eventually returns water to oceans,
completing the cycle.
Example: After heavy rain in a city, water rushes along roads into drains → this is urban runoff.
Cities have more runoff than forests because concrete doesn't let water infiltrat

Lapse rate: The lapse rate is the rate at which temperature decreases
with an increase in altitude (height) in the atmosphere.
Types
a) Normal (Environmental) Lapse Rate: This is the actual rate at which temperature decreases
with height in the atmosphere at a specific place and time. Average value: about 6.5°C per
1000 meters. It is not constant — it changes with weather, location, and time. It represents real
atmospheric conditions
Example: If temperature at ground is 30°C, at 1000 m it may be around 23.5°C
b) Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR): This applies when the air is dry (no moisture) and rising.
Rate: about 10°C per 1000 meters. When air rises, it expands and cools without gaining or
losing heat. Cooling is faster because there is no condensation
Key point: Dry air cools more rapidly than moist air.
c) Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate (WALR): This applies when the air contains moisture (water
vapor). Rate: about 5–6°C per 1000 meters. As air rises and cools, water vapor condenses into
droplets. Condensation releases latent heat, slowing the cooling process
Key point: Moist air cools more slowly because heat is released.

Why air gets cooler at high altitude?

1. Distance from the "Heater"

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The sun's rays pass through the atmosphere without heating the air directly. Instead, they hit
the Earth's surface, which absorbs the energy and heats up like a radiator.

 The Ground as a Source: The air closest to the ground is warmed

through conduction (direct contact) and convection (rising warm air).
 Thinning Heat: As you move away from the surface, you are moving away from the
primary heat source, so the air naturally becomes cooler.

2) Lower Air Pressure (Adiabatic Cooling).

This is often considered the most important scientific reason. Gravity pulls most air molecules
close to the surface, making the air at sea level dense and high-pressure.
 Expansion: As air rises, the surrounding atmospheric pressure drops. This allows the air
to expand.
 Energy Loss: To expand, the air molecules must "push" against the surrounding air. This
requires energy, which is taken from the heat of the air itself.
 Temperature Drop: Because temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of
molecules, this loss of energy results in a drop in temperature. This is the same reason a
spray can feels cold when you release the pressure.
3) Fewer Greenhouse Gases
Higher altitudes have much lower concentrations of water vapor and carbon dioxide. These
gases are responsible for trapping heat near the surface through the greenhouse effect. In the
thinner air aloft, heat escapes into space more easily because there are fewer molecules to
catch and hold it.

Temperature inversion: Temperature inversion is a meteorological condition in which the

normal pattern of temperature in the atmosphere is reversed. Normally, temperature decreases
with height, but during inversion, temperature increases with height.

Explanation: Temperature inversion is state of weather in which the normal decrease of

temperature with height is reversed, and instead, temperature increases with altitude. In this
situation, a layer of warm air lies above a layer of cooler air near the Earth’s surface, preventing
the cooler air from rising and mixing with the upper layers. As a result, the atmosphere becomes
stable, and pollutants such as smoke and dust remain trapped close to the ground, leading to
smog and poor air quality. Temperature inversion commonly occurs during calm, clear nights, in
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winter seasons, and in valley regions. It can cause health problems, reduce visibility due to fog,
and is often observed in polluted cities like Lahore.

Normal Condition vs Inversion:

Normally, as you go higher, air gets colder. Warm air near the ground rises (because it's
lighter), cool air sinks. This keeps the atmosphere mixing continuously. This mixing is crucial
because it disperses pollutants, brings fresh air, and drives weather.
Temperature inversion is when this normal pattern is flipped. Instead of getting colder with
height, a layer of warm air sits on top of cold air. Now the cold air cannot rise (cold air is
heavy/dense), and the warm air above acts as a lid — trapping everything below it.

Why inversion happens?

1. Cooling of Earth at Night
At night, the Earth loses heat quickly (especially when sky is clear). The ground becomes cold.
Air touching the ground also becomes cold. Air above stays warmer. So, cold air below + warm
air above = inversion
2. Cold Air is Heavier
Cold air is dense (heavy) → stays near ground. Warm air is light → stays above
➡️This natural behavior creates layers
3. No Wind (Calm Conditions)
Wind normally mixes air layers. When there is no wind, layers don’t mix
➡️Inversion stays for longer time
4. Warm Air Moving Over Cold Surface
Example: warm air passing over cold land or snow
➡️Lower air becomes colder than upper air
In One Line: Temperature inversion happens when the ground cools the air near it, making it
colder than the air above, especially in calm and clear conditions.

Effects:

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1. Air Pollution: Temperature inversion traps pollutants like smoke, dust, and harmful gases
near the Earth’s surface. These pollutants cannot rise and disperse, leading to highly
polluted air, especially in cities like Lahore.
2. Smog Formation: Due to trapped pollutants, a thick layer of smog forms. This reduces
air quality and creates an unhealthy environment.
3. Fog Formation: Cold air near the ground cools the moisture present in the air, resulting
in dense fog, particularly during winter mornings.
4. Reduced Visibility: Fog and smog significantly decrease visibility, causing problems for
drivers, pilots, and overall transportation systems.
5. Health Problems: Polluted air can lead to respiratory diseases such as asthma, coughing,
throat irritation, and other lung-related issues, especially in children and elderly people.
6. Stable Atmospheric Conditions: The inversion layer prevents vertical air movement,
making the atmosphere stable and preventing normal mixing of air.
7. Effects on Agriculture: In some cases, inversion protects crops from frost by keeping cold
air near the surface. However, long-term pollution can negatively affect plant growth.

Smog: Smog is a type of air pollution formed by the mixture of smoke and fog. It usually
occurs in polluted urban areas when harmful gases and particles combine with fog,
especially during temperature inversion.

Types:
1) Classical Smog (London Smog / Sulfurous Smog)
 Occurs in cold, humid weather
 Caused by burning coal and other fossil fuels
 Color: Gray/yellow-black, thick
 Chemistry: Coal releases SO₂ → combines with water vapor and oxygen → sulfuric
acid droplets + soot particles = deadly smog
 Effects: Causes respiratory problems, eye irritation, and poor visibility
 Example: 1952 London Great Smog

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 2) Photochemical Smog (Los Angeles Smog / Summer Smog)
 Occurs in hot, sunny weather
 Caused by reaction of sunlight with nitrogen oxides (NOx) and hydrocarbons from
vehicles and industries
 Color is Brown/orange haze
 Chemistry: Cars emit NO and hydrocarbons. Sunlight triggers reactions:
i. NO₂ + sunlight → NO + O (atomic oxygen)
ii. + O₂ → O₃ (ground-level ozone — toxic!)
 Key pollutant: Ground-level ozone (O₃), ozone in the stratosphere protects us, but
ozone at ground level is toxic.
 Effects: Eye irritation, breathing difficulty, harms plants
 Example: Los Angeles (heavy traffic, sunny weather, surrounded by mountains that
trap air)

Causes of Smog
 Burning of fossil fuels (cars, factories)
 Industrial emissions
 Vehicle exhaust
 Temperature inversion (traps pollutants near ground)
Effects of Smog
 Health Problems: Causes asthma, coughing, and breathing issues
 Poor Visibility: Makes driving and flying dangerous
 Environmental Damage: Harms plants and crops
 Eye Irritation: Causes burning sensation in eyes

💀 The 1952 London Smog Disaster (The Great Smog — not 1942)
Background: In December 1952, London was hit by an unusual combination of:
 Cold weather → everyone burned more coal for heating
 Industry burning coal → releasing SO₂ and soot
 Calm winds → no dispersal of pollution
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  Temperature inversion → a lid of warm air trapped all the pollution near the ground
Result: A thick, yellow-black toxic fog covered London for 5 days. Visibility dropped to near
zero — people couldn't see their own feet. The smog seeped indoors.
Death toll: Approximately 4,000 people died in the immediate days. Later estimates suggest
12,000 total deaths and 100,000+ illnesses.
Why did it kill? The mechanism:
 SO₂ in the air reacted with moisture → formed sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) droplets
 People inhaled these microscopic acid droplets deep into their lungs
 The acid damaged lung tissue — causing inflammation, fluid buildup (pulmonary
edema)
 Most victims were elderly, children, or those with pre-existing lung/heart conditions
 Deaths looked like pneumonia or bronchitis — but the real cause was the toxic air
Legacy: This disaster led directly to the UK's Clean Air Act of 1956 — the world's first major air
pollution legislation. It fundamentally changed how governments think about air quality.

Air pollution: Air pollution is the presence of harmful substances in the air that can
affect human health, animals, plants, and the environment. These substances can be solid
particles, liquid droplets, or gases.

Pollutants: Any substance, material, or energy (like heat or noise) introduced into the
environment that causes harm, instability, or impurity to natural ecosystems.
Air pollutants: Air pollutants are substances—usually gases or tiny particles—that
contaminate the indoor or outdoor atmosphere in concentrations high enough to harm
living things or the climate.
Types of air pollutants:
1. Primary Pollutants
Definition: A harmful substance emitted directly into the atmosphere from a specific source.
Examples and Sources:
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 A. Carbon monoxide (CO): From vehicle exhaust, incomplete combustion of fuels.
Cause Binds to hemoglobin in blood → prevents oxygen transport → suffocation
A. Sulfur dioxide (SO₂): From coal burning, industries, power plants.
Causes acid rain; damages lungs
B. Nitrogen oxides (NOx): Vehicle emissions, industrial processes.
Cause Acid rain, smog formation
C. Particulate matter (dust, smoke): Construction, factories, burning of wood or coal.
Cause heart and lung disease
D. Hydrocarbons: Petrol, diesel, industrial solvents.
Cause cancer and contribute to smog

2. Secondary Pollutants
Definition: A pollutant that is not emitted directly. Instead, it forms in the air when primary
pollutants undergo chemical reactions with each other or with natural components like
sunlight and water vapor.
Examples and Sources:
A. Ozone (O₃): Formed when nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react in sunlight.
Cause Lung damage and harm corps.
B. Smog: Mixture of smoke and fog caused by chemical reactions in polluted air. Cause
visibility loss and respiratory harm
C. Acid rain: Formed when SO₂ or NOx react with water in the atmosphere.
Destroy forests damages buildings acidifies lakes

Sources of air pollution:

1. Natural Sources
 Volcanic eruptions: Release smoke, ash, sulfur dioxide (SO₂)
 Forest fires: Produce smoke, carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter
 Dust storms: Blow dust and sand particles into the air
 Pollen and spores: Contribute to organic air particles
2. Man-Made (Anthropogenic) Sources
 Industries: Emit smoke, dust, sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOx)
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  Vehicles: Produce carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrocarbons,
particulate matter
 Power plants: Burn coal and fossil fuels → SO₂, CO₂, smoke
 Domestic activities: Cooking with coal, wood, or kerosene releases smoke and CO
 Construction and mining: Release dust and particulate matter

Weather
Definition: Weather is the day-to-day state of the atmosphere at a particular place and time.
Time Scale: Short-term (minutes, hours, or days)
Elements: Temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind, cloudiness, atmospheric pressure
Example: “It is raining today in Lahore”

Climate
Definition: Climate is the average weather conditions of a place over a long period, usually 30
years or more.
Time Scale: Long-term (years, decades, centuries)
Elements: Average temperature, rainfall, humidity patterns, seasonal changes
Example: “Lahore has a hot summer and cold winter”

Hailstorm Formation — How Hail is Made

Hail is one of nature's most dramatic demonstrations of the water cycle at work.
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Step-by-step hail formation:
1. Strong updrafts in a thunderstorm carry water droplets HIGH into the atmosphere
where temperatures are well below freezing. (inside a thunderstorm, there are very
strong upward winds (called updrafts).
2. The droplet freezes into a small ice pellet
3. The pellet falls back down, picks up more water droplets that freeze to it (adding a layer)
4. It goes down, then wind pushes it up again. Each time, more ice sticks to it.
5. Updrafts carry it up again — it gets coated in another layer of ice
6. This up-and-down cycle repeats many times — each round adds another layer (like an
onion!)
7. When the hailstone becomes too heavy for updrafts to support → it falls to Earth

🖤 SOOT — What It Is and Why It Matters

Soot is technically called Black Carbon — it's the tiny black particles produced from
incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, wood, coal, and other organic materials.
What makes it dangerous:
 Size: Soot particles are extremely tiny — PM2.5 or smaller. They bypass the nose and
throat's natural filters and go deep into the lungs.
 Chemistry: Soot particles carry PAHs (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons) — strongly
carcinogenic (cancer-causing) compounds adsorbed onto their surface.
 Climate: Black carbon is the second largest contributor to climate change after CO₂! It
absorbs sunlight (dark color), warming the atmosphere. When it lands on snow/ice, it
darkens the surface, causing faster melting.
Sources of soot: Diesel engines (huge source), coal burning, biomass burning (open fires, forest
fires), brick kilns
Pakistan context: Brick kilns in Punjab are a massive source of soot pollution. The traditional
"Bull's Trench Kiln" burns coal inefficiently → enormous soot. This combined with winter
inversions produce the deadly Lahore smog
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🎯 MASTER QUICK-REFERENCE CHEAT SHEET
Topic Key Fact to Remember

Atmosphere composition N₂ 78%, O₂ 21%, Ar 0.93%, CO₂ 0.04%

Troposphere 0–11 km, weather happens here, temp drops 6.5°C/km

Stratosphere 11–50 km, ozone layer, temp INCREASES

Mesosphere 50–85 km, coldest layer (-90°C), meteors burn

Thermosphere 85–600 km, Aurora, ISS, temperature rises to 1500°C

Chapman Cycle O₂ → O + O → O₃ (ozone formation by UV)

CFC danger 1 Cl atom destroys 100,000 ozone molecules

Lapse rates ELR: 6.5°C/km; DALR: 10°C/km; WALR: 5–6°C/km

Hail formation Updrafts → freeze → fall → recoated → multiple layers

Temperature inversion Cold air trapped below warm air → pollutants can't escape

1952 London Smog Inversion + coal + calm → 12,000 deaths → Clean Air Act 1956

Classical smog Winter, coal, SO₂ + fog → acid droplets

Photochemical smog Summer, sun, NOₓ + hydrocarbons → ground-level O₃

Primary pollutant Emitted directly (CO, SO₂, NOₓ, soot)

Secondary pollutant Forms in air from reactions (O₃, acid rain, smog)

Soot/Black Carbon PM2.5, carries PAHs (carcinogenic), warms climate

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