Sporty's Instrument Rating Training Course

Video Training Study Guide and Review Notes

© 2024 by Sporty's. All Rights Reserved

12/24 v300
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Chapter 1 - Instrument Flying Fundamentals
1. Getting Started with Sporty's Instrument Rating Course 4
2. The IFR Flight To Chicago Midway 6
3. The Path to an Instrument Rating 8
4. Flight Instruments: Attitude and Heading Indicator 10
5. Instrument Scanning Techniques 12
6. Air Facts: Glass Cockpit Flying 14
7. Straight & Level, Climbs & Descents 16
8. Closer Look: Flight Simulators 18
9. Instrument Flying In Turbulence 20
10. Air Facts: Staying Cool Under Fire 22
11. Turns and Steep Turns 24
12. Closer Look: Electronic Flight Bags (EFB) 27
13. Flight Instruments: Altimeter and Airspeed Indicator 29
14. Partial Panel and Magnetic Compass 32
15. Closer Look: Instrument Failure 35
16. IFR Training Resources 37
Chapter 2 - IFR Navigation
1. Planning With IFR En Route Charts 40
2. GPS Navigation and the Garmin GTN 650 43
3. Closer Look: ADS-B Transponders 46
4. VOR Navigation and Airways 48
5. Clearances and IFR Flight Plans 51
6. Air Traffic Control and IFR 54
7. Closer Look: Air Traffic Control Radar 56
8. Departing the Terminal Area 58
9. IFR En Route 61
10. IFR Arrivals 64
11. IFR Planning Tips 67
12. ATC Expectations 69
13. Air Facts: Conquering Cockpit Clutter 71
Chapter 3 - Instrument Approaches
1. Intro to Instrument Approaches 74
2. Approach Chart Details 76
3. ILS Approach Part 1: Flying the Localizer 79
4. ILS Approach Part 2: Flying the Glide Slope 81
5. Air Facts: ILS Approach Tips 84
6. RNAV/GPS Approaches 86
7. Air Facts: GPS Approach Tips 89
8. Unusual Approaches 91
9. Air Facts: Vectored Approaches 93
10. Flying a VOR Approach with a Jepp Chart 95
11. Closer Look: Procedure Turns 97
12. Holding Procedures 99
13. Circling Approaches 101
14. Closer Look: Designing Approaches 103
15. Visual Descent Points and DME 105
16. Closer Look: Approach Lighting Systems 107

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 17. Going To An Alternate 109
18. Air Facts: What Is The Alternative? 111
Chapter 4 - Weather for IFR
1. Checking Weather for an IFR Flight 114
2. Air Facts: Developing Your Self-Weather Briefing 116
3. Airframe Icing 118
4. Air Facts: Ice As A Practical Matter 120
5. Closer Look: Ice Protection Systems 122
6. Thunderstorms 123
7. Convective Forecasts 125
8. Wind Shear and Microbursts 127
9. Flying With Datalink Weather 129
10. Air Facts: Reading The Weather Signs 131
11. Turbulence 133
12. Middle Altitude Weather 136
13. Air Facts: Nighttime Weather 138
Chapter 5 - Advanced IFR
1. Trainer To High Performance 141
2. Flight Director and HSI 142
3. IFR Use Of The Autopilot 145
4. Air Facts: Night IFR 148
5. Engine Instrumentation 151
6. Air Facts: Keeping It Running 153
7. Principles of Turbocharging 154
8. Oxygen Use 156
9. Pressurization 158
10. Closer Look: Flight Level Rules and Procedures 160
11. Air Facts: All-Weather Airplane? 162
Chapter 6 - IFR Flying Techniques
1. Instrument FARs 164
2. Air Facts: Check It Out 167
3. IFR Communications and ATC Reports 169
4. Air Facts: Radio Pro 172
5. Lost Communications Procedures 173
6. The Pilot's Role in The System 175
7. Building Margins 177
8. Air Facts: Flight Plans, Fact & Fiction 179
9. Below Minimum Weather 181
10. Air Facts: Talking to Controllers 184
11. Planning For The Approach 186
12. Closer Look: FAA vs. Jeppesen Charts 188
13. The Instrument Flight Test 190
14. Glass Cockpit Checkride 193

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Chapter 1 - Instrument Flying Fundamentals

1. Getting Started with Sporty's Instrument Rating Course

This section provides an overview of Sporty's Instrument Rating Course and guides new student
pilots on how to get started with instrument training.

Benefits of Earning an Instrument Rating:

1. Unlocks the full potential of your private pilot certificate:

a. Allows for better control of the airplane.
b. Enables close coordination with Air Traffic Control (ATC).
c. Permits launching on more trips and climbing above clouds.
2. Enhances safety and proficiency:
a. Makes you a safer, more well-rounded instrument pilot.
3. Opens up new possibilities and freedom to see the world.

Introducing Sporty's Instrument Rating Course:

1. An award-winning personal study program:

a. Prepares you to ace the FAA written test.
b. Provides real-world instrument flying experience.
c. Features over 12 hours of HD video and animations.
2. Comprehensive training tools:
a. Powerful test prep tools.
b. Comprehensive document library.
c. Available on mobile apps and smart TV platforms.
3. Lifetime access to all features and updates.

Getting Started with the Course:

1. Begin with the Video Training Section:

A. Accessible online, via Pilot Training app (iOS/Android), or smart TV apps.
B. Watch all videos in order from start to finish.
C. Platforms sync progress for seamless transition between devices.
D. Each video includes:
a. Key takeaways in section notes.
b. Full written transcript.
c. Related content from FAA handbooks.
E. Most videos include a review quiz at the end.
2. Proceed to the Test Prep Section:
A. Begin studying questions and preparing for the FAA knowledge test.
B. Use "Study" mode and select categories based on completed videos.
C. Treat each question as a learning opportunity:
a. Study explanations thoroughly.
b. Dive deeper into linked reference material.
c. Mark questions you don't understand to review later with your instructor.
D. After studying each category once:
a. Move on to advanced study modes.
b. Begin taking simulated practice tests.
c. Track your top two scores in the progress tracker.

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 d. Refer to the Quick Start Guide in Resources for additional techniques.
3. Utilize Flight Maneuvers Guide During Flight Training:
A. Prepare for upcoming tasks or instrument approaches.
B. Each maneuver includes:
a. Narrated animation with step-by-step instructions.
b. Written description to reinforce the procedure.
C. Use the Video Search function to find related video segments.
4. Access Additional Study Resources:
a. FAA Handbooks section.
b. Complete digital copy of the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs).
5. Prepare for the Checkride:
a. Use training tools in the Checkride Prep section.
b. Get ready for the oral and flight test with an FAA examiner.

Remember, your course includes lifetime access to all features, ensuring you always have the latest
training materials at your fingertips.

Next Steps:

1. Advance to the next lesson:

a. Ride along on an actual IFR flight to Chicago's Midway Airport.
b. Experience what instrument flying is all about.

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2. The IFR Flight To Chicago Midway
This section covers an IFR flight from Dayton International Airport to Chicago Midway Airport,
demonstrating practical instrument flying, flight planning, and weather considerations for new student
pilots.

Introduction to Instrument Flying:

1. Instrument flying simplifies flying to an orderly and understandable process.

2. Matching instrument readings to charts and procedures is key.
3. The goal is to fly safely in clouds from one destination to another.

Flight Planning and Weather Briefing:

1. Importance of thorough weather briefing for IFR flights:

a. Check weather at departure, en route, and destination airports.
b. Use aviation apps for a big picture and detailed weather information.
c. Look for precipitation, thunderstorms, icing, turbulence, winds, and temperatures aloft.
2. Analyzing weather charts and reports:
a. Surface analysis charts to understand pressure systems and fronts.
b. METARs and TAFs for current and forecasted weather conditions.
c. Freezing levels and pilot reports (PIREPs) for icing information.
3. Retrieving a full weather briefing and NOTAMs from Flight Service.

Flight Planning and Filing an IFR Flight Plan:

1. Use flight planning apps to calculate time en route and fuel requirements.
2. Select an appropriate cruising altitude considering weather conditions:
a. Plan to fly above the freezing level if the aircraft is certified for known icing.
b. Choose lower altitudes to avoid icing if not equipped.
3. File an IFR flight plan electronically through aviation apps.
4. Receive confirmation and expected route from ATC.

Preflight and Cockpit Preparation:

1. Conduct a thorough preflight inspection despite weather conditions.

2. Brief the roles and responsibilities of each pilot before engine start:
a. One pilot handles flying the aircraft.
b. The other manages ATC communications and navigation.
3. Tune in ATIS for departure airport to get the latest weather and information.

Obtaining Clearance and Taxiing:

1. Contact Clearance Delivery to receive IFR clearance:

a. Listen carefully and read back all instructions.
b. Program the flight plan into the GPS before taxiing.
2. Request taxi clearance from Ground Control as per VFR procedures.
3. Complete run-up and before-takeoff checklists prior to takeoff clearance.

Departure and Climb:

1. Contact Tower for takeoff clearance when ready.

2. After takeoff, enter clouds and transition to instrument flying:
a. Rely on instruments to maintain control and orientation.
b. Trust your training to overcome disorientation.

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3. Monitor ATC instructions for heading and altitude changes.
4. Climb to assigned intermediate altitudes as directed by ATC.

En Route Flight:

1. Communicate with ATC centers and adhere to handoffs.

2. Be prepared for route amendments from ATC and adjust navigation accordingly.
3. Monitor weather en route using onboard systems:
a. Use XM weather and onboard radar to check for precipitation and storms.
b. Stay aware of icing levels and reports from other pilots.
4. Check updated weather conditions for the destination airport:
a. Tune into ATIS periodically for the latest information.
b. Note changes in ceilings, visibility, and approach in use.
5. Utilize autopilot to reduce workload while maintaining vigilance.

Approach Briefing and Preparation:

1. Begin preparing for the approach well before reaching the destination.
2. Review the approach chart thoroughly:
a. Identify important details such as frequencies, altitudes, and missed approach procedures.
b. Brief the approach with the flying pilot.
3. Load the instrument approach into the GPS and flight plan.
4. Set up navigation radios and verify all settings.

Instrument Approach and Landing:

1. Follow ATC vectors and altitude assignments for sequencing into busy airspace.
2. Receive approach clearance and intercept the final approach course:
a. Monitor the localizer and glide slope indicators.
b. Adjust heading and altitude to stay on course and glide path.
3. Use synthetic vision and other advanced avionics features if available.
4. Communicate with Tower upon final approach clearance.
5. Break out of clouds at decision altitude and establish visual contact with the runway.
6. Proceed to a normal landing, maintaining vigilance for wake turbulence and other factors.

Post-Landing Procedures:

1. Understand that ATC will cancel the IFR flight plan upon landing at a tower-controlled airport.
2. Exit the runway promptly and follow taxi instructions to parking.
3. Complete after-landing checklists and secure the aircraft as necessary.

Remember, thorough planning, effective communication, and adherence to procedures are key to a
safe and successful IFR flight.

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3. The Path to an Instrument Rating
This section provides an overview of the path to obtaining an instrument rating, highlighting the new
learning experiences and the steps involved in the training process for a new student pilot.

Benefits and Challenges of the Instrument Rating:

1. The instrument rating introduces more new learning than any other pilot certificate or rating.
a. Expands beyond the private pilot certificate.
b. More challenging than the commercial pilot certificate or multi-engine rating.
2. Enhances your skills in several key areas:
a. Precise airplane control.
b. Navigation by GPS and radio aids.
c. Interacting with air traffic control.
d. Executing instrument approaches.

Phases of Instrument Flight Training:

1. Building foundational skills in attitude instrument flying:

a. Learn to fly solely by reference to flight instruments.
b. Practice primarily in the airplane; may use simulators or flight training devices.
2. Refining navigation procedures:
a. Track and intercept VOR courses in simulated instrument conditions.
b. Master all functions of IFR GPS for expert-level navigation.
3. Incorporating automation:
a. Use the autopilot after mastering hand-flying under the hood.
b. Understand the role of automation in instrument flying.
4. Operations in the terminal environment:
a. Work closely with ATC to receive IFR clearances.
b. Learn considerations for departing in instrument weather conditions.
c. Practice instrument approaches using VOR, ILS, and GPS systems.
d. Transition to landing when visibility is low and clouds are close to the ground.
5. Instrument cross-country flying:
a. Apply all learned skills on IFR trips.
b. Deal with dynamic weather conditions.

Instrument Rating Requirements:

1. Ground and flight instruction as per FAR 61.65.

2. Knowledge test covering:
a. Regulations.
b. Aircraft instruments.
c. Radio navigation.
d. Flight planning.
e. En route and approach procedures.
f. Weather.
3. Prerequisites for taking the knowledge test:
a. Received ground instruction or completed a home study course.
4. Flight time requirements:
A. 50 hours of cross-country flight time as pilot in command.
a. At least 10 hours must be in airplanes for instrument-airplane rating.

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 B. 40 hours of actual or simulated instrument time.
a. At least 15 hours of instruction from an authorized instructor in the aircraft category.
C. One IFR cross-country flight:
a. 250 nautical miles in length.
b. Instrument approach at each airport.
c. Includes three different kinds of approaches using navigation systems.
5. Validity of the knowledge test:
a. Passing score valid for 24 calendar months.
b. Must complete the practical test within this time.

Tips for Success:

1. Reference the FAA Airman Certification Standards throughout your training:

a. Lists subject matter for the knowledge test.
b. Defines performance standards for the oral and flight portions of the practical test.
2. Use the standards to measure your progress.
3. Strive for excellence beyond minimum competence.
4. Remember, your ability impacts your safety as a pilot.

By following this path and dedicating yourself to excellence, you'll successfully earn your instrument
rating and become a safer, more proficient pilot.

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4. Flight Instruments: Attitude and Heading Indicator
This section covers the operation of air-driven attitude and heading instruments, focusing on the
vacuum and pressure systems, potential failures, and how to manage related errors.

Vacuum and Pressure Systems

1. Air-driven gyroscopic instruments (attitude and heading indicators) are often called vacuum
instruments.
a. They rely on a pressure differential between ambient air and pressure inside the instrument
case.
2. The gyros are spun by air striking the vanes of the rotor.

Types of Vacuum Systems

1. Vacuum-driven systems:
a. A partial vacuum is created inside the instrument case.
b. Air rushes into the case through nozzles, spinning the gyro rotor.
2. Pressure-driven systems:
a. Air under pressure is pumped into the instrument case through nozzles.
b. Common in twin-engine and pressurized aircraft.
c. Positive pressure needed for systems like deicing boots.
3. Most light single-engine aircraft use vacuum pumps to reduce pressure inside instrument cases.

System Components

1. Relief valves to control pressure and vacuum levels.

2. Air filters to ensure clean air enters the system.

Importance of Monitoring Vacuum Systems

1. Regularly check the vacuum gauge during instrument scan.

a. A low vacuum warning light is even better for immediate awareness.
2. Maintenance of vacuum pumps:
a. Most dry vacuum pumps have a life limit of 500-1,000 flight hours or six years.
b. Pumps used for deicing boots may have shorter life limits (as low as 300 hours).
c. Replace the pump if the engine experiences sudden stoppage.
3. Backup systems are important due to difficulty flying without these instruments:
A. Some aircraft are required to have dual pumps.
B. Standby systems include:
a. Dual vacuum pumps operating continuously.
b. Electric pumps that activate when needed.
c. Systems using reduced engine intake manifold pressure to remove air from gyro cases.

Precession and Attitude Indicator Errors

1. Precession causes errors in the attitude indicator, corrected by the erection mechanism.
2. Acceleration and deceleration errors:
a. Acceleration causes the horizon bar to move down, indicating nose-up attitude.
b. Deceleration causes the horizon bar to move up, indicating nose-down attitude.
3. Errors during turns:
a. After skidding turns, leveling the wings may show a 3-5 degree opposite bank.
b. Coordinated turns cause precession errors related to turn amount and bank angle.

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 c. Maximum error occurs during 180-degree turns.
d. Errors cancel out over 360-degree turns.
4. These errors typically last less than 15 seconds.

Glass Cockpit Systems

1. Glass-equipped aircraft may or may not have vacuum systems.

a. Some have basic vacuum systems for backup attitude indicators.
2. Primary Flight Displays (PFDs) use Attitude Heading Reference Systems (AHRS).
a. AHRS is electrically driven.
b. Uses internal sensors, accelerometers, GPS, and airspeed data to determine attitude.

Understanding how vacuum and pressure systems work, and recognizing potential errors in your
instruments, is crucial for safe and effective flying.

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5. Instrument Scanning Techniques
This section introduces the fundamental skills required for instrument flying and discusses
instrument scanning techniques for both analog and glass cockpit airplanes.

Fundamental Skills:

1. Develop three essential skills:

a. Instrument Scan: Proper scanning of instruments.
b. Instrument Interpretation: Understanding and interpreting instrument readings.
c. Airplane Control: Controlling the aircraft based on instrument information.
2. These skills are learned separately and sequentially but become integrated for smooth and
positive control of the airplane on any flight path.

Instrument Panels:

1. Types of instrument panels:

a. Analog (Round-Dial) Instruments
b. Glass Cockpit (LCD Representations)
2. Understanding both types is beneficial, but focus on the type you will be flying.
3. Instrument scans are similar for both, but instrument interpretation may differ. Aircraft control
remains identical.

Analog Instrument Panel Layout:

1. Standard "T" arrangement:

a. Airspeed Indicator: Top left position for easy visibility during takeoff and landing.
b. Attitude Indicator: Centered as it is the primary focus.
c. Altimeter: Top right of the "T".
d. Heading Indicator: Forms the vertical leg of the "T".
e. Turn Indicator/Coordinator and Vertical Speed Indicator: Fill in the left and right sides.
2. Other controls and gauges may not have a standard arrangement and can be positioned
randomly.

Glass Cockpit Instrument Layout:

1. Primary Flight Display (PFD):

a. Attitude Indicator: Dominant display for constant visibility; fills the full screen or top half.
b. Airspeed and Altitude: Represented by tapes with digital readouts; airspeed on the left,
altitude on the right.
c. Slip-Skid Indicator: Displayed below the attitude indicator using shapes to represent the ball;
interpreted similarly.
d. Heading Indications: Can be shown using a round HSI or an arc below the attitude indicator;
user-selectable.
e. Rate of Turn: Displayed at the top of the heading indicator with trend lines and tick marks.
Extending the trend line to a tick mark gives a standard or half-standard rate turn.
f. Vertical Speed: Representation varies between systems (tape, pointer, rotating needle, or
numeric value); location varies.
2. Backup analog instruments (attitude indicator, altimeter, airspeed indicator) may be located
anywhere on the panel.

Developing Your Scan:

1. Sit in the airplane to familiarize yourself with the location of switches, indicators, and controls.
a. Being able to find controls without hunting enhances your scan.
b. An external power source can be helpful when practicing with a glass cockpit.

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2. If renting, use the same airplane or one with the same instrument arrangement to reduce
workload during training.
3. Knowing which instrument to look at is crucial.
a. Understand the information each instrument provides.

Instrument Flying Techniques:

1. Instrument flying mirrors visual flying but uses the attitude indicator instead of the natural horizon.
a. The attitude indicator is used to establish and maintain aircraft attitudes.
b. Performance instruments are used to verify the results of attitude changes.
2. The attitude indicator is not a performance instrument; cross-check with performance instruments
like the altimeter and heading indicator.
3. Most of your scan time will be spent on the attitude indicator.
4. Instrument flying is more precise due to increased attention to performance instruments.

Scan Patterns:

1. No single scan pattern works for all pilots.

a. Proficient pilots scan all instruments, with the attitude indicator receiving up to two-thirds of the
scan time.
b. Adjust your scan rate and sequence based on the flight situation.
2. In glass cockpits, scan patterns are similar, but instrument information locations differ.
3. Advantages of glass cockpits:
a. The attitude indicator remains in sight while viewing other instruments.
4. Potential disadvantages:
a. Tape-style instruments may require more time to interpret compared to analog needles.
5. As a beginner, slow down your scan:
a. Get the message from each instrument before moving to the next.
b. With experience, you'll need less time to interpret instruments.

Common Scan Errors:

1. Omission of Instruments:
a. Skipping an instrument, such as not checking the altimeter when leveling off.
2. Emphasizing One Instrument:
a. Relying too much on one instrument while neglecting others.
3. Fixation:
a. Staring at one instrument, especially when approaching a target altitude or heading.
b. Common when trying not to overshoot altitudes or headings.
c. Pilots may fixate on bank instruments more than pitch instruments due to airplane stability.

By understanding and practicing effective instrument scanning techniques, you will enhance your
proficiency and safety as an instrument pilot. In the next section, we'll explore the four fundamentals
of flight in greater detail.

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6. Air Facts: Glass Cockpit Flying
This section introduces the differences between traditional "steam gauge" cockpits and modern
glass cockpits, highlighting important considerations for new pilots transitioning to glass cockpit
flying.

Understanding Glass Cockpits

1. Traditional vs. Glass Cockpits:

A. Traditional "six-pack" cockpits:
a. Use vacuum-powered instruments for attitude and heading.
b. Require constant resetting of the heading indicator.
B. Glass cockpits:
a. Use solid-state sensors called Attitude Heading Reference Systems (AHRS).
b. More reliable than mechanical vacuum pumps.
c. Heading indicators do not require constant resetting.
2. Advantages of Glass Cockpits:
A. Large color screens are easier to read, especially in turbulence.
B. Display more information:
a. Winds aloft.
b. Nearest airports.
c. Active flight plan.

Transitioning to Glass Cockpits

1. Challenges with Glass Cockpits:

A. Less "glance value":
a. Cannot quickly gauge instruments without reading exact numbers.
b. Airspeed and altitude tapes require reading precise values.
2. Habits to Develop:
A. Set the bugs on the primary flight display:
a. Use knobs to set bugs for altitude, heading, and airspeed.
b. Helps with autopilot and hand-flying.
B. Understand trend lines:
a. Magenta lines next to tapes show projected values six seconds ahead.
b. Tall trend lines indicate the airplane is not stabilized.
C. Learn common flight profiles:
a. Familiarize with power settings and configurations for different phases of flight.
b. Configure the airplane, then fly the needles.

System Familiarization

1. Read the Manuals:

a. Glass cockpits vary between manufacturers and models.
b. Focus on failure modes and emergency procedures.
2. Understand System Nuances:
a. Know how AHRS failures differ from screen failures.
b. Be aware of backup options for AHRS and primary flight displays.
c. Know the duration of backup battery power.

Hybrid Glass-Steam Cockpits

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1. Not all glass cockpits are fully integrated systems:
a. Some replace single instruments with digital displays.
b. More affordable and reliable than vacuum pumps.
2. Importance of Understanding Sensors:
a. Critical to know which instruments are driven by which sensors.

Remember, while glass cockpits may seem different, the fundamentals of IFR flight remain the
same. Focusing on basic attitude flying is essential, and the enhanced displays in glass cockpits can
make this even easier.

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7. Straight & Level, Climbs & Descents
This section covers the fundamentals of instrument flying, focusing on straight and level flight,
climbs, and descents. It emphasizes the importance of instrument interpretation, control inputs, and
power management for new student pilots.

Instrument Panel Overview:

1. Group instruments into three main categories:

a. Pitch Instruments: Altimeter, Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI), Attitude Indicator (pitch),
Airspeed Indicator.
b. Bank Instruments: Heading Indicator, Turn Coordinator or Turn Needle, Slip-Skid Indicator
(Ball), Attitude Indicator (bank).
c. Power Instruments: Tachometer, Manifold Pressure Gauge, Airspeed Indicator.
2. The "T" Arrangement on the Instrument Panel:
a. Top row: Airspeed Indicator (left), Attitude Indicator (center), Altimeter (right).
b. Bottom row: Heading Indicator (center).
3. Glass Cockpit Considerations:
a. Flight and engine instruments are grouped similarly.
b. Appearance may differ, but functions remain the same.

Straight and Level Flight:

1. Definition:
a. Maintaining constant altitude, heading, and airspeed.
b. Requires coordination of pitch, bank, and power controls.
2. Pitch Control:
A. Use the attitude indicator for direct pitch reference.
B. Indirect pitch instruments:
a. Altimeter: Indicates altitude deviations.
b. Vertical Speed Indicator: Shows rate and trend of altitude changes.
c. Airspeed Indicator: Changes in airspeed can indicate pitch changes.
C. Make small pitch adjustments:
a. Use half, full, or one and a half bar width corrections on the attitude indicator.
b. Trim the aircraft to relieve control pressures.
3. Bank Control:
A. Keep wings level to maintain heading.
B. Use the attitude indicator and heading indicator for bank information.
C. Small heading corrections:
a. For deviations less than 5 degrees, use rudder pressure.
b. For deviations greater than 5 degrees, make coordinated turns with shallow bank angles.
4. Airspeed Changes:
a. Adjust power to achieve desired airspeed.
b. Maintain altitude by adjusting pitch as airspeed changes.
c. Monitor airspeed indicator as the primary power instrument.

Climbs:

1. Entering a Constant Airspeed Climb:

a. Increase pitch to the predetermined attitude on the attitude indicator.
b. Apply climb power setting and right rudder to counter left-turning tendencies.
c. Monitor airspeed to maintain desired climb speed.

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2. Leveling Off from a Climb:
a. Lead the level-off by 10% of the climb rate (e.g., 50 feet for a 500 fpm climb).
b. Smoothly adjust pitch to level flight attitude using the attitude indicator.
c. Maintain climb power until airspeed is within 5 knots of cruise speed before reducing power.
3. Constant Rate Climbs:
a. Set power for desired climb rate.
b. Adjust pitch to maintain the required vertical speed.
c. Use VSI as the primary pitch instrument and airspeed indicator as the primary power
instrument.

Descents:

1. Entering a Descent:
a. Reduce power to predetermined setting.
b. Simultaneously lower pitch to the desired attitude.
c. Monitor airspeed and vertical speed indicators.
2. Leveling Off from a Descent:
a. Lead the level-off by 10% of the descent rate (e.g., 50 feet for a 500 fpm descent).
b. Adjust pitch to level flight attitude before reaching desired altitude.
c. Increase power as necessary to maintain cruise airspeed.
3. Airspeed Considerations:
a. For higher airspeed in level-off, lead by 20-30% of descent rate.
b. Adjust power and pitch accordingly.

Power Management Tips:

1. Proper pitch and power produce predictable performance.

2. Overpowering Technique:
a. During level-off from a climb, maintain climb power until approaching cruise speed.
b. Smoothly reduce power to cruise setting once desired airspeed is attained.
3. Pre-Determine Power Settings:
a. Work with your instructor to establish power settings for various flight modes.
b. Record settings and corresponding pitch attitudes for reference.

Common Errors and Corrections:

1. Overcontrolling:
a. Avoid excessive pitch or bank changes.
b. Make small, smooth control inputs.
2. Altitude Deviations:
a. For errors less than 100 feet, use a half bar width pitch change.
b. For errors over 100 feet, use a full bar width, then reduce correction as you approach desired
altitude.
3. Heading Deviations:
a. Use rudder for small corrections (less than 5 degrees).
b. Use coordinated turns with shallow bank angles for larger corrections.

Mastering these fundamentals of instrument flying is essential for safe and efficient flight operations.
Practice maintaining precise control of pitch, bank, and power to build a strong foundation for
advanced instrument maneuvers.

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8. Closer Look: Flight Simulators
This section explores the evolution and benefits of flight simulators in aviation training, highlighting
their importance in developing instrument flying proficiency for new pilots.

Early Flight Simulators:

1. Early devices were used to teach systems and procedures.

a. Link Trainers were widely used during World War II.
b. Evolved from organ and player piano technology.
c. Considered harder to fly than actual airplanes.
2. Pilots often preferred flying combat missions over sessions in the Link Trainer.

Simulator Development:

1. Simulators have advanced alongside airplane development.

a. In some cases, simulators are operational before test airplanes fly.
2. Modern simulators provide high fidelity with actual aircraft.
a. Only multimillion-dollar simulators offer perfect replication.
b. Less sophisticated trainers still provide valuable training despite differences.

Importance of Instrument Training Simulators:

1. Up to 20 of the required 40 hours of instrument time can be in an instrument ground trainer.

a. Instruction should be from an authorized instructor in an FAA-acceptable trainer.
2. Value of instruction depends on:
a. The sophistication of the trainer.
b. The competency of the instructor.
3. Proficient instrument pilots fly mechanically.
a. Ground trainers help develop reflexive, mechanical responses to instrument indications.

Advantages of Ground Trainers:

1. Allow practice of complex flight phases without unnecessary time on easier parts.
a. Focus on departure, arrival, and instrument approaches.
2. Enable more repetitions per hour compared to actual flight.
a. Can perform more instrument approaches in less time.
b. Variety in approaches and wind conditions.
3. Instructor can control ATC complexity.
a. Makes training effective while managing stress levels.
4. Cost-effective method for instrument flight training.

Maximizing Simulator Training Benefits:

1. Approach simulator training with the same preparation as real flight.

a. Avoid a casual attitude toward simulator sessions.
2. Stay positive and focus on the benefits.
a. Do not dwell on perceived negatives of the trainer.
3. Studies show negative attitudes reduce training effectiveness.

Remember, embracing simulator training with a positive mindset enhances your instrument flying

18
proficiency and prepares you for real-world flying challenges.

19
9. Instrument Flying In Turbulence
This section covers the techniques and considerations for instrument flying in turbulence,
emphasizing the importance of instrument scanning, control inputs, and safety measures for new
student pilots.

Understanding Turbulence:

1. In turbulence, instruments may fluctuate unpredictably.

2. Turbulence can affect aircraft control and requires careful attention.

Importance of the Attitude Indicator:

1. The attitude indicator is crucial during turbulent conditions:

a. It provides a direct indication of bank angle.
b. Focus on it to maintain roll control and keep wings level.
2. Maintaining roll control is the top priority:
a. Aircraft are less stable in roll than in pitch.
b. Uncorrected bank deviations can worsen over time.

Instrument Scanning in Turbulence:

1. Continue scanning all instruments in light to moderate turbulence.

2. Prioritize instruments based on importance:
a. Altitude deviations require immediate correction.
b. Heading corrections are secondary but still important.
3. Understand ATC monitoring:
a. Deviations of 300 feet may trigger alerts to controllers.
b. Aim to keep altitude deviations within 100 feet.

Airspeed Management:

1. Airspeed will naturally vary in turbulence:

a. Acceptable variations are normal due to updrafts and downdrafts.
2. Adjust power for significant airspeed changes:
a. Consider power adjustments if airspeed deviates by more than 10-15 knots.
b. Use power changes sparingly to avoid overworking.
3. Maintain altitude primarily with pitch control.

Control Input Techniques:

1. Use gentle and smooth control inputs to reduce stress on the aircraft.
2. Anticipate changes and respond accordingly:
a. Adjust pitch and power to maintain desired performance.
b. Avoid abrupt movements that can exacerbate turbulence effects.
3. Understand pitch and power relationships:
a. Adding power requires reducing back pressure to prevent climbing.
b. Monitor instrument indications closely when making adjustments.

Trimming the Aircraft:

1. Keep the aircraft trimmed for normal cruise conditions.

2. Avoid constant trim changes in turbulence:
a. Use control pressures to make temporary adjustments.

20
 b. Trim only if conditions are expected to remain constant for a while.

Dealing with Severe Turbulence:

1. Request a block altitude from ATC if maintaining altitude is challenging:

a. Allows for altitude variations within a specified range.
b. Enhances safety by reducing workload.
2. Avoid flying into thunderstorms:
a. Thunderstorms can produce extreme turbulence beyond pilot control.
b. Practice avoidance to ensure safety.
3. If inadvertently entering severe turbulence:
a. Maintain roll control as the primary focus.
b. Set power to maneuvering speed or below.
c. Allow altitude to vary with atmospheric conditions.
d. Use minimal control inputs to avoid adding stress.

Safety Precautions:

1. Secure all loose items in the cabin to prevent injury.

2. Tighten seat belts and shoulder harnesses:
a. Reduces movement during turbulence.
b. Helps maintain control and focus on flying.

Turbulence During Departures and Approaches:

1. Be vigilant for wind shear near the ground:

a. Watch for sudden changes in airspeed and descent rate.
b. Adjust pitch and power promptly to maintain glide path.
2. Understand how turbulence affects aircraft performance at lower speeds.

Final Notes:

1. Turbulence is a common challenge in flying; preparation is key.

2. Applying these techniques improves safety and confidence in turbulent conditions.
3. Always prioritize maintaining control and adhering to proper flying procedures.

Remember, effective instrument flying in turbulence relies on maintaining control, proper instrument
scanning, and making timely adjustments to ensure a safe flight experience.

21
10. Air Facts: Staying Cool Under Fire
This section emphasizes the importance of maintaining composure and developing smooth flying
techniques to effectively handle stressful situations during instrument flight rules (IFR) operations.

Understanding Stress in IFR Flying:

1. Common stressors include:

a. Turbulence.
b. Ice accumulation.
c. Mechanical problems.
2. Impact of stress on pilots:
a. Increased anxiety can lead to poor decision-making.
b. Sounding stressed on the radio reflects loss of control.

Recognizing Personal Responsibility:

1. Acknowledge that as the pilot, you are solely responsible for managing the situation.
2. Understand that external assistance is limited:
a. Controllers can provide information and clearances.
b. Ultimately, handling the aircraft is the pilot's duty.

Importance of Turbulence Training:

1. Gain as much experience flying in turbulence as possible:

a. Practice simulated instrument flights with a safety pilot on windy days.
b. Fly at lower altitudes during summer to experience thermals and turbulence.
2. Experience turbulence in cumulus clouds with an instructor:
a. Fly through small cumulus clouds below 10,000 feet on an IFR flight plan.
b. Develop respect and understanding of the turbulence within these clouds.
c. Avoid large cumulus clouds to ensure safety.

Developing an "Actively Passive" Flying Style:

1. Contrast between flying styles:

a. Active Pilot: Constantly manipulating the controls, leading to erratic movements.
b. Passive Pilot with Active Mind: Moves controls only as necessary, anticipating changes for
smooth flight.
2. Benefits of a smooth flying style:
a. Reduces fatigue for both pilot and passengers.
b. Minimizes the effects of turbulence by not overreacting.

Techniques for Smooth Flying:

1. In turbulence:
a. Hold the control wheel steady.
b. Make smooth, gentle corrections only when necessary.
c. Avoid overworking the controls to prevent accentuating turbulence.
2. During approaches:
a. Know power settings and pitch attitudes to minimize adjustments.
b. Handle configuration changes smoothly to maintain stability.
3. Anticipate transitions:
a. Think ahead to prepare for upcoming phases of flight.

22
 b. Maintain a mental plan to ensure smooth and timely actions.

Importance of Planning and Anticipation:

1. Having a plan for every eventuality helps maintain composure.

2. Thinking ahead keeps you ahead of the airplane, reducing stress.
3. A calm and prepared pilot manages unforeseen situations more effectively.

Remember, maintaining a calm mindset and employing smooth control inputs enhances safety and
comfort during flight. Regular practice in varying conditions builds confidence and proficiency in
handling stressful situations.

23
11. Turns and Steep Turns
This section provides an overview of turns and steep turns when flying by reference to instruments,
focusing on techniques, calculations, and instrument usage vital for new student pilots.

Standard Rate Turns:

1. Definition:
a. A turn that changes the airplane's heading at a rate of 3 degrees per second.
2. Variations:
a. Half standard rate: Used by faster airplanes to avoid excessive bank angles.
b. Double standard rate: Changes heading at 6 degrees per second.
3. Bank Angle Calculation:
A. Bank angle increases with true airspeed to maintain standard rate.
a. At 100 knots true airspeed, bank angle is approximately 15.38 degrees.
b. At 300 knots true airspeed, bank angle is approximately 39.5 degrees.
B. Estimation Formula:
a. Divide true airspeed (knots) by 10, then add 7.
b. Example at 100 knots: (100 ÷ 10) + 7 = 17 degrees (close to actual 15.38 degrees).
4. Using Instruments:
A. Attitude Indicator:
a. Establishes the approximate bank angle.
B. Turn Indicator:
a. Fine-tunes the turn to achieve standard rate.
b. Align the miniature airplane's wing with the left or right index on the turn coordinator.
C. Glass Cockpit Indicators:
a. Match the heading indicator trend line to a specific index for standard rate turns.
5. Executing the Turn:
A. Roll-In Technique:
a. Use the attitude indicator to set the estimated bank angle smoothly.
b. The airplane should turn between one-third to one-half the degrees of the bank angle
during roll-in.
B. Maintaining Altitude:
a. Minimal elevator back pressure is needed at training aircraft speeds.
b. Monitor the attitude indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator.
C. Adjusting Power and Airspeed:
a. Accept a slight airspeed decrease (2-3%) for short turns without adjusting power.
b. If constant airspeed is required, increase throttle appropriately.
6. Roll-Out Technique:
a. Lead the target heading by the same amount of turn it took to roll into the turn.
b. Level the wings using the attitude indicator.
c. Ensure the turn stops using the heading indicator.
d. As bank decreases, relax back pressure and monitor instruments to maintain level flight.

Timed Turns:

1. Purpose:

24
 a. Used when the heading indicator is inoperative; the clock replaces the heading indicator.
2. Calculating Turn Duration:
a. Divide the degrees of desired turn by 3 (degrees per second at standard rate).
b. Example: A 60-degree turn requires 20 seconds at standard rate.
3. Executing Timed Turns:
a. Start the turn at a precise time (e.g., when the clock's second hand is at 12, 3, 6, or 9).
b. Maintain a standard rate turn using the turn indicator.
c. Roll out after the calculated time, accounting for turn during roll-in and roll-out.
4. Checking Turn Indicator Calibration:
a. Establish a standard rate turn and time it using cardinal headings.
b. The airplane should turn 180 degrees in 1 minute.
c. If discrepancies exist, adjust your standard rate indication accordingly.
d. Repeat the check in both directions to ensure accuracy.
5. Considerations for Glass Cockpit Aircraft:
a. If heading indicators fail, use estimated bank angles for timed turns.
b. After the turn, use the magnetic compass for minor heading adjustments.

Steep Turns (45-Degree Bank):

1. Importance:
a. Not commonly used in instrument flying but valuable for proficiency and confidence.
b. Enhances ability to react to unusual flight attitudes quickly.
2. Characteristics of Steep Turns:
A. High Rate of Turn:
a. At 120 knots, a 360-degree turn takes approximately 39.5 seconds.
b. At 150 knots, it takes approximately 49.5 seconds.
B. Significant changes in aircraft control due to increased bank angle.
C. Requires prompt and positive elevator control to prevent altitude loss.
3. Executing Steep Turns:
A. Entry:
a. Roll into the turn smoothly while increasing bank angle.
b. Scan instruments rapidly to detect the need for pitch changes.
B. Maintaining the Turn:
a. Apply steady elevator back pressure to maintain altitude.
b. Increase power to compensate for added drag and maintain airspeed.
C. Error Detection and Correction:
A. Watch for rapid loss of altitude and increase in airspeed indicating over-banking.
B. To correct over-banking:
a. Reduce bank angle while monitoring attitude indicator and altimeter.
b. Reduce power if airspeed approaches caution range.
D. Maintain a rapid scan to keep pitch, bank, and airspeed within desired limits.
4. Benefits:
a. Improves overall instrument flying skills.
b. Develops smooth and precise control inputs.
c. Prepares pilots to handle unexpected attitudes confidently.

By mastering these turning techniques, new student pilots can enhance their instrument flying

25
proficiency, ensuring smooth and precise control during flight.

26
12. Closer Look: Electronic Flight Bags (EFB)
This section introduces Electronic Flight Bags (EFBs), their significance in instrument flying, and
essential considerations for new student pilots.

Introduction to Electronic Flight Bags (EFBs):

1. EFBs are tablets with aviation apps that assist in instrument flying.
a. They help in planning cross-country flights and providing preflight weather briefings.
b. Can display electronic approach charts and GPS moving maps.
2. Value in instrument flying:
a. Offer speed and simplicity over traditional methods.
b. Enhance situational awareness and efficiency.
3. Initial training may focus on paper charts:
a. Understanding fundamental concepts and calculations.
b. Required proficiency for checkrides.

Legalities and Regulations:

1. FAR 91.21 compliance:

a. Ensure EFBs do not interfere with aircraft navigation or communication systems.
2. Advisory Circular 91-78 guidance:
a. Electronic charts can replace paper charts if they are kept current.
b. Use apps that display up-to-date charts and data.
c. Backing up EFBs is recommended (second EFB or paper charts).
d. Evaluate the EFB with paper charts accessible before sole reliance.

Mounting and Securing Your EFB:

1. Secure the tablet for easy operation and safety:

a. Use kneeboards to keep it on your leg.
b. Mounting brackets for yoke or side window installation.
2. Prevent the device from falling out of reach in turbulence.

Maximizing the Use of EFBs:

1. Advanced features with wireless accessories:

a. Display in-flight METARs and weather radar.
b. Show nearby traffic information.
c. Provide backup flight instruments.
2. Increase safety and efficiency of flights with experience.

Key Points to Remember:

1. Master your EFB app:

a. Become proficient for quick access during all flight phases.
b. Treat it as part of the aircraft's avionics system.
2. Keep databases up-to-date:
a. Regularly update charts every 28 days.
b. Flying with current information is mandatory for legality.
3. Maintain situational awareness:
a. Avoid over-reliance on the tablet.

27
 b. Remember that you are the pilot in command.

By integrating EFBs effectively, you can enhance your instrument flying experience while
maintaining safety and compliance with regulations.

28
13. Flight Instruments: Altimeter and Airspeed Indicator
This section covers the operation, checks, and principles of the altimeter and airspeed indicator,
essential instruments for safe flight. Understanding their functions, limitations, and proper use is
crucial for new student pilots.

Altimeter Checks and Best Practices:

1. Perform altimeter accuracy checks before flight:

a. Set the altimeter to the current altimeter setting.
b. Confirm that the indicated altitude is within ±75 feet of the airport elevation.
c. If variation exceeds ±75 feet, the altimeter should be checked.
2. Consider the precise location of the aircraft on the airport:
a. Airport elevation is defined as the highest point on usable runways.
b. Check the airport diagram for elevation at your specific location.
3. Understand that altimeter readings can vary due to airport elevation differences:
a. At large airports, elevation can vary significantly between runways.
b. This can cause apparent errors in altimeter readings.

Altitude Types and Standard Conditions:

1. Recognize different types of altitude:

a. True Altitude: Actual height above mean sea level.
b. Indicated Altitude: Altitude read from the altimeter with current setting.
c. Pressure Altitude: Altitude when altimeter is set to 29.92 inches Hg.
d. Density Altitude: Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature.
e. Absolute Altitude: Height above the ground level.
2. Understand standard atmospheric conditions:
a. At standard temperature, pressure, and density, true, indicated, pressure, and density
altitudes are equal.
b. Nonstandard conditions cause these altitudes to differ.

Effects of Pressure and Temperature on Altimeter:

1. Know how altimeter settings affect indicated altitude:

a. An altimeter is a barometer that measures atmospheric pressure.
b. Lower altimeter settings result in lower indicated altitudes.
c. Higher settings result in higher indicated altitudes.
d. Approximately 1 inch Hg difference equals 1,000 feet altitude change.
2. Understand temperature effects on indicated altitude:
a. In temperatures higher than standard, the altimeter indicates lower than true altitude.
b. In temperatures lower than standard, the altimeter indicates higher than true altitude.
3. Remember the temperature-pressure memory aid:
a. "From high to low, look out below": Flying from high pressure or temperature to low, true
altitude is lower than indicated.
b. "From low to high, clear the sky": Flying from low pressure or temperature to high, true altitude
is higher than indicated.
4. Maintain correct altimeter settings:
a. Adjust altimeter during flight as pressure changes to ensure accurate readings.
b. Nonstandard temperature errors are generally small and not corrected in flight.

Pitot-Static Instruments and Errors:

29
1. Understand the pitot-static system instruments:
a. Airspeed Indicator: Depends on both pitot (ram) and static pressure.
b. Altimeter and Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI): Use only static pressure.
2. Recognize static port blockage effects:
a. Altimeter freezes at the altitude where blockage occurred.
b. VSI indicates zero regardless of actual vertical speed.
c. Airspeed Indicator may read inaccurately depending on altitude changes.
3. Respond to static blockage:
a. Use the alternate static source if available.
b. Break the glass on the VSI as an emergency measure to access cabin static pressure.
4. Be aware of alternate static source errors:
a. Instrument readings may be slightly higher than actual due to lower cabin pressure.
b. Consult aircraft's Pilot Operating Handbook (POH) for correction tables.
5. Understand pitot tube blockage effects:
A. If only the ram air inlet is blocked:
a. Airspeed Indicator drops to zero.
B. If both ram air inlet and drain hole are blocked:
a. Airspeed Indicator acts like an altimeter.
b. Indicated airspeed increases during climb and decreases during descent.

Gyroscopic Instruments and Pre-Flight Checks:

1. Recognize gyroscopic instruments:

a. Attitude Indicator and Heading Indicator: Usually powered by vacuum pressure.
b. Turn Indicator: Typically electrically powered.
2. Perform pre-flight checks on gyroscopic instruments:
A. Turn Indicator:
a. Turn it on before engine start and listen for unusual noises.
B. Attitude and Heading Indicators:
a. May take up to 5 minutes to reach operating speed after engine start.
b. Set heading indicator to compass before taxiing.
c. During taxi, verify heading indicator and compass show correct turns.
3. Check instrument behavior during taxi:
a. Turn Indicator should show the direction of turn; ball should move opposite.
b. Attitude Indicator horizon bar should remain level during straight taxi and show correct bank
during turns.
4. Monitor gyroscopic precession:
a. A heading indicator precession of not more than 3 degrees in 15 minutes is acceptable.

Additional Instrument Checks:

1. Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI):

a. Should read zero before takeoff.
b. If not, tap gently or use the adjustment screw if available.
c. If non-adjustable, note the indicated value as the level-flight reference.

Understanding and properly checking the flight instruments ensures accuracy and reliability during
flight. Regular instrument checks and awareness of their limitations are essential skills for every

30
pilot.

31
14. Partial Panel and Magnetic Compass
This section covers the essentials of flying with limited instruments (partial panel) and understanding
the magnetic compass, crucial for new student pilots to ensure safety during instrument failures.

Partial Panel Instrument Flight:

1. Definition:
A. Controlling the airplane using a limited set of instruments, typically:
a. Airspeed indicator
b. Turn and slip indicator
c. Clock
d. Magnetic compass
2. Causes of Instrument Failure:
a. Vacuum failure
b. Electrical failure
c. Pitot-static source failure
3. Effects of Vacuum Failure:
a. Attitude and heading indicators become inoperative
b. Attitude indicator may display incorrect pitch and bank angles
4. Electrical Failure in Digital Aircraft:
A. Reliance on standby analog instruments:
a. Airspeed indicator
b. Attitude indicator
c. Altimeter
B. Possible partial failures due to component malfunctions
5. Primary Flight Display (PFD) Failures:
a. Use of alternate displays to show full instrument panel
b. Requires scanning different areas of the panel
6. Pitot-Static System Failures:
a. Caused by blocked pitot tube or static source
b. Affects airspeed, altitude, and vertical speed indicators

Understanding Instrument Power Sources:

1. Gyroscopic Instruments:
A. Attitude and heading indicators powered by:
a. Vacuum or pressure pump (engine-driven)
b. Electrical system
B. Turn indicator gyroscope usually electrically powered
2. Recognizing Vacuum Failure:
a. Attitude indicator shows incorrect pitch indications
b. May display a nose-low, banked attitude
3. Dealing with Instrument Failures:
a. Cover inoperative instruments to avoid distraction
b. Include all functional instruments in your scan
c. Be suspicious of discrepancies between instruments
4. Standby Instruments:

32
 a. Some aircraft have standby attitude indicators with separate power sources
b. Practice using backup devices for proficiency

Responding to Instrument Failures:

1. Communicate with ATC:

a. Request assistance and inform them of failure
b. Ask for vectors to VFR conditions if possible
c. Avoid unnecessary altitude or course changes
2. Flight Training Standards:
a. Practice non-precision approaches on partial panel
b. Prepare for potential real-life instrument failures

Flying Without Attitude and Heading Indicators:

1. Relying on Indirect Instruments for Pitch Control:

A. Altimeter:
a. Gaining altitude indicates nose-up attitude
b. Rate of needle movement indicates deviation magnitude
B. Airspeed Indicator:
a. Increasing speed suggests nose-down attitude
b. Needle movement rate indicates deviation size
C. Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI):
a. Shows trend and rate of vertical movement
b. Use smooth control pressures for minimal lag
2. Using Trim Effectively:
a. Reduces the need for constant control pressure
b. Helps maintain consistent attitudes

Partial Panel Heading Control:

1. Challenges with Magnetic Compass:

A. Less stable in bank than in pitch
B. Subject to errors during turns and accelerations:
a. Lag and lead errors due to magnetic dip
b. Acceleration and deceleration errors
C. Compass accuracy only reliable in straight, level, unaccelerated flight
2. Minimizing Compass Errors:
a. Make shallow bank turns
b. Limit banks to half standard rate or less
3. Using Timed Turns:
a. Preferred over compass turns
b. Provides more accurate heading changes
4. Alternative Tools for Heading Control:
A. Aviation apps with backup instruments (if available)
B. GPS ground track indication:
a. Use as an emergency backup
b. Inform ATC if relying on GPS track

33
Importance of Proficiency:

1. Practice Partial Panel Flying:

a. Instrument failures can occur unexpectedly
b. Maintaining proficiency ensures safety
c. Regular practice prepares you for actual failures
2. Insurance Against Catastrophic Events:
a. Skill in partial panel flying is like insurance
b. Rarely used, but invaluable when needed

Remember, being prepared and proficient in partial panel flying enhances safety and confidence in
instrument flight conditions. Regular practice and understanding of your aircraft's systems are
essential for every pilot.

34
15. Closer Look: Instrument Failure
This section discusses how to recognize instrument failures and respond appropriately to unusual
attitudes during instrument flight.

Unusual Attitudes:

1. An unusual attitude is any aircraft attitude not normally required for instrument flight.
a. Causes include turbulence, disorientation, confusion, or instrument failure.
2. When instruments indicate an unusual attitude:
a. Determine if there has been an instrument failure.
b. Verify whether the airplane is actually in an unusual attitude.
3. Identify signs of instrument malfunction:
a. Incorrect instrument indications.
b. Abnormal indications or excessive rates of movement.

Instrument Cross-Check:

1. Increase the cross-check when suspecting an instrument failure:

a. Compare multiple instruments to confirm actual aircraft attitude.
2. Avoid relying on a single instrument for attitude information.
a. Supporting instruments help validate true flight conditions.

Recognizing Instrument Failures:

1. Identify discrepancies between instruments:

a. If one instrument disagrees with others, it may have failed.
2. Common instrument failure scenarios:
A. Airspeed Indicator Failure:
a. If airspeed decreases while other instruments indicate level flight, suspect pitot system
blockage or airspeed indicator failure.
B. Vacuum System Failure:
a. If both attitude and heading indicators give conflicting information, the vacuum system
might have failed.
C. Turn Indicator Failure:
a. If the turn indicator disagrees with other instruments, it may have malfunctioned.
3. Remember instrument power sources:
a. Pitot-static system operates the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator.
b. Vacuum system powers the attitude and heading indicators.
c. Turn indicator is usually electrically operated.

Responding to Instrument Failures:

1. Trust the majority of instruments confirming aircraft attitude.

a. Do not react hastily to one instrument's indication.
2. Maintain control of the aircraft:
a. Assume the aircraft has not dramatically changed attitude if it was stable moments ago.
b. Take time to verify before making significant control inputs.
3. Apply appropriate recovery techniques if an unusual attitude is confirmed.

35
 A. Nose-high unusual attitude:
a. Increase power, lower the nose, and level the wings.
B. Nose-low unusual attitude:
a. Reduce power, level the wings, and raise the nose.

Always perform a thorough cross-check of your instruments to accurately assess the aircraft's
attitude and respond safely to any instrument failures.

36
16. IFR Training Resources
This section provides an overview of the essential resources and materials needed for instrument
flight training, emphasizing the importance of understanding IFR charts, rules, and procedures within
the air traffic control system.

Navigation Charts

1. IFR En Route Charts:

a. Instrument pilot's equivalent of a VFR Sectional Chart.
b. Used for en route planning; depicts airports and airways.
c. Available as printed foldable maps and as moving map layers in aviation apps.
2. Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP):
A. Also known as "Approach Plates".
B. Collection of individual charts and procedures for specific airports.
C. Includes:
a. Instrument approach charts.
b. IFR takeoff minimums.
c. Departure procedures.
d. Arrival procedures.
e. Alternate airport information.
D. Pilots prefer digital versions available in aviation apps.
E. In aviation apps like ForeFlight:
a. Departure, Arrival, and Approach charts found in the "Plates" section.
b. Legends, climb, and descent tables located in the "Documents" section.
F. Both en route and terminal charts are updated every 56 days.
3. FAA vs. Jeppesen Charts:
A. FAA charts are displayed by default in aviation apps.
B. Jeppesen produces their own IFR charts:
a. Require an additional paid subscription.
b. Publish charts for nearly every airport worldwide.
c. Preferred by airline pilots and professional flight departments.

Study Resources and Handbooks

1. Instrument Flying Handbook:

a. Covers IFR rules, instrument flying techniques, and instrument approaches.
2. Instrument Procedures Handbook:
a. Provides detailed information on departure, en route, arrival, and instrument approach
procedures.
b. Useful reference for technical questions related to specific details on instrument approaches.
3. Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs):
A. Part 61:
a. Covers requirements to earn an instrument rating.
b. Includes recent experience requirements and logging of flight time.
B. Part 91:
a. Focuses on general operating rules.
b. Includes equipment, flight planning, and inspection requirements.
4. Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM):
a. Provides basic flight information and ATC procedures required to fly in the U.S. National

37
 Airspace System.
b. Contains information on Air Traffic Control, communications, and instrument procedures.
c. Much of it is written specifically for instrument pilots.

Keeping Up with Changes

1. Rules and procedures are frequently updated.

a. Individual changes may seem insignificant, but over time they accumulate.
2. Staying Current:
a. In the front of each print and digital issue of the AIM, a list of major changes and their effective
dates is provided.
b. Updated content is denoted by black sidebars in the document.
c. Reviewing these changes regularly helps you keep up with revisions.
3. Benefits of Staying Updated:
a. Avoids having to relearn procedures due to accumulated changes.
b. Enhances your ability to use the IFR system effectively and safely.

Learning to use the IFR system is both challenging and rewarding. By familiarizing yourself with
these resources and keeping up with changes, you'll be able to navigate the system to your best
advantage. Remember, it's easier to stay current than to catch up after falling behind.

38
39
Chapter 2 - IFR Navigation

1. Planning With IFR En Route Charts

The en-route phase is the bulk of an IFR flight and requires careful planning before departure. This
section covers the use of IFR en route charts to determine the best route using VORs, airways, or
GPS direct, and how to interpret the chart details for safe and efficient flying.

Types of IFR En Route Charts

1. IFR En Route Planning Chart

a. Useful for long-range planning on the ground.
b. Provides a big-picture view but lacks detailed in-flight information.
2. IFR Low Altitude En Route Chart
a. Primary reference for details on low altitude Victor Airways (up to but not including 18,000 feet
MSL).
b. Depicts RNAV terminal transition routes, called T-Routes, in blue.
3. IFR High Altitude En Route Chart
a. Useful for flights above 18,000 feet.
b. Depicts Jet Airways based on VORs and RNAV Q-Routes.
c. These routes extend from FL180 up to FL450.

Chart Updates and Formats

1. The FAA issues new sets of en route charts every 56 days.

a. Available in both paper and digital formats.
b. Each chart includes a legend for reference.
2. Mobile applications provide data-driven aeronautical charts.
a. Include IFR navigation features that scale automatically based on zoom level.
b. Allow interaction with VORs, airports, or intersections by tapping on the map.
c. Typically do not include all airway details; refer to FAA's IFR en route chart when planning
along Victor Airways.

Understanding IFR En Route Chart Details

1. Victor Airways
A. Identified by the letter "V" followed by a number (e.g., Victor 2).
a. Even-numbered airways run east-west; odd-numbered run north-south.
B. Example: Victor 2 between Rochester and Syracuse VORTACs.
a. Uses the 279-degree radial of Syracuse and the 99-degree radial of Rochester.
C. When flight planning:
a. Average the courses of straight-line airways.
b. When flying the airway, use the charted radials.
2. Airway Distances and Segments
A. Mileage boxes indicate the nautical mile distance between points.
B. Segment distances are printed above or below the airway.
a. Example: From Rochester VORTAC to LORTH is 16 miles.
3. Reporting Points
A. Represented by triangles on the chart.

40
 a. Black triangles are based on VHF/UHF facilities (e.g., VOR).
b. Brown triangles are based on low/medium frequency facilities (e.g., NDB).
c. Blue stars are RNAV reporting points.
B. Symbols indicate reporting requirements.
a. Solid symbols are compulsory reporting points.
b. Open symbols are non-compulsory (on-request) reporting points.
4. Understanding Altitudes
A. Minimum En Route Altitude (MEA)
a. Ensures obstacle clearance and satisfactory navigation signal reception.
b. Example: MEA between Geneseo VORTAC and BEEPS intersection is 4,000 feet.
B. Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude (MOCA)
a. Prefixed with an asterisk and is lower than MEA.
b. Provides obstacle clearance but guarantees navigation signal reception only within 22 NM
of the NAV aid.
c. Example: MOCA is 3,300 feet on the same airway.
d. Can be used if within 22 NM of the station when using VOR navigation.
e. If using GPS, MOCA can be used for the entire route.
C. Off Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude (OROCA)
a. Used when flying direct routes off established airways.
b. Provides obstacle clearance but does not guarantee NAV signal reception, radar coverage,
or ATC communication.
5. Minimum Reception Altitude (MRA)
a. Indicates the lowest altitude at which an intersection can be determined using a specific NAV
aid.
b. Denoted by a flag with an "R".
c. Example: At KONDO, MRA is 4,800 feet to receive the 224-degree radial from Watertown
VORTAC.
6. MEA Gaps
a. Indicates areas where NAV signal coverage does not meet airway standards at the MEA.
b. Denoted by "MEA GAP" notes on the chart.
c. Example: On Victor 134 between Fairfield VORTAC and Carbon VOR/DME.
d. In such gaps, maintain heading until navigation signal is regained.
7. Maximum Authorized Altitude (MAA)
a. Prefixed with "MAA" on the chart.
b. Indicates maximum altitude for airway usage due to NAV signal limitations.
c. Example: Victor 154 has an MAA of 7,000 feet southeast bound.
8. Crossing Altitudes and Changes
a. Altitudes may change along an airway, indicated by short crossbars.
b. Example: Eastbound at BUNKS, MEA changes from 3,000 to 3,500 feet.
c. Aircraft may cross the fix at the lower altitude and then climb to the higher MEA.
9. Bearing Changes and Changeover Points
A. On straight airways, changeover of navigation is usually at the midpoint unless otherwise
indicated.
B. Changeover points are denoted by specific symbols.
a. Example: On Victor 104, the changeover point is 75 miles from Bangor and 25 miles from
Berlin.
C. On dogleg airways, the changeover point is where the airway bends.

41
 a. Example: On Victor 322, the changeover point is at WYLIE.
10. Defining Intersections
A. Arrows show how intersections are defined.
a. Closed-headed arrows indicate radials.
b. Open-headed arrows indicate DME distances.
B. Example: WIFFY is at the intersection of the 279-degree radial from Syracuse and the
216-degree radial from Watertown.
C. DME fixes show cumulative distance.
a. Example: CONDO is 24 miles from Syracuse.

Airports and RNAV Routes

1. Airport Depictions
a. Blue and green airports have published instrument approaches for civilian aircraft.
b. Brown airports do not have published approaches but have runways at least 3,000 feet long;
charted for emergencies.
2. RNAV Routes
a. Low altitude IFR RNAV routes are printed in blue.
b. Identified by the letter "T" followed by a three-digit number.
c. Include mileage, GPS MEAs, and magnetic reference bearings.
d. An IFR-approved GPS is required to fly these RNAV routes.

Flight Planning Tips

1. Familiarize yourself with the en route charts before flying IFR.

a. Understand the symbols and information provided.
b. Use the chart legend for reference.
2. When using mobile apps, be aware of their limitations.
a. They may not include all airway details.
b. Complement them with FAA's IFR en route charts for planning.
3. During flight, focus on flying rather than studying charts.
a. Plan and study your route thoroughly beforehand.
b. Ensure you are comfortable with the route and chart interpretations.

Understanding and effectively utilizing IFR en route charts is essential for safe and efficient
instrument flying. Take the time to become acquainted with these charts, their symbols, and features
during your flight planning to ensure a smooth and successful IFR flight.

42
2. GPS Navigation and the Garmin GTN 650
This section introduces the Global Positioning System (GPS), Wide Area Augmentation System
(WAAS), and how modern navigators like the Garmin GTN 650 enhance navigation capabilities for
pilots, especially under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR).

Understanding GPS and WAAS:

1. GPS Basics:
a. GPS is part of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS).
b. Uses a network of satellites to triangulate positions anywhere on Earth.
c. Requires signals from at least four satellites for three-dimensional positioning.
d. Signals are line-of-sight and virtually unaffected by weather.
2. WAAS Enhancement:
a. WAAS stands for Wide Area Augmentation System.
b. Improves GPS accuracy in the National Airspace System.
c. Uses two geostationary satellites to transmit correction signals.
d. Provides more precise horizontal and vertical positioning.
e. Enables approaches with vertical guidance down to 200 feet above touchdown.

GPS Navigators:

1. Types of Navigators:
A. Older GPS-only IFR navigators:
a. Approved as supplemental navigation systems.
b. Require an alternative navigation means to be installed and operational.
B. Modern WAAS GPS navigators:
a. May serve as the sole IFR navigation source.
b. Having a backup is still recommended.
2. Benefits of GPS Navigators:
a. Allow random area navigation (RNAV).
b. Permit long, direct IFR flights.
c. Contain extensive databases with waypoints, procedures, and airport information.

Using GPS in IFR Flight:

1. Flight Planning with GPS:

a. Use charted fixes such as VORs, intersections, or airports for direct flights.
b. Plan to use Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs) and Standard Terminal Arrival Routes
(STARs) if available.
c. Refer to database-approved procedures in panel-mounted navigators.
2. Minimum Altitudes:
A. No published minimum altitude when flying off-airways.
B. Use Off Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude (OROCA) from IFR charts:
a. Provides 1,000 feet obstacle clearance in non-mountainous areas.
b. Provides 2,000 feet obstacle clearance in mountainous areas.
C. Controllers will not clear you below minimum sector altitudes.
D. Radar coverage is required for certain clearances.
3. Dealing with ATC Clearances:
a. Be prepared for full-route clearances if direct legs cannot be accommodated.
b. Pre-planning can reduce ATC changes to your route.

43
GPS Databases and Approaches:

1. Database Requirements:
A. For en route and terminal use:
a. Current database not required.
b. Verify that waypoints used are current.
B. For GPS approaches:
a. A current database is required.
2. RAIM and Integrity Monitoring:
A. Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM):
a. Ensures satellite geometry allows accurate positioning.
b. Requires a minimum of five satellites, or four with barometric input.
B. WAAS navigators can use geostationary satellites as additional pseudo-satellites.
3. Alternate Airport Requirements:
A. For non-WAAS GPS units:
a. Must have another form of navigation to fly the approach at the alternate.

The Garmin GTN 650 Navigator:

1. Introduction to the GTN 650:

a. A WAAS-capable GPS navigator.
b. Relies on a touchscreen interface with some buttons and knobs.
c. Similar in functionality to the larger GTN 750.
2. Basic Controls:
a. Volume knob for communication and navigation radios.
b. Home and Direct-To buttons for quick access.
c. Concentric control knobs for data entry.
3. Power-Up Sequence:
a. Displays installed databases and expiration dates.
b. Performs a self-test; verify information before proceeding.
4. Direct-To Navigation:
a. Press the Direct-To button.
b. Select the waypoint using the on-screen keyboard.
c. For three-letter identifiers in the contiguous U.S., add a 'K' prefix.
d. Press Enter to load and Activate to commence navigation.
5. Using the Home Screen:
a. Contains icons for various functions like Map, Flight Plan, Procedures.
b. Use the touchscreen to navigate between functions.
c. Back button or Home button returns to the main menu.
6. Default Navigation Screen:
A. Displays key flight data:
a. Distance, Groundspeed, Estimated Time En Route (ETE).
b. Desired Track, Track, and Bearing to next waypoint.
c. Cross-track error and GPS altitude (optional).
B. Customize data fields based on preferences.
7. Map Screen Features:

44
 a. Shows current position and flight plan legs.
b. Active leg displayed in magenta; upcoming legs in white.
c. Tap on waypoints or airports for detailed information.
8. Flight Plans and Procedures:
a. Access Flight Plan via the dedicated button.
b. Select and activate departure procedures, arrivals, and approaches.
c. Ability to select entry methods and load or activate procedures.
9. Modifying Flight Plans:
a. Learn to alter flight plans in-flight as needed.
b. Jump ahead to future waypoints if cleared by ATC.
c. Adapt to changes due to wind, weather, or other factors.
10. Additional Functions:
A. Nearest function shows closest airports, navaids, and frequencies.
B. OBS Mode:
a. Allows definition of a course using one waypoint.
b. Useful for intercepting VOR radials or flying holding patterns.
c. Press OBS button to toggle mode on and off.

Learning to Use GPS Navigators:

1. Importance of Familiarization:
a. Read the GPS manual thoroughly.
b. Utilize training software and simulators (e.g., GTN Trainer).
2. Hands-On Practice:
a. Use simulation modes for ground practice.
b. Fly actual flights and approaches to gain proficiency.
c. Fly with a safety pilot during training, especially under VFR conditions.
3. Regulatory Requirements:
a. Flight Manual Supplement and Pilot's Guide must be accessible when using GPS under IFR.
4. Transitioning Between Units:
a. Learning subsequent GPS models becomes easier after mastering one.

Remember, proficiency with GPS navigation systems like the Garmin GTN 650 enhances flight
safety and efficiency. Continuous practice and familiarization are key to mastering these advanced
avionics.

45
3. Closer Look: ADS-B Transponders
This section provides an overview of transponders and the latest advancements in ADS-B
technology, essential for new student pilots to understand modern aircraft identification and
surveillance systems.

Introduction to Transponders

1. The transponder is a simple device used to set a four-digit code assigned by Air Traffic Control
(ATC) for identification purposes.
a. For example, ATC recognizes code 0446 as Cessna Five Three Six Sierra Papa.
2. Transponder technology has evolved over time, adding new features beyond just aiding ATC.

History and Terminology

1. Transponders were first used during World War II under the name IFF (Identification Friend or
Foe).
A. If the transponder didn't give the right answer, aircraft were targeted.
B. Terminology from that era includes:
a. "Parrot": Referring to the transponder.
b. "Squawk": Setting transponder codes.
c. "Strangle the parrot": Turning off the transponder.
2. The "ident" feature allows pilots to momentarily highlight their transponder signal on ATC's radar
scope.
a. When ATC requests "squawk ident," pressing the ident button aids in positive radar
identification.

Mode C and Altitude Reporting

1. In the late 1980s, transponders began to include Mode C.

a. Mode C transmits the aircraft's altitude in addition to its position.

Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B)

1. ADS-B is the latest advancement in transponder technology, consisting of two parts:

A. ADS-B Out: Advanced transponders that send out additional information, including aircraft's
track and speed.
a. Transmits continuously without waiting for ATC radar interrogation.
b. Sends information to anyone and everyone, including a network of ground stations.
B. ADS-B In: A datalink service that provides subscription-free weather and traffic information to
pilots.

ADS-B Out Requirements

1. ADS-B Out is required in certain airspace:

a. Inside Class A, B, and C airspace.
b. Within 30 nautical miles of Class B airspace (Mode C veil).
c. At or above 10,000 feet MSL, excluding airspace below 2,500 feet above ground level (AGL).
2. An ADS-B Out transponder must be paired with an approved position source, typically a WAAS
GPS.
3. If the transponder fails, ATC may allow continuation to your destination upon request, but it's not
guaranteed.
4. It's recommended to leave your transponder on while taxiing:
a. Assists in tracking aircraft on runways and taxiways to prevent runway incursions at larger

46
 airports.
5. Transponders and altitude reporting equipment must be tested by a certified repair station within
the preceding 24 calendar months.

ADS-B In and Traffic Information

1. ADS-B In provides pilots with access to in-flight radar, text weather reports, and nearby traffic
information.
a. Weather data is broadcast continuously to all aircraft with ADS-B In capability.
b. Traffic data is only transmitted in response to an ADS-B Out message.

Limitations of ADS-B In Traffic

1. The traffic picture provided by ADS-B In can be limited due to how the system operates.
a. Without ADS-B Out, you may not receive a complete traffic display.
b. The traffic information may not include all nearby aircraft, especially those without ADS-B Out.

Scenarios for ADS-B In Usage

1. Scenario 1: Flying with a portable ADS-B In receiver without ADS-B Out installed.
a. You will receive traffic information from aircraft transmitting ADS-B Out via direct air-to-air link.
b. Since many aircraft may not have ADS-B Out, the traffic picture is limited.
2. Scenario 2: Flying with a portable ADS-B In receiver, no ADS-B Out, near an ADS-B
Out-equipped aircraft.
a. The nearby ADS-B Out aircraft triggers ground stations to transmit traffic information.
b. If close enough, your receiver can pick up this information, but it may not be centered around
your aircraft.
3. Scenario 3: Flying with an ADS-B Out transponder installed.
a. Your aircraft transmits to ground stations, creating a "hockey puck" of traffic information
centered around you.
b. You will see all traffic within a 15-mile radius and within 3,500 feet altitude difference.

Difference Between ADS-B and TCAS

1. Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS) are different from ADS-B.

a. TCAS actively interrogates nearby transponders regardless of radar coverage or ADS-B
ground stations.
b. Provides real-time traffic information and can command evasive maneuvers in advanced
versions.
2. ADS-B relies on broadcast information and may not display all nearby aircraft, especially if they
lack ADS-B Out.

Understanding transponders and ADS-B technology is crucial for modern aviation. Proper use and
awareness ensure safe and efficient flight operations.

47
4. VOR Navigation and Airways
This section provides an overview of VOR navigation and the various airways used in the United
States, focusing on key concepts essential for new student pilots.

Air Traffic Service (ATS) Routes:

1. ATS routes include four different sets of airways and arrival and departure routes.

Types of Airways:

1. Victor Airways (VOR Federal Airways):

a. Extend from 1,200 feet AGL up to but not including 18,000 feet MSL.
b. Highest assigned altitude is typically 17,000 feet.
2. Jet Routes:
a. Start at 18,000 feet MSL and extend up to and including FL450 (Flight Level 450).
b. Above FL450, aircraft navigate point-to-point or direct routes.
3. RNAV Routes:
A. Published RNAV routes appear on both high and low altitude charts, printed in blue with
magnetic reference bearings.
B. Q-Routes:
a. Found on high-altitude charts.
C. T-Routes:
a. Low altitude RNAV routes for transitions around busy terminal airspace.
b. Supplement existing ATS routes or replace them when NAVAIDs are decommissioned.
4. Colored Airways:
a. Used in coastal North Carolina and Alaska.
b. Based on low/medium frequency (L/MF) NAVAIDs.
c. Named by colors: Red, Green, Amber, or Blue, followed by a number.

Airway Dimensions and Obstacle Clearance:

1. Airways are 8 nautical miles wide:

a. 4 miles on either side of the centerline.
2. Obstacle clearance within airways:
a. 1,000 feet in non-mountainous areas.
b. 2,000 feet in designated mountainous areas.

VOR Navigation Basics:

1. VOR Indicators show angular deviation:

a. Full-scale deflection equals 10 degrees off the selected course.
2. Calculating distance off course:
A. At 60 NM from the station:
a. 1 degree deviation equals 1 NM off course.
b. 10 degrees deviation equals 10 NM off course.
B. At 30 NM from the station:
a. 1 degree deviation equals 0.5 NM off course.
b. Full-scale (10 degrees) equals 5 NM off course.
3. GPS and Area Navigation (RNAV):

48
 a. Deviation is normally linear, not angular.
b. En route sensitivity: each dot equals 1 NM off course.
c. Sensitivity increases in terminal area and approaches.

Classes of VORs:

1. VORs used for airways have similar power output but are classified as:
A. Low (L-VOR):
a. Standard service volume (SSV) of 40 NM.
b. Used only for low-altitude (Victor) airways.
B. High (H-VOR):
A. Used for both Victor airways and Jet Routes.
B. SSV varies with altitude:
a. Below 14,500 ft MSL: 40 NM.
b. 14,500 ft to 17,999 ft MSL: 100 NM.
c. 18,000 ft to FL450: 130 NM.
d. Above FL450 to 60,000 ft: 100 NM.
C. Terminal VOR (T-VOR):
a. Located on or near airports.
b. Used for instrument approaches.
c. SSV up to 12,000 ft AGL within a 25 NM radius.
2. Standard Service Volume (SSV):
a. Defines the usable range for VORs when not flying on a published airway.
b. Published routes may extend beyond the SSV after flight checks by the FAA.
3. Reception of VOR Signals:
a. If at least 1,000 ft above a VOR and terrain is unobstructed, you should receive signals at
least 40 NM away.
b. Identifying stations is crucial to avoid confusion due to frequency reuse.
4. VOR Receiver Interference:
a. Possible to receive two stations on the same frequency at high altitudes or distances.
b. Recognizable by aural squeal and oscillating indicators.
5. VOR Reduction Program:
a. The FAA is reducing the number of operational VORs due to widespread GPS use.
b. New classifications (VOR Low and VOR High) to ensure reliable navigation if GPS is
unavailable.
c. These guarantee reception out to 70 NM starting at 5,000 ft MSL.

VOR Receiver Checks:

1. Required every 30 days for IFR flight.

2. Methods of checking:
A. VOR Test Facility (VOT):
a. Transmits the 360-degree radial (360 FROM or 180 TO).
b. Tolerance: +/- 4 degrees on the ground or in the air.
B. Designated Surface Checkpoint:
a. Located on airports; align aircraft to specified location.
b. Tolerance: +/- 4 degrees.
C. Designated Airborne Checkpoint:
a. Over specific landmarks at specified altitudes.

49
 b. Tolerance: +/- 6 degrees.
D. Dual VOR Receiver Check:
a. Using two independent VOR receivers tuned to the same station.
b. Tolerance: Maximum difference of 4 degrees between receivers.
E. Radio Repair Station Signal:
a. Transmitted by certified repair stations.
b. Tolerance: Within 4 degrees of the transmitted signal.
F. Homemade Airborne Checkpoint:
a. Using known radials over prominent landmarks.
b. Tolerance: +/- 6 degrees.
3. Record Keeping:
A. Record the check in aircraft logs with:
a. Place.
b. Amount of bearing error.
c. Date.
d. Signature.
B. Use acronym PADS (Place, Amount, Date, Signature).

Responsibility of Pilot in Command:

1. Ensure the aircraft is airworthy.

2. Aircraft may not be airworthy if required checks and inspections are not completed.
3. VOR operational checks are mandatory for IFR flight.

Understanding VOR navigation and airways is essential for safe and efficient flight operations.
Regular equipment checks and proper use of navigation aids ensure compliance with regulations
and enhance situational awareness.

50
5. Clearances and IFR Flight Plans
This section covers various types of clearances and flight planning considerations essential for new
instrument-rated pilots.

Abbreviated Clearance ("Cleared as Filed"):

1. Used to reduce frequency congestion.

a. Controllers say "cleared as filed" if the route matches the filed flight plan.
b. The term applies only to the route, not altitudes or other details.
2. Along with "cleared as filed," controllers will always state:
a. Destination airport name.
b. Assigned altitude to maintain.
c. If applicable, the SID (Standard Instrument Departure) and transition.
3. Controllers will not state altitudes specified in a SID.

Clearances at Non-Towered Airports:

1. If surface radio communication with ATC exists:

a. Clearance is given over the radio.
2. Without surface communication:
a. Clearance is received via telephone.
b. Includes a release time and a void time.
3. Release Time:
a. The earliest time for takeoff.
b. Indicates when departure airspace is available.
4. Void Time:
a. The latest time for takeoff.
b. Pilots must take off by this time to ensure IFR separation.
c. Pilots departing after void time may violate IFR regulations.
5. If unable to depart by void time:
a. Notify ATC as soon as possible, but within 30 minutes.
b. Failure to contact ATC may initiate search and rescue operations.

VFR-on-top Clearance:

1. Allows flight under IFR with VFR altitudes in VMC (Visual Meteorological Conditions).
2. Pilot Requirements:
a. Must be instrument rated and current.
b. File an IFR flight plan and receive a clearance.
3. Operational Limitations:
A. Pilot must comply with both VFR and IFR rules.
a. Maintain VFR cruising altitudes.
b. Responsible for separation from other aircraft.
c. Adhere to VFR cloud clearance and visibility requirements.
B. Cannot enter IFR weather conditions.
C. Must request VFR-on-top clearance from ATC.
4. Advantages for Pilots:
a. Choose altitude for favorable winds, reduced turbulence, or weather avoidance.
b. May climb or descend without requesting clearance, but must inform ATC of changes in

51
 advance.
5. ATC Responsibilities:
a. Not responsible for separation of VFR-on-top aircraft (except in TRSAs and Class B and C
airspace).

Cruise Clearance:

1. Used in uncongested airspace for short flights.

2. Allows pilot to operate between minimum IFR altitude and the assigned cruise altitude.
a. For example, "Cruise 6,000" permits flight from minimum IFR altitude up to 6,000 feet.
3. Pilot Flexibility:
a. May climb or descend within the block altitude without notifying ATC.
b. Once descending and reporting leaving an altitude, cannot return to it without clearance.
4. Authorizes pilot to proceed to destination and execute an approach.

Block Altitude Clearance:

1. Requested when frequent altitude changes are needed:

a. Training maneuvers during IFR flight.
b. Maintaining actual IMC during instrument experience.
c. Severe or extreme turbulence.
2. Provides vertical (and possibly horizontal) boundaries for operations.
3. Pilot does not need to advise ATC of altitude changes within the block.

Pop-up IFR Clearance:

1. Obtained during VFR flight when encountering unpredicted poor weather.

2. Steps to Obtain Clearance:
A. Contact appropriate ATC facility for your location.
a. Use GPS, EFB, or approach charts to find frequencies.
B. Provide necessary information typically included in a filed flight plan.
3. ATC will issue clearance or direct you to the correct facility.

Preflight Planning and NOTAMs:

1. Pilots must familiarize themselves with all available flight information.

a. Runway lengths, airport information, alternate airports.
2. NOTAMs (Notices to Airmen) are crucial information sources.
3. Types of NOTAMs:
A. FDC NOTAMs (Flight Data Center):
a. Regulatory information.
b. Amendments to instrument approach procedures and aeronautical charts.
c. Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFRs).
B. D NOTAMs (Distant NOTAMs):
a. Navigational facilities and public-use airports.
b. Changes in NAVAID status, runway conditions, radar availability.
c. Classified by keyword at the beginning.
C. Pointer NOTAMs:
a. Highlight or point out other important NOTAMs.
b. Assist in cross-referencing information.

52
 D. SAA NOTAMs (Special Activity Airspace):
a. Issued when SAA is active outside published times.
4. Permanent FDC and D NOTAMs are published every 28 days in the Notices to Airmen
Publication.
5. Once published, these NOTAMs are not included in standard preflight briefings unless requested.

NAVAID Maintenance and Identifiers:

1. During maintenance, NAVAIDs may not transmit identifiers or may transmit "TEST" in Morse
code.
2. VORTAC stations transmit VOR and DME identifiers on a timeshare basis:
a. DME identifier transmitted once for every three or four VOR transmissions.

IFR Flight Plans and Airspace Classes:

1. IFR Flight Plan and Clearance Requirements:

a. Required to enter controlled airspace when weather is below VFR minimums.
b. Exception: Class A airspace always requires IFR flight plan and clearance.
2. Class A Airspace:
a. From 18,000 feet MSL up to FL600.
b. Covers the contiguous United States and parts of Alaska.
c. Always requires IFR flight plan and clearance, even in VFR weather.
3. Class G Airspace:
a. Uncontrolled airspace.
b. No ATC authority or responsibility.
c. IFR flight plan and clearance not required.

Composite Flight Plan:

1. Combines IFR and VFR flight segments.

a. Flight can start VFR and end IFR, or vice versa.
2. IFR Portion:
a. Route must include IFR airways, routes, or fixes.
3. Transitioning Between VFR and IFR:
a. Contact nearest Flight Service Station to close VFR plan and request IFR clearance.
b. Pilot is responsible for closing the VFR flight plan.
c. Must remain in VFR conditions until IFR clearance is received.

Understanding these clearances and flight planning procedures is essential for safe and efficient IFR
operations. Always ensure you are informed and comply with ATC instructions and regulations.

53
6. Air Traffic Control and IFR
This section provides an overview of the history and functions of Air Traffic Control (ATC) and the
importance of Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) for new student pilots.

History of Federal Aviation Regulation:

1. 1926: Creation of the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce:

a. Focused on pilot licensing, promoting safety, and developing navigation facilities.
2. 1930s: Emergence of Air Traffic Control:
a. Control towers built in larger cities.
b. Airlines established control centers for flights between major cities.
3. 1936: Federal Government Assumed Control:
a. Responsibility for control centers taken over with a team of eight controllers.

Functions of Air Traffic Service:

1. Developing plans and establishing standards.

2. Implementing air traffic control systems.
3. Key functions for instrument pilots:
A. Preflight and In-Flight Services:
a. Provided by Flight Service Stations.
B. Aircraft Separation in Controlled Airspace:
a. Managed by towers, approach and departure controls, and Air Route Traffic Control
Centers (ARTCC).

Understanding the Air Traffic Control System:

1. Importance for Pilots:

a. Maneuvering aircraft precisely at specified speeds, altitudes, and positions.
b. Maintaining orderly sequence with other aircraft.
2. Controller's Primary Responsibility:
a. Separating aircraft and issuing safety alerts.
3. Pilot's Responsibility:
a. See and avoid other aircraft, terrain, and obstructions when weather conditions permit.

Airspace and Separation:

1. Controlled Airspace Below 18,000 Feet:

a. Mix of IFR and VFR aircraft.
b. Not all VFR aircraft are under ATC control.
2. Types of Separation:
a. Longitudinal, lateral, and vertical separation.
3. Technology Used for Monitoring:
A. Radar:
a. Primary method to detect and monitor air traffic.
b. Separations based on display type and distance from the radar antenna.
B. Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B):
a. Relies on GPS position data and precise altitude information.
b. Provides a more reliable and complete picture of air traffic.

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Radar and Non-Radar Separation:

1. Radar Separation:
A. Within 40 Nautical Miles of Antenna:
a. Minimum separation can be as little as 3 nautical miles.
B. Wake Turbulence Separation:
a. May require up to 6 miles separation from heavy and large aircraft.
C. Vertical Separation:
a. 1,000 feet up to Flight Level (FL) 410.
b. Above FL 410, separation increases to 2,000 feet.
2. Non-Radar Separation:
A. Used when radar or ADS-B coverage is unavailable.
B. Requires larger separation distances:
a. As much as 10 minutes longitudinal separation.
b. Altitude changes may also require significant separation times.

Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) and Airspace Classes:

1. Filing an IFR Flight Plan:

a. Must file and receive ATC clearance before entering controlled airspace in less than VFR
conditions.
2. Class G Airspace:
a. ATC has neither authority nor responsibility to control aircraft here.
b. Aircraft can be flown IFR without a flight plan or clearance but must comply with all IFR
regulations.
c. Class G airspace ends no higher than 14,500 feet.

Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC):

1. Centers Control En Route IFR Flights:

a. 20 centers manage the airspace in the contiguous United States.
b. Communicate with aircraft via remote sites connected by microwave relay or landlines.
2. Centers Divided into Sectors:
a. Each sector has specific geographic boundaries and assigned frequencies.
b. Controllers coordinate with adjacent sectors to manage aircraft transitions.

Operations Without Tower or Radar Coverage:

1. Arriving at Non-Towered Airports:

a. ATC will not automatically close your IFR flight plan upon landing.
b. Pilots must close the flight plan after landing by contacting ATC or Flight Service.
2. Frequency Changes and Sector Boundaries:
a. Be prepared to switch frequencies as you approach center boundaries.
b. Readiness enhances smooth communication within the ATC system.

Understanding the structure and functions of Air Traffic Control and adhering to IFR procedures are
crucial for safe and efficient flight operations.

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7. Closer Look: Air Traffic Control Radar
Understanding how air traffic control (ATC) technology works can enhance your flying experience
and safety as a pilot. This section covers the basics of ATC radar systems and how they interact
with your aircraft.

Introduction to ATC Technology:

1. Benefits of understanding ATC technology:

a. Improves pilot-ATC communication.
b. Enhances flight safety and efficiency.
2. Modern ATC systems use a mix of old and new technology to manage air traffic.

How Controllers See Your Airplane:

1. Your aircraft appears as a data block on the controller's screen, indicating:

a. Your identity (callsign).
b. Your altitude.
c. Your groundspeed.
d. Your destination.
2. The information displayed depends on the technology used to identify your aircraft.

Types of Surveillance Technology:

1. Primary Radar:
a. Detects objects by bouncing radar signals off them.
b. Provides limited information:no identification or altitude.
c. Can detect aircraft without transponders or even flocks of birds.
2. Transponder Radar:
a. Aircraft transponder sends signals to ATC radar.
b. Provides precise location of the aircraft.
c. Mode C transponders include altitude information.
3. Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B):
a. Replaces radar as the main identification method.
b. Requires an ADS-B Out transmitter on the aircraft.
c. Automatically reports position and velocity once per second.
d. Provides more precise information to ATC.
e. Allows for reduced separation between aircraft in busy airspace.
f. Offers services in areas without radar coverage.
g. Provides automated collision alerts to controllers.

Continued Role of Radar:

1. Used as a backup system for ATC.

2. Identifies aircraft without ADS-B equipment.
3. Detects precipitation (weather radar):
a. Less detailed than NEXRAD radar.
b. Pilots should trust their eyes more than ATC radar for avoiding storms.
c. Don't hesitate to ask the controller about potential weather ahead.

Altitude Monitoring:

1. ATC monitors your altitude for safety:

a. When climbing or descending, altitude is reported by your transponder.
b. When level, ATC ensures you maintain your assigned altitude.

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 c. Deviation of more than 200 feet may prompt ATC to inquire.
2. The "Snitch Machine":
a. Computer program that reports loss of legal separation (1,000 feet vertically and 5 miles
horizontally).
b. Pilots or controllers may have to explain deviations.
3. Common causes of altitude deviations:
a. Missing assigned altitude during climbs or descents.
b. Distractions in the cockpit.
c. Failure to use altitude alerters effectively.

ATC Tools for Conflict Prediction:

1. Controllers can project flight paths to anticipate conflicts.

2. Possible solutions are tested in the computer to resolve conflicts.
3. Controllers can accommodate direct routes outside busy terminal areas.

Vectors Assigned by ATC:

1. Terminal Controllers:
a. Assign vectors for sequencing aircraft.
b. Maintain three-mile separation between aircraft.
2. En Route Controllers:
a. Assign vectors to avoid conflicts with other aircraft.
3. Importance of flying assigned headings precisely to ensure safety.

Tips for Routing:

1. If given a circuitous IFR routing in good weather:

a. Consider requesting a VFR clearance through Class B or C airspace.
b. VFR routing can be more direct due to less stringent separation standards.

Perspective on Controllers and Surveillance:

1. ATC systems enhance capacity and safety, allowing more aircraft to fly simultaneously.
2. ADS-B and radar are tools to facilitate efficient and safe air traffic management.
3. Controllers are partners in ensuring a safe flight, not "big brother" watching over you.

Remember, understanding ATC technology and maintaining clear communication helps ensure a
safe and efficient flight experience.

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8. Departing the Terminal Area
This section covers procedures and considerations when departing the terminal area during an IFR
flight, focusing on Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs) and Obstacle Departure Procedures
(ODPs).

Departure Phase:

1. The terminal area phase begins immediately after takeoff.

2. For most flights, follow the ATC clearance to proceed on course.
3. Clearances may include:
a. An initial heading to intercept the first leg of your course.
b. A Standard Instrument Departure (SID) in busier airspace.

Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs):

1. SIDs are graphic departure procedures designed by ATC to:

a. Standardize traffic flow.
b. Ensure aircraft separation.
c. Provide obstacle clearance from the terminal area to the en route environment.
2. Finding SIDs:
a. Located in mobile apps alongside instrument approach charts.
b. Complex procedures may have two pages: a graphic routing and a text description.
3. Using SIDs:
a. You cannot fly a SID without specific ATC clearance.
b. Charts provide departure control frequency and top altitude; ATC may omit these to save time.
c. IFR GPS navigators include SIDs in their databases for easy loading.
4. Declining SIDs:
a. If you prefer not to use SIDs, note this in the remarks section of your flight plan.
b. If assigned a SID, inform ATC if unable to accept; they will provide alternate instructions.

Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODPs):

1. ODPs ensure obstacle clearance during departure.

2. Types of ODPs:
a. Textual ODPs: Found in the Takeoff Minimums section in mobile apps.
b. Graphic ODPs: Found with SIDs, titled with "Obstacle" to differentiate them.
3. Using ODPs:
a. Do not require ATC clearance.
b. Plan to fly the ODP if weather is worse than day VFR, unless assigned a SID or radar vectors.
c. If ATC clearance conflicts with a published ODP, clarify with ATC.
d. The pilot is ultimately responsible for flight safety.

Takeoff Minimums and Obstacle Notes:

1. An inverse "T" on FAA approach charts indicates:

a. The airport has a published ODP and/or non-standard takeoff minimums.
2. Refer to the Takeoff Minimums section in mobile apps for details.
3. Considerations:
a. Takeoff minimums do not apply to Part 91, non-commercial flights, but it's wise to follow them.
b. Obstacles are present regardless of operating rules; minimums provide safety margins.

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4. Standard takeoff minimums for commercial operations:
a. 1 statute mile visibility for airplanes with 1 or 2 engines.
b. 1/2 statute mile visibility for airplanes with 3 or more engines.
c. Non-standard minimums will vary by airport.
5. Example at Harrison, Ohio:
a. Runway 1 has takeoff minimums of a 500 ft ceiling and 3 miles visibility.
b. Standard minimums (1 mile visibility) may be used if the aircraft can climb at least 385 ft/NM
to 1,200 ft MSL.

Departing from Class G Airspace:

1. Clearance may state: "Upon entering controlled airspace fly heading..."

2. This indicates you are responsible for obstacle clearance in Class G airspace.
3. Pilot responsibilities:
a. Determine if obstacle clearance can be maintained visually on departure.
b. Check for departure procedures and necessary actions for a safe departure.

Obstacle Clearance Procedures:

1. Standard criteria:
a. Climb at least 200 ft/NM.
b. Climb to 400 ft above runway elevation before turning unless specified otherwise.
2. Obstacle assessment by FAA uses a 152 ft/NM slope starting at runway end.
3. If obstacles penetrate this slope:
a. Departure procedures are published to ensure safety.
b. May include increased climb gradients or specific flight paths.
4. Extreme cases may prohibit IFR departures from certain runways.

Climb Gradient and Rate Calculations:

1. Understanding climb requirements:

a. 200 ft/NM climb gradient is minimal (e.g., 300 ft/min at 90 knots).
b. Groundspeed affects required climb rate; tailwinds increase climb rate needed.
2. Clearance margins are tight:
a. Difference between obstacle slope and climb gradient is only 48 ft/NM.
b. At 2 NM from runway, clearance above obstacles may be just 96 ft.

Examples of Departure Procedures:

1. Cleveland Municipal Airport, Mississippi:

a. ODP for Runway 18 requires climbing to 600 ft on heading 178 before turning.
b. Low close-in obstacles (trees, poles up to 40 ft tall) near departure end of runway.
c. Pilots expected to avoid these visually or ensure sufficient climb capability.
2. Sunol Nine Departure, San Jose, California:
a. More complex SID requiring planning.
b. Climb gradient of 290 ft/NM up to 4,000 ft.
c. Specific headings and radials to intercept and altitudes to maintain.
3. Aspen, Colorado:
a. SID requires climb rate of 460 ft/NM up to 14,000 ft MSL.
b. High elevation airport (7,820 ft) with challenging performance requirements.
c. Not suitable for low-performance aircraft; consider engine failure scenarios.

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4. Hawk Two Departure, Long Beach, California:
a. Example of an RNAV SID with "Climb Via" clearance.
b. Pilot must comply with all altitude and speed restrictions on the procedure.
c. Requires approved GPS or FMS capable of loading the departure by name.
d. Pay attention to mandatory altitudes and transitions as cleared by ATC.

Remember, thorough pre-flight planning and understanding of departure procedures are crucial for a
safe and efficient transition from the terminal area to the en route phase of your flight.

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9. IFR En Route
This section focuses on the crucial aspects of en route IFR flying, emphasizing that pilots must
remain attentive and understand the constraints and procedures within the air traffic control system
to ensure safe and efficient flights.

Understanding En Route Altitudes

1. Minimum En Route Altitudes (MEAs):

a. MEAs are often low, especially in flat terrain.
b. Ensure obstacle clearance and navigational signal coverage.
2. Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitudes (MOCAs):
a. MOCAs are even lower than MEAs.
b. Guarantee VOR navigation coverage only within 22 miles of the station.
c. Seldom cleared to fly at MOCAs due to limited navigation and radar coverage.
3. Radar Coverage Considerations:
a. Controllers prefer aircraft to be within radar coverage for tracking.
b. May be reluctant to clear you at minimum altitudes if radar coverage is insufficient.

Airspace Divisions and Their Impact

1. Terminal Radar Control Facilities (TRACONs):

a. Handle airspace typically out to 30 miles and up to 10,000-12,000 feet.
b. Manage arrivals and departures in terminal areas.
2. Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCCs):
a. Control the rest of the airspace beyond TRACONs.
b. Divide sectors between low and high altitude at FL230 (23,000 feet).
3. Effect on En Route Flying:
a. Passing through TRACON airspace may result in route or altitude restrictions.
b. Expect handoffs between controllers when transitioning airspace.

Dealing with Terminal Areas

1. Route and Altitude Restrictions:

a. Some terminals may have removed certain airways (e.g., Pittsburgh), requiring detours.
b. Others may only allow passage at higher altitudes (e.g., 12,000 feet over St. Louis).
2. Adapting to Terminal Airspace Requirements:
a. Plan ahead to avoid congested terminal areas when possible.
b. Use alternative airways that bypass major terminals (e.g., V50 or V234 around St. Louis).
3. Vectoring in Terminal Areas:
a. Expect potential vectors to keep clear of arrivals and departures.
b. Be prepared for changes in your route when near busy terminals.

Changing Altitudes En Route

1. Timing Your Request:

a. Wait a few minutes after contacting a new controller before requesting altitude changes.
b. Controllers may need coordination time if you're near sector boundaries.
2. Climb and Descent Rates:
a. Use optimal rates consistent with your aircraft's capabilities.
b. Maintain this rate until within 1,000 feet of assigned altitude, then adjust to 500-1,500 fpm.

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 c. Inform ATC if unable to maintain at least 500 fpm.
3. Speed Variations:
a. Notify ATC if true airspeed varies by ±5% or 10 knots (whichever is greater) from planned
speed.

Equipment Notifications to ATC

1. Reporting Equipment Failures:

a. Inform ATC of any communications, navigation, or approach equipment malfunctions.
b. Describe the impairment and any assistance required.
2. Emergency Procedures:
a. If you need special handling or priority, declare an emergency.
b. Be specific about assistance needed (e.g., vectors, no-gyro approach).

Flying Direct Routes with RNAV/GPS

1. Using Approved Navigation Systems:

a. Direct legs are acceptable with approved RNAV, GPS, or other systems.
b. Controllers may require radar monitoring and coverage.
2. Potential Route Adjustments:
a. ATC may direct you to join published routes due to airspace constraints.
b. Have charts or representations of published routes available.
3. Transition Fixes for Major Areas:
a. Plan direct flights to begin or end over appropriate fixes or NAVAIDs.
b. E.g., clearance to a transition fix like BONHAM VORTAC when approaching Dallas Love
Field.

Navigating Restricted Airspace

1. Avoiding Prohibited and Restricted Areas:

a. Plan routes to avoid active areas by at least 3 NM unless permission is obtained.
2. High Altitude Airspace Considerations:
a. Class A airspace charts may not depict all regulated areas above 18,000 feet MSL.
b. Be aware of vertical extensions like ATC Assigned Airspace (ATCAA).
3. Filing Direct Routes:
a. File direct and allow ATC to adjust for any restricted airspace conflicts.
b. Be prepared for route changes or altitude assignments.

Requesting Deviations Around Weather

1. Communicating with ATC:

a. Be specific about deviation requests (e.g., "turn right 20 degrees for 5 miles").
b. Controllers may need to coordinate for significant deviations.
2. Considering Restricted Airspace:
a. Avoid deviations that might encroach on restricted areas.
b. Choose alternative paths when possible.
3. Urgent Deviations:
a. If weather conditions demand immediate action, clearly state your needs to ATC.
b. Use assertive communication to ensure safety.

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Navigation Accuracy and Airway Width

1. Understanding Airway Dimensions:

a. Airways are 8 NM wide (4 NM on either side of centerline).
b. Provide protected airspace with assured obstacle clearance.
2. VOR Indicator Usage:
a. Full-scale CDI deflection equals 10 degrees off course.
b. Calculate distance off course based on CDI deflection and distance from station.
c. E.g., 1 degree off at 60 NM equals 1 NM off course.
3. GPS Navigation:
a. GPS provides linear deviation indications.
b. En route mode: each dot represents 1 NM off course.
c. Be aware of sensitivity changes in terminal areas and approaches.

Staying Alert En Route

1. Maintaining Vigilance:
a. Avoid "cruise blindness" by staying attentive.
b. Even in VMC, actively look out for other traffic.
2. See and Avoid Responsibility:
a. Controllers may not always provide traffic advisories due to workload or radar limitations.
b. Pilots must scan for traffic to ensure separation.
3. Monitoring Systems:
a. Regularly check instruments and navigation systems.
b. Keep situational awareness high throughout the flight.

Managing En Route Weather Information

1. Obtaining Weather Updates:

a. Request permission from ATC to leave frequency before contacting Flight Service.
b. Use Flight Watch or FSS for comprehensive weather information.
2. Returning to ATC Frequency:
a. After obtaining weather info, promptly return to ATC frequency and check in.
b. E.g., "Indy Center, Cessna 6167L is back with you, level at 7,000."
3. Using ATC for Weather Information:
a. Controllers have limited weather displays; avoid relying solely on them for weather updates.
b. Do not use ATC frequencies for routine weather briefings.

Remember, en route IFR flying requires continuous attention and adaptation. By staying informed,
communicating effectively with ATC, and maintaining situational awareness, you ensure a safer and
more efficient flight experience.

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10. IFR Arrivals
This section covers Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) arrivals, focusing on Standard Terminal Arrival
Routes (STARs), their usage, and important considerations for new pilots during the arrival phase.

Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs):

1. Definition:
a. STARs are standardized routes that guide aircraft into the terminal area, typically ending at a
fix where vectors to the final approach course are provided by Air Traffic Control (ATC).
2. Opting Out of a STAR:
a. If you prefer not to fly a STAR, indicate "No STAR" in the remarks section of your flight plan.
b. If assigned a STAR despite this, inform ATC, and they will provide alternative instructions.
3. Understanding a STAR : Example: FINGR Five Arrival to Dallas:
A. The chart may appear complex due to various transition routes converging at the FINGR
intersection.
B. Review the textual description on the chart's second page for clarity.
C. Example Route from Fort Smith, Arkansas:
a. Fly over the Bonham VORTAC.
b. Follow the Bonham 191-degree radial to FINGR intersection.
c. Proceed on a 230-degree heading until further ATC instructions.
4. Planning Your Arrival:
a. Incorporate STARs and transition fixes into your flight plan to align with established traffic
flows.

RNAV STARs and GPS Usage:

1. Modern Arrival Procedures:

a. Many STARs are designed for GPS navigation, indicated by "RNAV" in the procedure title.
b. These use waypoints similar to RNAV/GPS instrument approaches.
2. Using GPS Navigators:
a. Activate the procedure in your GPS to automatically load all the waypoints into your flight plan.
b. Both RNAV and conventional STARs can be flown using an IFR-approved GPS to reduce
workload.

Procedure Compliance:

1. Review Procedure Notes:

a. Check for any required crossing altitudes or speed restrictions listed on the STAR chart.
2. Descent Planning:
A. Typical descent gradients are between 250 to 350 feet per nautical mile.
B. Maintain appropriate descent rates based on your groundspeed:
a. At 180 knots: 750 to 1,000 feet per minute.
b. At 120 knots: 500 to 700 feet per minute.
C. If unable to maintain these rates, expect possible ATC requests for increased descent rates or
vectors for spacing.
3. ATIS and Communication:
a. Tune into the Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) ahead of time.
b. Inform approach control that you have the latest ATIS information upon initial contact.
c. Be aware of the active approach and anticipate vectors to intercept the final approach course.

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ATC Separation and Clearance:

1. Traffic Sequencing:
a. ATC separates aircraft using vertical or horizontal methods to line up arrivals for landing.
2. "Descend Via" Clearance:
a. Reduces communication by instructing pilots to follow the STAR's lateral path and comply with
all altitude and speed restrictions.
b. Initiate altitude and speed changes as depicted until reaching the final altitude on the
procedure.
3. Approach Clearance:
a. If nearing the final approach course without clearance, ask ATC if you should turn inbound.
b. Do not turn onto the final approach course until cleared or instructed by ATC.
4. Minimum Vectoring Altitude (MVA):
a. The lowest altitude ATC will assign during vectors, ensuring obstacle clearance.
b. MVA may be lower than charted minimums and is used at ATC's discretion.

Completing the Approach:

1. Final Approach Expectations:

a. Once cleared and established on the final approach course, proceed to land or execute a
missed approach as necessary.
b. Any deviation requires a new clearance from ATC.
2. Non-Procedural Approaches:
A. Visual Approach:
a. Initiated by ATC when you have the airport or preceding aircraft in sight.
b. No published missed approach procedure; communicate with the tower or ATC if a
go-around is needed.
B. Contact Approach:
a. Requested by the pilot when clear of clouds with at least 1-mile visibility.
b. Airport must have an approved instrument approach.
c. Pilot is responsible for obstacle clearance.
C. Use caution with non-procedural approaches, especially in unfamiliar areas or marginal
weather conditions.
3. Missed Approach During Non-Procedural Approaches:
a. If a missed approach is necessary, inform ATC promptly for further instructions.

Arriving at Non-Radar Controlled Airports:

1. Adhering to Published Procedures:

a. Follow arrival transitions and approaches exactly as charted to ensure obstacle clearance.
2. Altitude Restrictions:
a. Do not descend from your assigned altitude unless established on a published route.
b. Never descend below the minimum altitudes specified on the charts.
3. Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) and Decision Altitude (DA):
a. Do not descend below MDA or DA unless the runway environment is in sight and you can
make a normal landing.
b. Once below MDA or DA, obstacle avoidance is your responsibility.

After Landing Procedures:

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1. IFR Flight Plan Cancellation:
A. Controlled Airports:
a. The control tower will automatically close your IFR flight plan upon landing.
B. Uncontrolled Airports:
a. Cancel IFR with ATC via radio before landing or contact Flight Service after landing.
b. If unable to cancel by radio, ATC may provide a phone number for you to call.
2. Importance of Cancellation:
a. Notifying ATC ensures they are aware you're on the ground and prevents unnecessary search
and rescue operations.

By thoroughly understanding and following IFR arrival procedures, new pilots can ensure safe and
efficient integration into terminal airspace. Proper planning, adherence to ATC instructions, and clear
communication are essential for successful IFR operations.

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11. IFR Planning Tips
This section provides essential tips for planning IFR flights, focusing on chart usage, departure
procedures, planning tools, and the importance of preparation for new student pilots.

Using En Route Low Altitude and Area Charts

1. Primary navigation resources for IFR flying:

a. En route low altitude charts.
b. Area charts for detailed en route planning.
2. Recognizing area chart availability:
a. Green dashed lines around busy terminal areas indicate an area chart is available.
3. Understanding chart details:
a. En route charts may omit complete information in congested areas.
b. Area charts provide more detailed information for departures and arrivals.
4. Electronic Flight Bag (EFB) applications:
a. Detailed area chart information may display automatically as you zoom in.

Standard Instrument Departure (SID) Charts

1. Purpose of SIDs:
a. Preplanned and coded departure routes.
b. Simplify clearance delivery by referencing SID names.
2. Understanding climb requirements in SIDs:
a. Notes indicate if a climb exceeds 200 feet per nautical mile.
b. The chart states the required climb in feet per mile.
3. Calculating required rate of climb:
A. Divide projected groundspeed by 60 to determine miles per minute.
B. Multiply miles per minute by required climb per mile.
C. Example: HABUT 4 departure requires 385 feet per mile to 6,000 feet MSL.
A. If groundspeed is 120 knots (2 miles per minute):
a. Required climb rate = 385 ft/mile × 2 miles/min = 770 ft/min.
4. Using Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP) rate of climb tables:
a. Tables provide climb rates for various gradients and speeds.
b. Interpolate if exact values are not listed.

Flight Planning Tools and Recent ATC Routes

1. Utilizing flight planning apps and websites:

a. Access additional route planning information.
b. Display recent ATC cleared routes between planned airports.
2. Benefits of viewing recent ATC routes:
a. Sorted by altitude for selecting appropriate routes.
b. Helps find routes that suit your aircraft's performance.

Checking Approach Charts for Departure Airports

1. Importance of reviewing approach charts:

a. In case you need to return to the departure airport.
b. To identify any special departure procedures.

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2. Understanding chart symbols:
a. Reverse "T" indicates non-standard takeoff minimums or special departure procedures.
b. Reverse "A" relates to alternate airport requirements (discussed later).
3. Accessing takeoff minimums and departure procedures:
a. Listed in the FAA Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP).
b. Available in EFB applications alongside departure procedures.
4. Example: Caldwell, Ohio:
a. Requires 400-foot ceiling and 1-mile visibility for IFR takeoff.

Takeoff Minimums and Departure Instructions

1. Applicability of takeoff minimums:

a. Mandatory for aircraft operated for hire.
b. Not required for private aircraft, but advisable for safety.
2. Safety considerations:
a. Legal minimums may not always be safe (e.g., low ceilings).
b. Consider obstacle clearance and instrument approach minimums.
3. Compliance with departure instructions:
a. All aircraft must follow departure procedures.
b. Departure instructions ensure obstacle clearance.

Understanding En Route Charts and Communications

1. Center boundaries:
a. Indicated by crenellated lines on charts.
b. Anticipate handoffs between centers when crossing boundaries.
2. Remote communication sites:
a. Shown by boxes with crenellated lines.
b. Frequencies for communication are listed inside the boxes.
3. Sectors not shown on en route charts.

Importance of Preparation and Planning Ahead

1. Instrument flying dynamics:

a. Long periods of tranquility with brief periods of high activity.
2. Utilizing tranquil times:
a. Prepare for upcoming tasks and busy periods.
b. Think and plan ahead while in flight.
3. Ground preparation eases workload during flight.

By thoroughly planning and understanding all aspects of your IFR flight, you enhance safety and
reduce workload during critical phases of flight.

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12. ATC Expectations
This section outlines Air Traffic Control (ATC) expectations for pilots operating under Instrument
Flight Rules (IFR), focusing on proper communication, compliance with clearances, and procedures
to ensure safe and efficient flight operations.

ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service):

1. ATIS provides routine but essential information in an automated broadcast.

2. A new recording is made when there is:
a. A new weather observation.
b. A change in data such as runway or approach in use.
c. A runway braking action report worse than the previous ATIS.
3. If ceiling or visibility is omitted:
a. It implies ceiling above 5,000 feet and visibility more than 5 miles.
4. Each ATIS recording is identified by an alphabetical code at the beginning and end.
5. Pilots are expected to:
a. Monitor ATIS prior to initial contact with ATC.
b. Repeat the ATIS code when communicating with ATC.
c. Avoid saying "have numbers"; instead, use the ATIS code word.

Clearance Acknowledgment:

1. After receiving an IFR clearance:

a. Pilots must acknowledge receipt and understanding.
b. Request clarification or amendment if unclear or unacceptable.
c. If clearance causes deviation from regulations, request amendment.

Compliance with Instructions:

1. Pilots are expected to comply with instructions upon receipt.

2. Urgent instructions include the word "immediately" to indicate urgency.
3. If an instruction seems unsafe or doesn't make sense:
a. Question the controller.
b. Remember that ATC is fallible and safety is paramount.

Turning and Heading Assignments:

1. When assigned a turn or heading:

a. Promptly initiate and complete the maneuver.
b. Maintain the new heading until further instructions are given.

Departure Procedures:

1. When departing from a tower-controlled airport:

a. Do not change to departure control until instructed by the tower.
b. This applies even if you have entered clouds.

Altitude Clearances:

1. "At pilot's discretion" clearances allow:

a. Climb or descend when the pilot chooses.
b. Climb or descend at any rate.
c. Level off at intermediate altitudes if desired.
d. Once an altitude is vacated, you may not return to it.
2. Without "at pilot's discretion":

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 a. Begin climb or descent promptly upon acknowledgment.
b. Climb or descend at optimum rate consistent with aircraft performance.
c. Within 1,000 feet of assigned altitude, adjust rate between 500-1,500 ft/min.
d. If unable to maintain at least 500 ft/min, inform ATC.

"Resume Own Navigation":

1. Indicates radar vectors are complete; pilot resumes navigation.

2. Always have a departure plan to transition to en-route phase.
3. If no departure procedure is available:
a. Ensure visual climb to minimum safe altitude before proceeding on course.

Readbacks:

1. Read back altitude assignments and vector headings when airborne.

2. Begin readbacks with aircraft identification.
3. Repeat altitudes and headings in the sequence issued.
4. This reduces communication errors due to misheard numbers.

Emergency Authority:

1. If deviating from a clearance due to emergency:

a. Notify ATC as soon as possible.
b. Request an amended clearance.

Cancelling IFR Flight Plan:

1. Pilots may cancel IFR flight plan prior to landing if:

a. In VFR conditions.
b. Outside Class A airspace.
2. At airports with an operating control tower:
a. The tower will automatically close the flight plan upon landing.
3. At airports without an operating control tower:
a. Pilot must initiate cancellation of the IFR flight plan.
b. If possible, cancel by radio before landing.
c. If not, cancel by phone as soon as possible after landing.
4. Flight Service Stations (FSS):
a. Do not automatically close IFR flight plans.
b. Provide airport advisories only.
c. Pilots must initiate cancellation with FSS if applicable.
5. Example radio call:
a. "Cincinnati approach, 2521 November, airport in sight, will cancel IFR with you at this time."
b. "21 November, Cincinnati approach, IFR cancellation received, squawk 1200, so long."

Remember, as a pilot operating under IFR, it's important to stay proficient, maintain good
communication with ATC, and exercise good judgment to ensure safety for yourself and others.

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13. Air Facts: Conquering Cockpit Clutter
This section emphasizes the importance of staying organized in the cockpit to enhance safety and
convenience during flight.

Importance of Cockpit Organization:

1. Staying organized is crucial for safety and efficiency.

2. Proper organization prevents distractions and obstacles during flight.

Organizing Your Flight Bag:

1. Start organization with your flight bag.

2. Ensure you have all necessary items before heading to the aircraft:
a. Headsets
b. Backup radios
c. Tablets
d. Charging cables
e. Flashlights
3. Know the location of each item for quick access.

Managing Electronic Devices:

1. Electronic devices are essential tools in modern cockpits.

2. Prepare to support your electronic flight bag:
a. Have alternate data sources.
b. Carry backup power supplies.
3. Use self-contained battery packs or cigarette lighter plugs for power backup.
4. Regularly check battery levels on all devices.

Securing Your iPad or Tablet:

1. Do not leave tablets loose; they can become obstacles.

2. Secure your device using:
a. A kneeboard
b. A mount (suction cup or yoke attachment)
3. Ensure the device does not block instruments or distract you.

Organizing Electronic Charts and Data:

1. Use virtual binders to organize charts in your apps.

2. Keep essential information readily accessible:
a. Approach charts for departure and takeoff alternates
b. Airport diagrams for towered airports
3. Don't overlook supplemental data:
a. Takeoff minimums
b. Detailed airport information
4. Load en route charts with planned routes and waypoints.
5. Transfer flight plans from your device to the aircraft's navigator if possible.

En Route Considerations:

1. Utilize datalink weather for updated en route information.

2. Secure any portable receivers.
3. Ensure all information received is current.
4. Monitor battery levels of all electronic devices.

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5. Plug in devices during cruise to avoid cable interference during critical phases.

Preparing for Arrival:

1. Have approach charts for destination and alternates ready.

2. Switch to traffic displays as you approach the destination.
3. Maintain situational awareness by monitoring other aircraft.

The Final Check:

1. Assess cockpit condition after parking the aircraft.

2. If disorganized (wires everywhere, devices on the floor), consider improving your organization.
3. Good organization enhances safety and efficiency.

Remember, your organizational skills in the cockpit play a significant role in ensuring a safe and
efficient flight experience.

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Chapter 3 - Instrument Approaches

1. Intro to Instrument Approaches

This section introduces instrument approaches, their evolution, regulatory framework, and the
importance of precise flying skills for new student pilots.

Early Instrument Approaches:

1. Initial attempts used unconventional methods:

a. Pilots tried using searchlight beams through clouds for guidance.
b. Resulted in dangerous situations like the graveyard spiral due to lack of proper instruments.
2. Modern approaches are vastly improved from these early methods.

Regulations and Instrument Approach Procedures:

1. Part 97 of the regulations covers instrument approach procedures:

a. Though procedures aren't listed in the body of Part 97.
b. They are incorporated by reference and filed at various offices.
2. Approach procedures are depicted on charts by:
a. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).
b. Other publishers like Jeppesen.
3. Procedure development process:
a. Engineered, test-flown, and checked for safety.
b. Described in detail before becoming part of regulations.
c. Charts are then prepared for pilot use.

Terminal Procedures (TERPS) Manual:

1. Contains criteria for establishing procedures for instrument approaches and departures.
2. Ensures standardization in terms of:
a. Altitudes.
b. Obstruction clearances.
c. Horizontal, vertical, and lateral dimensions.
3. Non-standard procedures may be approved if safety isn't compromised.

Importance of Standard Procedures:

1. Pilots should avoid creating unofficial procedures:

a. Homemade approaches can be dangerous.
b. May lead to accidents similar to early failed methods.
2. Always use approved and published procedures for safety.

Goal of an Instrument Approach:

1. Transition from en route flight to visual landing:

a. Descend through clouds to a point where the runway is visible.
b. Requires precise control to arrive at the correct place and altitude.
2. Visual flight completes the landing after breaking through clouds.

Importance of Instrument Flying Skills:

1. Precise control of heading and altitude is crucial.

2. Approaches demand high skill, especially when fatigued:

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 a. Fatigue can occur after long flights and challenging weather.
b. Pilots must rely on strong basic instrument skills.
3. Aircraft vulnerability near the surface:
a. Takeoff and landing phases are critical.
b. Pilots are fresher during departure than during approach.
4. Understanding each part of the approach enhances safety.

Remember, as a new pilot, mastering instrument approaches requires dedication to learning

standard procedures and honing your instrument flying skills to ensure safe and successful flights.

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2. Approach Chart Details
These notes cover the key aspects of approach charts and instrument approach procedures,
providing essential information for new student pilots to understand and interpret approach charts
effectively.

Types of Instrument Approaches:

1. Nonprecision Approaches:
a. Clearance to descend to a Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA).
b. Fly level at MDA while visually searching for the runway.
c. If the runway is not in sight at the Missed Approach Point (MAP), execute a missed approach.
d. MAP may be based on groundspeed and time from the Final Approach Fix (FAF) or at a
specific fix.
2. Precision Approaches:
a. Follow a glideslope to a Decision Altitude (DA).
b. If the runway environment is not in sight at DA, execute a missed approach.
c. Decision Height (DH) refers to the height above the threshold elevation.
3. Approaches with Vertical Guidance (APV):
a. Provide course and glide path information.
b. Not as precise as precision approaches.
c. Require similar decision-making at DA as precision approaches.

Descent Below MDA or DA:

1. Conditions required to descend below MDA or DA:

a. Runway, runway markings, or approach/runway lights must be in sight.
b. Flight visibility must be at least the minimum specified on the approach chart.
c. Aircraft must be in a position to make a normal descent to the runway.
2. If conditions are not met at the MAP or DA:
a. You must execute a missed approach.
3. If visual references are lost during descent:
a. Execute a missed approach immediately.

Approach Charts Overview:

1. Approach charts are detailed blueprints for instrument approaches.

a. Provide specific instructions for each part of the approach.
b. No details are omitted; everything is standardized.
2. Chart Providers:
a. FAA and Jeppesen charts are commonly used.
b. Both present information from top to bottom.
3. Sections of an Approach Chart:
a. Pilot briefing information at the top.
b. Plan view showing the initial approach segment.
c. Profile view with detailed approach path.
d. Minimums section with altitude and visibility requirements.
e. Airport diagram at the bottom.

Pilot Briefing Information:

1. Top row includes:

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 a. Primary navigation information.
b. Final approach course.
c. Airport and runway data.
2. Second row includes:
a. Procedure notes and restrictions.
b. Icons for nonstandard alternate and/or takeoff minimums.
c. Approach lighting symbols.
d. Missed approach procedure.
3. Third row includes:
a. Communication frequencies in order of use during the approach.

Plan View:

1. Shows the initial approach segment from a bird's eye view.

2. Depicts:
a. NAVAIDs and their frequencies.
b. Initial Approach Fixes (IAFs).
c. Procedure turns and racetrack patterns.
d. Minimum Safe Altitudes (MSAs).
e. Geographical features like bodies of water and terrain contours.
3. Distance circle:
a. Solid line circle usually with a 10-mile radius (labeled if larger).
b. Everything inside is drawn to scale.
4. NAVAID identifiers and Morse codes are shown.

Procedure Turns:

1. Used to reverse direction and align with the final approach course.
2. Depicted with a half-barbed arrow symbol.
3. Must be executed on the specified side of the approach course.
4. Situations when procedure turns are not authorized:
a. "NoPT" indicated at the IAF.
b. "Procedure Turn NA" specified on the chart.
c. When receiving radar vectors to the final approach course.
d. Cleared for a timed approach from a holding fix.

Profile View:

1. Provides a side view of the approach path.

2. Shows altitudes, distances, and fixes along the approach course.
3. Depicts the Final Approach Fix (FAF) and Missed Approach Point (MAP).
4. Shows mandatory, minimum, maximum, and recommended altitudes:
a. Underlining and overlining indicate altitude restrictions.
5. Includes icons for missed approach procedures.

Minimums Section:

1. Indicates the lowest altitudes and visibility required for the approach.
2. Approach Categories based on aircraft speed:
a. Category A: less than 91 knots.
b. Category B: 91 to 120 knots.
c. Category C: 121 to 140 knots.
d. Category D: 141 to 165 knots.

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3. Specifies MDA or DA and required flight visibility for each category.
4. Covers straight-in and circling approach minimums.

Airport Diagram:

1. Located at the bottom of the chart.

2. Depicts:
a. Runway layout with dimensions.
b. Runway numbers and orientations.
c. Airport elevation and touchdown zone elevation.
d. Location of airport beacon and other significant features.
e. Approach and runway lighting systems.

Additional Notes and Symbols:

1. Nonstandard takeoff minimums or departure procedures:

a. Indicated by a "T" in a black triangle.
b. Details found in the Terminal Procedures Publication.
2. Chart legends provide explanations for all symbols used.
a. Important to familiarize yourself with common symbols.
3. Procedure notes provide specific instructions or restrictions.

Preflight Preparation:

1. Review destination approach charts thoroughly before flight.

a. Identify any unique procedures or requirements.
b. Plan for potential missed approaches.
2. Ensure understanding of all aspects of the approach.
a. Navigation aids and their frequencies.
b. Altitude restrictions and step-down fixes.
c. Missed approach procedures.
3. Be prepared for any surprises to enhance safety and efficiency.

Understanding approach charts is crucial for safe instrument flying. By familiarizing yourself with
their details and practicing their use, you can navigate instrument approaches with confidence.

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3. ILS Approach Part 1: Flying the Localizer
This section covers the Instrument Landing System (ILS), focusing on the components of the ILS,
the localizer, and how to effectively fly the localizer, including backcourse approaches.

Components of the ILS:

1. Guidance
a. Provided by the localizer for left/right guidance.
b. Glide slope offers up/down guidance.
2. Range
a. Distance information given by outer and middle markers.
b. Some ILS approaches use DME or other fixes as substitutes for markers.
3. Visual Information
a. Includes approach lights, touchdown zone lights, centerline lights, and runway lights.

The Localizer:

1. Definition
a. An electronic extension of the runway's centerline.
b. Transmitting antenna typically located 1,000 feet beyond the rollout end of the ILS runway.
2. Frequencies
a. Operates on one of 40 ILS channels within 108.1 to 111.95 MHz.
b. Frequencies are reserved exclusively for localizers.
c. The three-letter Morse identifier is preceded by the letter "I" to distinguish it from VORs.
3. Signal Width
A. Typical width is 5 degrees from full-scale left to full-scale right CDI deflection.
B. About four times more precise than a VOR (which has a 20-degree deflection).
C. Adjusted to be 700 feet wide at the approach end of the runway.
a. Longer runways have narrower angles (as little as 3 degrees).
b. Shorter runways have wider angles (up to 6 degrees).
D. At the approach threshold, a full-scale deflection represents 350 feet from the centerline.

Localizer Relatives:

1. Localizer Type Directional Aid (LDA)

A. A localizer not aligned within 3 degrees of the runway centerline.
B. Used when terrain or other factors prevent alignment.
a. Example: LDA approach for Van Nuys, CA uses Burbank's Runway 8 ILS localizer.
b. Example: LDA 6 at Roanoke, VA avoids high terrain aligned with the runway.
c. Example: Rosslyn LDA 19 in Washington, DC avoids prohibited airspace north of the
airport.
C. Most LDAs do not have glide slopes; some exceptions exist.
2. Simplified Directional Facility (SDF)
a. Flown like a localizer but with differences.
b. Uses same frequencies as localizers without the Morse "I" prefix.
c. Signal width is either 6 or 12 degrees (width not specified to pilots).
d. No glide slopes installed.
e. Centerline may be at an angle to the runway.

Localizer Signal Characteristics:

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1. Signal Modulation
a. Modulated at different frequencies on each side of the extended runway centerline.
b. On-course path is where the two signals are equal.
c. CDI shows position relative to the centerline but cannot be centered by turning the OBS.
d. To center the CDI, the aircraft must be flown onto the localizer centerline.
2. Front Course and Back Course
A. Localizers transmit signals both front and back (front course and back course).
B. Front course is typically used for the primary approach.
a. Example: Runway 15 ILS approach at Lake Charles, Louisiana.
C. Back course provides guidance for the opposite runway.
a. Example: Runway 33 back course at the same airport.
b. Not all back courses have published approaches.

Flying the Localizer:

1. Heading Control
a. Maintain precise headings to stay on the localizer centerline.
b. Avoid large heading changes to prevent S-turns across the centerline.
2. Correction Techniques
a. Before the outer marker (4:7 miles out), limit heading changes to 5 degrees or less.
b. Inside the outer marker, limit heading changes to 2 degrees or less.
c. Use small, patient corrections; allow time for the aircraft to respond.
d. Consider using rudder for minor adjustments (changes of 2 degrees or less).
3. Practice
a. Enhance heading control by practicing precise heading maintenance during en-route flight.
b. This skill is critical for effective localizer tracking.

Flying the Back Course:

1. Reverse Sensing with CDI

a. CDI needle deflects opposite to what is expected on the back course.
b. You must fly away from the needle deflection to stay on course.
2. Example Approach
a. Localizer back course to Runway 7 at Sterling Rock Falls, Illinois.
b. Set the OBS to the final approach course as a visual reminder.
c. As you intercept the localizer, the CDI shows deflection opposite to your position.
d. Disregard any glide slope indications; they are false.
3. Correction Technique
a. When the CDI needle deflects, turn away from it to return to centerline.
b. Visualize pushing the needle back to center by flying away from it.
4. Using an HSI
a. Set the course selector to the front course of the localizer.
b. This eliminates reverse sensing issues.
c. You can then fly towards the needle as with a normal localizer approach.

Remember, mastering the ILS localizer requires precise heading control and understanding of how
the signals guide your aircraft, especially when flying backcourse approaches.

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4. ILS Approach Part 2: Flying the Glide Slope
This section covers the components of the Instrument Landing System (ILS), focusing on the glide
slope and how to fly it effectively, providing essential knowledge for new student pilots.

Marker Beacons:

1. Provide distance information to the pilot.

2. Antenna transmits signal straight up, similar to a searchlight.
3. Signal pattern forms an ellipse perpendicular to the localizer centerline:
a. At 1,000 feet above the antenna, the signal is approximately 4,800 feet wide and 2,400 feet
thick.
b. Aircraft must be within this ellipse to receive the signal.
4. For precise fixes, set marker beacon receivers to low sensitivity.
5. All marker beacons transmit on 75 MHz.

Outer Markers:

1. Located between 4 and 7 miles from the approach end of the runway.
2. Glide slope interception usually occurs near the outer marker.
3. Characteristics when passing over the outer marker:
a. Hear a steady stream of low-tone dashes at a rate of 2 per second.
b. The blue light on the marker beacon receiver brightens and dims with the dashes.

ILS Categories:

1. Categorized based on Decision Height (DH) and flight visibility.

2. Category I ILS:
a. Lowest possible DH of 200 feet above the touchdown zone.
b. Required visibility of 1/2 statute mile.
c. Visibility minimum can reduce to 1,800 feet RVR with touchdown zone and centerline lighting.
3. Runway lighting systems:
a. Touchdown Zone Lights: Embedded in the first 3,000 feet of the runway.
b. Centerline Lights: Illuminate the middle of the runway along its entire length.
4. Runway Visual Range (RVR): Machine-measured horizontal visibility near the approach end.
5. Lowest ILS minimums are in Category III-C:
a. Zero Decision Height and zero flight visibility.
b. Requires special pilot and aircraft certification.

Glide Slope:

1. Provides vertical navigation guidance during the approach.

2. Transmits on Ultra High Frequencies (UHF).
3. Glide slope frequencies are paired with localizer frequencies:
a. Automatic selection of glide slope frequency when dialing in the localizer frequency on most
receivers.
4. Functions like a localizer laid on its side:
a. Provides up/down guidance instead of left/right.
5. Glide slope antenna placement:
a. Approximately 1,000 feet down the side of the runway from the approach end.
b. Positioned to provide a projected glide slope threshold crossing height of 55 feet.
6. Optimal glide slope descent angle is 3 degrees to the horizontal:
a. Requires a descent rate of approximately 318 feet per mile.

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7. Glide slope indications:
a. Glide slope needle points to the centerline of the glide slope.
b. Indicates when to fly up or fly down to stay on the glide path.

False Glide Slopes:

1. Possible due to reflected signals from the glide slope antenna.

2. False glide slopes are above the real glide slope:
a. Lowest false slope is more than 10 degrees to the horizontal.
3. Avoiding false glide slopes:
a. Disregard glide slope indications unless specified on the approach chart.
b. Approach procedures are designed to prevent interception of false glide slopes.
c. The unusually high descent rate required serves as a warning.

Glide Slope Dimensions:

1. Total vertical depth is 1.4 degrees (0.7 degrees above and below centerline).
2. At the outer marker:
a. Centerline of glide path is about 1,800 feet above the runway.
b. Total glide path depth is approximately 800 feet from full scale above to full scale below.
c. A half-scale deviation equals about 200 feet above or below the glide path.
3. Half a mile from the runway threshold:
a. Glide path depth reduces to about 100 feet.
b. A half-scale deviation equals about 25 feet off the glide path.

Calculating Descent Rate:

1. Descent rate depends on groundspeed.

2. Estimating descent rate:
a. At 90 knots groundspeed, a descent of approximately 478 feet per minute is required.
b. To estimate, divide groundspeed by 2 and multiply by 10 (e.g., 100 knots groundspeed = 500
fpm descent).
3. Know the power settings for a 3-degree descent at your approach speed.
4. Rate of descent tables are available in FAA approach chart books and on Jeppesen charts.

Intercepting the Glide Path:

1. Before intercepting, estimate your average groundspeed considering winds.

2. As glide path is intercepted:
a. Reduce power to achieve the required descent rate.
3. Making corrections:
A. For deviations less than half-scale, use pitch changes only.
B. For deviations more than half-scale or occurring rapidly, adjust power slightly:
a. Small power changes (e.g., 50 RPM or 0.5" manifold pressure) are sufficient.

Using Approach Charts:

1. Glide slope intercept altitude is marked by a lightning bolt symbol on the profile view.
2. Profile view also shows:
a. Glide slope angle.
b. Projected threshold crossing height.
3. Adjustments to required flight visibility if equipment is inoperative:

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 a. Increased visibility required if approach or runway lights are out of service.
b. For some approaches, adjustments are made if RVR is inoperative.
4. Jeppesen charts display these adjustments on the approach chart.
5. FAA charts provide this information in the chart book or Terminal Procedures Supplement.

Alternative Approaches with Glide Paths:

1. RNAV Approaches:
a. Include electronically-generated glide paths (e.g., LPV, LNAV/VNAV).
b. Require a WAAS-capable GPS receiver.
c. Offer descent minimums nearly as low as an ILS.
2. Barometric Vertical Navigation (Baro-VNAV):
a. Uses a flight management computer to generate vertical guidance based on air pressure.
b. Not authorized without local altimeter setting or during very cold temperatures.
3. Localizer Directional Aids (LDAs):
a. Some LDAs have a glide slope similar to an ILS.
b. Check the profile and minimums section on an LDA chart for availability.

Glide Slope Indicators in Glass Cockpit Airplanes:

1. In aircraft like the Garmin G1000:

a. Glide slope indicator is located next to the altimeter, not with the localizer CDI.
b. Uses a green diamond to represent the glide slope for an ILS.
c. For RNAV approaches with a glide path, a magenta diamond indicates GPS-based guidance.

Key Tips for Flying the ILS:

1. Accurately interpret instruments and understand the relationship between indicators and aircraft
displacement.
2. Make small corrections to stay on course and glide path.
3. Exercise patience:
a. Impatience is the greatest fault in flying the ILS.
b. Patience ensures precise and safe approach operations.

Remember, mastering the ILS glide slope requires practice, attention to detail, and a thorough
understanding of your instruments and approach procedures.

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5. Air Facts: ILS Approach Tips
This section covers tips and best practices for flying an Instrument Landing System (ILS) approach,
emphasizing the importance of mindset and proper technique for new student pilots.

Understanding the ILS Approach:

1. The outcome of an ILS approach is often determined by the pilot's state of mind.
2. Common mistakes include chasing instruments and overcorrecting the aircraft.

Avoiding Common Mistakes:

1. Don't chase the localizer and glide slope needles:

a. Avoid correcting excessively from left to right or up and down.
b. Over-corrections can cause the aircraft to oscillate across the desired path.
2. Maintain a calm and focused demeanor:
a. Stay ahead of the aircraft by anticipating corrections.
b. Make small, gentle control inputs to keep the aircraft on course.

Visualizing the ILS Approach:

1. Practice flying the ILS visually to understand necessary corrections:

a. Fly inbound to the final approach fix using the correct heading and estimated drift correction.
b. Maintain the rate of descent that corresponds with your anticipated groundspeed.
c. Make minor adjustments only if the aircraft deviates significantly from the glide path or
localizer.
2. This exercise demonstrates that excessive corrections are often unnecessary.

Importance of Proper Instrument Scanning:

1. Focus on heading and descent rate rather than fixating on the needles:
a. Heading and descent rate control the aircraft's path to the runway.
b. Over-fixating on localizer and glide slope needles can lead to overcorrections.
2. Develop a smooth instrument scan to maintain situational awareness.

State of Mind:

1. Approach the ILS with a calm and collected mindset:

a. Avoid becoming tense or anxious, which can lead to erratic control inputs.
b. Stay alert and attentive to all aspects of the flight.
2. Small control inputs help fine-tune the aircraft's position on the approach path.

Simulated vs. Actual ILS Approaches:

1. Understand the difference between practice and actual conditions:

a. In actual instrument conditions, precise flying is crucial for safety.
b. Maintain smooth control to ensure a stable approach.
2. Be prepared to see the runway environment at decision height if flown correctly.

Missed Approach Procedures:

1. If the runway is not in sight at decision height:

a. Immediately execute the missed approach procedure.
b. Transition smoothly to the missed approach, maintaining control of the aircraft.
2. Always be ready to initiate a missed approach if necessary.

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Remember, mastering the ILS approach requires practice, proper technique, and the right mindset.
Stay calm, make small corrections, and focus on heading and descent rate to fly a successful
approach.

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6. RNAV/GPS Approaches
This section introduces RNAV/GPS approaches, which provide precise lateral and vertical guidance
similar to an ILS approach, and are available at most airports in the United States.

Introduction to RNAV/GPS Approaches:

1. RNAV/GPS approaches are labeled as RNAV (GPS) in procedure names.

a. They are considered a form of area navigation (RNAV).
b. Require an IFR-approved GPS receiver.
2. Advantages of GPS approaches:
a. Available at nearly every airport in the U.S.
b. Provide both lateral and vertical guidance.
c. Comparable precision to an ILS approach.
d. Not reliant on ground-based radio navigation aids.
3. Design features of GPS approaches:
a. Usually designed for straight-in approaches to the runway.
b. Include several initial approach fixes (IAFs).
c. Often do not require a procedure turn or course reversal.
d. Include a holding pattern at one IAF for course reversal if needed.

Requirements for Flying GPS Approaches:

1. The GPS receiver database must be current.

a. The approach must be defined and loaded from the receiver's database.
2. Understanding minima options on approach charts:
a. LPV (Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance)
b. LP (Localizer Performance)
c. LNAV/VNAV (Lateral Navigation/Vertical Navigation)
d. LNAV (Lateral Navigation)

Types of GPS Approaches:

1. LNAV Approach:
a. Provides lateral guidance only.
b. Uses step-down fixes to descend to Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA).
c. Missed approach point identified by a waypoint at end of final approach course.
2. LPV Approach:
a. Most precise GPS approach available.
b. Requires a WAAS-capable GPS receiver (e.g., Garmin 430W or GTN650).
c. Provides both lateral and vertical guidance down to a Decision Altitude (DA).
d. Lateral course is angular and narrows as you approach the runway, similar to a localizer.
e. If runway is not in sight at DA, initiate missed approach immediately.
3. LP Approach:
a. Requires a WAAS-capable GPS receiver.
b. Provides precise lateral guidance with step-down fixes for descent.
c. Terminates at an MDA, like an LNAV approach.
d. Typically offers lower minimums compared to LNAV due to narrower final approach course.
4. LNAV/VNAV Approach:
a. Designed initially for aircraft with sophisticated Flight Management Systems (FMS).
b. Provides lateral and vertical guidance.
c. WAAS-capable GPS receivers can fly these, but will often select LPV if available.

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5. Advisory Vertical Guidance (+V):
a. Available when flying LNAV or LP approaches with a WAAS-capable GPS receiver.
b. Provides an electronic glidepath for stabilized descent.
c. Advisory only; does not change approach minima.
d. Indicated as "LNAV+V" or "LP+V" on the GPS display.

Flying GPS Approaches with WAAS GPS Receivers:

1. Ensure the GPS approach is properly loaded and activated.

a. Select appropriate approach and transition based on your route.
2. Understand GPS annunciations on your display:
a. "LPV" indicates you are flying an LPV approach with vertical guidance.
b. "LNAV+V" indicates advisory vertical guidance is available.
3. Follow glidepath indications while monitoring altitudes published on the approach chart.
4. At Decision Altitude (DA) or Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA):
a. If runway environment is in sight and conditions allow, proceed to land.
b. If not, initiate missed approach procedures promptly.

Example: RNAV (GPS) Approach to Runway 19 at Cincinnati West Airport:

1. Approach Characteristics:
a. Offers multiple Initial Approach Fixes (IAFs): HOMOR, JBERT, KIRKS.
b. Includes a holding pattern at KIRKS for course reversal if needed.
c. No procedure turn required when arriving from HOMOR or JBERT (NoPT).
2. Minimums available:
a. LNAV MDA for straight-in and circling approaches.
b. Only lateral guidance; vertical guidance is advisory ("LNAV+V").
3. Flying the Approach:
a. Load and activate the approach in your GPS receiver.
b. Set the course as per the approach chart.
c. Follow GPS guidance and comply with altitude restrictions.
d. At the missed approach point, decide whether to land or initiate missed approach procedures.

Example: RNAV (GPS) Approach to Runway 29 at Butler County Airport:

1. Approach Characteristics:
a. Includes LPV and LNAV/VNAV minima options.
b. Requires a WAAS-capable GPS receiver for LPV minima.
2. Flying the LPV Approach:
a. Provides both lateral and vertical guidance down to a DA.
b. Set the decision altitude as per the approach chart.
c. Monitor GPS for "LPV" annunciation indicating approach mode.
d. Follow the glidepath and make a decision at DA.
3. If LPV is not available:
a. The GPS may downgrade to LNAV/VNAV or LNAV.
b. Adjust flying accordingly based on available minima.

Key Takeaways:

1. Understanding different types of GPS approaches is crucial for instrument pilots.

2. Always ensure your GPS receiver's database is current and approaches are properly loaded.
3. Familiarize yourself with your GPS unit to efficiently manage approaches under IFR conditions.

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4. Use vertical guidance when available to fly stabilized approaches.
5. Adhere strictly to published altitudes and procedures on approach charts.

By mastering GPS approaches and effectively utilizing modern GPS receivers, you can enhance
your instrument flying capabilities and safety.

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7. Air Facts: GPS Approach Tips
This section provides essential tips for flying GPS approaches, highlighting important details that
new student pilots should be aware of to ensure safe and accurate navigation during instrument
flight rules (IFR) operations.

Using Vectors-to-Final Mode Correctly

1. When assigned vectors for an RNAV approach:

a. Activate "vectors-to-final" mode on your GPS.
b. This helps visualize the extended final approach course and the final approach fix.
2. Be cautious with vectors-to-final:
A. At busy airports, controllers may reference initial or intermediate fixes.
B. If vectors-to-final is activated too early, these fixes won't appear on your GPS.
C. Best practice:
a. Load the full approach initially.
b. Activate vectors-to-final only when actually being vectored outside the final approach fix.

Confirming Approach Type at Final Approach Fix

1. Monitor the GPS status indicator to confirm the type of approach:

a. LPV (Localizer Performance with Vertical guidance)
b. LP (Localizer Performance)
c. LNAV (Lateral Navigation)
2. GPS may downgrade the approach if parameters aren't met.
3. Match the minima line on the approach chart with the GPS screen.

Understanding Navigation Sensitivity and Corrections

1. LPV approaches:
a. Have angular course sensitivity.
b. Larger deviations far from the runway require larger heading corrections.
2. LNAV approaches:
a. Have linear (constant) course sensitivity.
b. Deviation magnitude remains the same regardless of distance to the runway.
3. Adjust heading corrections based on the approach type.

Confirming Vertical Guidance and Adhering to Step-Down Fixes

1. Determine if the glideslope is true or advisory:

a. True glideslope for LPV approaches.
b. Advisory glideslope for LNAV+V or LP+V approaches.
2. For advisory glideslopes:
a. Obstacle clearance is not assured along the glidepath.
b. Adhere to published altitudes at step-down fixes.
c. Level off at the Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA); this is not a Decision Altitude (DA).

Final Checks at the Final Approach Fix

1. Confirm navigation source:

a. Ensure the GPS is set correctly (e.g., CDI source is GPS).
b. On some units, you may need to press a button to change from NAV radio to GPS.
2. Verify autopilot settings:

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 a. Autopilot or flight director should be in approach mode with glideslope armed.
b. Incorrect settings can lead to navigation errors.

Awareness of Chart Symbols and Notes

1. Visual Descent Point (VDP):

a. Applies only to non-precision approaches.
b. Disregard the VDP on LPV approaches.
2. Visual segment obstruction:
a. A gray shaded line from MDA to runway indicates a clear visual segment.
b. If no gray line, the visual segment may have obstructions.
c. Ensure good visual conditions before descending below MDA in such cases.
3. "VGSI and RNAV Glidepath Not Coincident" note:
a. You may see this note on the approach chart.
b. If the VASI indicates you're too high but the GPS glidepath is correct, maintain the GPS
glidepath.
c. Avoid descending below the GPS glidepath to align with the VGSI.

Using GPS in ILS Approaches

1. GPS can be used for initial and missed approach segments on an ILS approach.
2. During the final approach segment:
a. Use the localizer and glideslope signals.
b. GPS overlay can enhance situational awareness but is supplementary.

Importance of Attention to Detail

1. Ensure the GPS screen matches the approach chart.

2. Instrument approaches require meticulous attention and a cautious approach.
3. When in doubt, double-check all settings and configurations.

GPS technology has greatly simplified instrument flying, but it's essential to remain vigilant and
attentive to ensure safe and accurate approaches. By understanding the nuances of GPS
approaches and carefully following these tips, new student pilots can enhance their situational
awareness and proficiency in instrument flight.

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8. Unusual Approaches
This section covers unusual instrument approach procedures, helping new pilots understand and
prepare for approaches that differ from standard procedures.

Understanding Standard and Unusual Approaches:

1. Approach procedures are designed based on standards from the Terminal Procedures (TERPS)
manual.
a. Deviations are only approved if safety is not compromised.
2. Unusual approaches may have specific differences to be aware of.
a. It's important to familiarize yourself with both standard and unusual procedures.

Examples of Unusual Approaches:

1. Grand Isle, Louisiana Approach:

a. Features a landing chart instead of an airport sketch or diagram.
b. Only seaplanes can land; other aircraft must execute a missed approach.
2. Boston Logan Airport Light Visual Approach to Runway 33L:
a. Requires flying a radial until spotting the Boston Lighthouse.
b. Turn left to intercept the final approach course upon sighting.
c. Used mainly for noise abatement under VFR minimums.
3. Martin State Airport VOR/DME Arc Approach:
a. Flown as a DME arc using the Baltimore VORTAC located at BWI Airport.
b. Starts at SLOAF (Initial Approach Fix) on the 14.7 DME arc.
c. Procedure turn is not authorized.
d. Descent steps occur at specific points (CUMBE, GOVES) where radials intersect the arc.
e. Keeps traffic separated from BWI Airport traffic.
4. JFK International Airport VOR Runway 13L/R Approach (Canarsie Approach):
a. Uses lead-in lights to guide aircraft from the Canarsie VOR/DME to the runways.
b. Approach starts at ASALT intersection.
c. Pilots must establish visual contact with the first lead-in light by DMYHL.
d. If visual contact is not established by DMYHL, execute a missed approach.
e. Used to expedite traffic flow when ceilings and visibility are high.
f. Requires close adherence to flight track for noise abatement.

Special Approach Procedures:

1. Side-Step Maneuver:
a. Used when approaching a runway parallel to another within 1,200 feet.
b. Pilots are cleared for an approach to one runway but land on the adjacent runway.
c. Example: Boise Air Terminal ILS Approach to Runway 10R, side-step to Runway 10L.
d. Side-step as soon as the runway or its environment is in sight.
e. Minimums are higher than for the primary runway but lower than circling minimums.
2. Timed Approaches from a Holding Fix:
a. Standard approaches entered from a holding pattern.
b. Pilots receive a time to leave the fix and commence the approach.
c. Ensures proper sequencing without radar.
d. Can only be conducted at airports with control towers.
e. Ceiling and visibility must at least equal the highest circling minimums.

High Minimum Approaches:

1. Missoula, Montana ILS Runway 11 Yankee Approach:

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 a. Decision Altitude (DA) is 5,022 feet, which is 1,822 feet above the runway.
b. Requires 7 statute miles of visibility.
c. High minimums due to obstructions in the missed approach area.

Important Reminders:

1. Always review approach charts thoroughly before flight.

a. Look for any unusual procedures or deviations.
2. Avoid surprises by being well-prepared.
a. Finding surprises in the air can be challenging.
b. Preparation enhances safety and confidence.

Remember, understanding and preparing for unusual approaches is crucial for safe and successful
instrument flying.

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9. Air Facts: Vectored Approaches
This section discusses the use of vectoring in Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) approaches,
emphasizing the importance of situational awareness, effective use of GPS technology, and the
pilot's authority during vectoring procedures.

Understanding Vectoring in IFR Approaches:

1. Vectoring is commonly used by air traffic control (ATC) during IFR approaches:
a. ATC vectors aircraft to the final approach course.
b. Used for sequencing traffic efficiently.
2. Clearance for the approach:
a. Typically given just before or after intercepting the final approach course.
b. If cleared before interception, a specific altitude must be maintained until intercept.
c. After interception, follow altitudes depicted on the approach chart.

Maintaining Situational Awareness:

1. Don't rely solely on ATC instructions:

a. Stay aware of your aircraft's position and heading.
b. Monitor headings and altitudes actively.
2. Utilize GPS moving map displays:
a. Provides visual representation of aircraft position relative to the approach.
b. Helps anticipate intercept points and angles.
c. Assists in assessing whether assigned headings will result in timely intercepts, especially in
strong winds.

Considerations for ILS Approaches:

1. Be cautious of glide slope interception:

a. Avoid intercepting the localizer above the glide slope without initiating descent.
b. Monitor glide slope indications closely upon localizer interception.
2. Understand autopilot limitations:
a. Many autopilots require glide slope to be intercepted from below to capture and track it.
b. Ensure proper autopilot settings for glide slope capture.

Managing Speed on Final Approach:

1. Responding to ATC requests to "keep your speed up on final":

a. Recognize it is a request due to traffic needs, not a command.
b. Discuss and practice with an instructor delaying deceleration to normal approach speed.

Flying Full Instrument Approaches:

1. Vectors vs. full approaches:

a. Vectors provide headings and altitudes but are not necessarily more difficult than charted
transitions.
b. Instrument approach procedures are designed for safety and guidance to landing or missed
approach points.
2. Importance of adherence to charted procedures:
a. Fully understand the approach before flying it.
b. Strictly follow published altitudes and routes.
c. Beware of lack of radar coverage situations where pilot is solely responsible.
d. Errors in reading charts can lead to accidents.

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Pilot-in-Command Authority:

1. Assertiveness in communication with ATC:

a. If vectors aren't working due to winds or rushed intercepts, speak up.
b. Request re-vectoring to ensure proper setup and configuration for the approach.
2. Ensuring safety and compliance:
a. Use pilot authority to manage the flight safely.
b. Maintain control over the aircraft's operation to prevent rushed or unsafe situations.

Remember, maintaining situational awareness and effective communication with ATC are crucial
during vectoring to ensure a safe and successful IFR approach.

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10. Flying a VOR Approach with a Jepp Chart
This section covers flying a VOR approach using a Jeppesen chart, highlighting the differences from
FAA charts and providing step-by-step guidance for student pilots.

Understanding Jeppesen Approach Charts:

1. Jeppesen charts meet FAA requirements and contain the same information as FAA charts but
with different presentations.
2. The title indicates required equipment:
a. The VOR Runway 10 approach at Riverton Regional Airport requires both VOR and DME.
3. Jeppesen's briefing strip includes:
a. Communications frequencies across the top.
b. Navaid identification and frequency for the approach.
c. Final approach course and minimum altitudes.
d. Minimum descent altitude (MDA) or decision altitude (DA).
e. Airport and touchdown zone elevations.
f. Missed approach procedures.
4. Other chart features:
a. Procedure notes and pilot-controlled lighting information.
b. Minimum safe altitudes box.
c. Scale of the chart.
d. Profile view showing distances between fixes.

Flying the VOR Approach:

1. Initial Approach:
A. Choose an initial approach fix (IAF) suitable for your arrival direction:
a. Options include ROWEY, SASSY, and PYLOT.
B. From the northeast, proceed to the Riverton VOR and track outbound on the 281° radial
toward PYLOT.
2. Applying the "5 Ts" over the VOR:
a. Time: Not necessary due to DME availability.
b. Turn: Intercept the outbound course with a heading to intercept the 281° bearing.
c. Twist: Set the OBS to the outbound course of 281°.
d. Throttle: Reduce power to approach speed settings.
e. Talk: Report to ATC if required; if not, proceed without this step.
3. Intercepting the Outbound Course:
A. Use a 30° or 45° intercept angle; 45° is preferred for a quicker intercept.
B. Wait until the CDI is halfway between full deflection and center before turning to intercept the
outbound course.
C. Maintain heading and use bracketing to stay on course:
a. Avoid chasing the NAV needle; use estimated wind correction.
b. Change headings in increments (close to the station, no more than 10°).
c. Adjust heading based on CDI deflection and needle movement.
4. Procedure Turn:
A. At PYLOT (IAF) located 6.5 DME from Riverton:
a. Start timing and begin the procedure turn within 10 miles north of the course.
B. The first turn is mandated to the right; the second turn is to the left.
C. Procedure:
a. Fly outbound on a heading of 326° for 1 minute.

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 b. Twist the OBS to the inbound course of 101°.
c. After 1 minute, turn left to 146° to intercept the inbound course.
d. Maintain altitude at or above 7,800 feet until the procedure turn is completed.
5. Inbound Leg after Procedure Turn:
A. Descend to 7,400 feet after establishing inbound on the approach course.
B. Complete the pre-landing checklist before reaching PYLOT.
C. At PYLOT (Final Approach Fix - FAF):
a. Descend promptly to 6,000 feet MSL.
b. This is a descent of 1,400 feet; obstacle clearance is assured.
6. Final Approach Segment:
A. Identify WUNIB fix at 2.2 DME from Riverton VOR:
a. After crossing WUNIB, descend to the MDA of 5,940 feet MSL.
b. If unable to identify WUNIB, maintain 6,000 feet as the MDA.
B. Prepare for missed approach procedures:
a. Know whether the initial climb is straight or involves a turn.
b. Most missed approaches start with a climb; be ready to execute the initial action.
C. Descent below MDA:
a. Proceed below 5,940 feet only if:
b. You have the runway in sight.
c. You are in a position for a normal descent to landing.
d. Flight visibility is at least 1 statute mile.

Key Tips for the Approach:

1. Always fly and navigate the airplane before communicating.

2. Use estimated groundspeed and timing to judge distances if DME is unavailable.
3. Ensure all procedure turns are completed within designated areas and altitudes.
4. Maintain situational awareness and be prepared for the missed approach.

This concludes the overview of flying a VOR approach using a Jeppesen chart. In the next section,
we will look closely at procedure turns.

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11. Closer Look: Procedure Turns
Procedure turns are essential maneuvers used to reverse direction and establish the aircraft inbound
on an intermediate or final approach course during instrument approaches. Understanding when and
how to execute procedure turns is critical for safe and efficient instrument flying.

Procedure Turn Basics

1. Purpose of Procedure Turns:

a. Used to reverse direction.
b. Establishes the aircraft inbound on an intermediate or final approach course.
2. Altitude and Distance Requirements:
A. The altitude shown on the chart is a minimum.
B. The maneuver must be completed within the charted distance.
C. Standard distance is usually 10 miles:
a. May be 5 miles where only Category A airplanes and helicopters operate.
b. May extend to 15 miles for high-performance aircraft.
3. Importance of Following Charted Procedure:
a. Ensures terrain and obstruction clearance.
b. Critical to perform the maneuver on the correct side of the course.

When Procedure Turn is Required

1. A procedure turn is required except when:

a. The "No PT" symbol is shown on the chart.
b. The aircraft is being radar vectored for the approach.
c. Conducting a timed approach.
d. The procedure turn is not authorized.
2. Example:
a. On the ILS to Runway 10 at Millville Municipal Airport, no procedure turn is required when
flying the transition from the Smyrna VORTAC.

Types of Procedure Turns

1. 45-Degree Procedure Turn:

a. Fly outbound, turn 45 degrees away from the outbound course.
b. Perform a 180-degree turn in the opposite direction.
c. Intercept the inbound course.
2. 80/260 Course Reversal:
a. An alternative to the 45-degree turn.
b. Turn 80 degrees away from the outbound course.
c. Then turn 260 degrees to intercept the inbound course.
d. Acceptable if done on the correct side of the outbound course.
3. Procedural Tracks:
A. Includes teardrops and DME arcs.
B. Teardrop:
a. Fly outbound on one radial.
b. Turn and fly inbound on another radial.
C. DME Arc:
a. Fly at a constant distance (arc) from a navigation aid.
b. Example: At Beeville Municipal Airport in Texas, the DME arc is at 2,000 feet, 9 miles from
the Three Rivers VORTAC.

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 D. Must be flown as charted if executing a procedure turn.

Procedure Turns with Holding Patterns

1. Many procedure turns are depicted as holding patterns at an intermediate fix or final approach fix.
2. The maneuver is complete when established inbound after the appropriate entry.
3. If cleared for the approach while in a holding pattern at the prescribed altitude:
a. No additional circuits are required or expected.
b. Inform ATC if another circuit is needed to lose altitude.

Exceptions and ATC Clearance

1. When radar vectored or when "No PT" is specified:

a. Pilots must not perform a procedure turn unless approved by ATC.
2. In Practice:
a. Procedure turns are rarely flown if there is radar coverage or a published transition from the
arrival direction.
3. Example:
A. Approaching Frederick, Maryland:
a. From the east or north: Cleared over Westminster VOR to fly the published transition.
b. From the south or west: Cleared to Frederick VOR for an ILS approach.
c. At RICKE, fly the published procedure turn.
d. Remain within 10 miles of RICKE during the maneuver.

Wind Considerations and GPS Use

1. Wind Awareness:
a. Know the approximate winds aloft.
b. Apply drift correction during the procedure turn.
c. Strong winds may blow the aircraft beyond the distance limit if started late.
2. Using GPS:
a. Monitor exact distance from fixes or waypoints.
b. Ensure the GPS displays distance to the correct fix.

Understanding procedure turns and their proper execution is vital for safe instrument flying. Always
adhere to charted procedures, communicate with ATC when necessary, and be mindful of wind
conditions and distance limitations.

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12. Holding Procedures
This section covers the procedures and best practices related to holding patterns in IFR flight,
essential for new student pilots to understand and execute safely.

Holding Patterns Overview:

1. Holding may occur during any phase of an IFR flight:

a. Departure procedures may involve climbing in a holding pattern.
b. En route holds if you reach your clearance limit without further clearance.
c. Arrival procedures often use holding patterns for course reversal.
d. All missed approaches conclude with a hold.
2. Holding patterns are either charted or given by ATC.
3. For non-charted holds, ATC will provide:
a. Direction to hold.
b. Holding fix.
c. Bearing or airway for holding.
d. Leg length if necessary.
e. Turning direction (if left turns are to be made).
f. Expect Further Clearance (EFC) time.

Executing a Holding Pattern:

1. Fly to the holding fix, which may be:

a. NAVAID.
b. Waypoint.
c. Intersection.
d. DME distance.
2. Slow to holding speed at least 3 minutes before reaching the fix:
a. Holding speeds vary by aircraft but must not exceed published maximums for altitude.
b. Some holding patterns have specific speed limits charted.
3. Standard holding pattern characteristics:
a. Right turns.
b. One-minute inbound legs up to 14,000 feet MSL.
c. One and a half-minute inbound legs above 14,000 feet MSL.
d. Some patterns use DME or RNAV leg lengths instead of time.
4. Timing and turns:
a. Start outbound timing when abeam the fix or after completing the outbound turn if abeam
cannot be determined.
b. Adjust outbound leg timing to achieve one-minute inbound legs (below 14,000 feet).
c. Use standard rate turns (3 degrees per second) or a maximum of 30 degrees bank.
d. When using a flight director, maximum bank angle is 25 degrees.
5. Wind correction:
a. Compensate for wind to maintain the holding pattern.
b. Outbound, triple the wind correction angle used on the inbound leg.
c. This may distort the racetrack shape but keeps you within protected airspace.

Protected Airspace:

1. Protected airspace is centered around the holding pattern but not charted.
2. Approximately 60% of protected airspace is on the holding side.
3. Size varies based on altitude, distance from fix to NAVAID, and airspeed:
a. Up to 4,000 feet: 6.7 nautical miles wide.

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 b. At 46,000 feet: up to 57 nautical miles wide.
4. Designed to allow for wind correction and dead reckoning during entries and outbound legs.
5. Precise flying is essential to stay within protected airspace.

Entry Procedures:

1. FAA recommends three standard entry methods:

A. Direct Entry:
a. Used when inbound heading falls within the direct entry sector (180 degrees).
b. Upon reaching the fix, turn to the outbound heading and fly the holding pattern.
B. Parallel Entry:
a. Used when inbound heading is within 110 degrees to the left (for right turns).
b. At the fix, turn to the outbound heading.
c. Fly outbound for one minute.
d. Turn towards the holding side more than 180 degrees to intercept the inbound course.
C. Teardrop Entry:
a. Used when inbound heading is within 70 degrees to the right (for right turns).
b. At the fix, turn to a heading 30 degrees from the outbound course toward the holding side.
c. Fly for one minute, then turn in the direction of the hold to intercept the inbound course.
2. Determining the entry method:
a. Visualize the entry sectors using the heading indicator or HSI.
b. For right turns, use the right thumb to mark the 70-degree teardrop sector.
c. For left turns, use the left thumb.
d. Devices are available to help determine the correct entry.
3. Alternate Entry Methods:
a. Any method that keeps you within protected airspace is acceptable.
b. Some pilots prefer always using teardrop or parallel entries to simplify procedures.

Best Practices:

1. Compensate for wind drift to stay within the holding pattern.

2. Follow recommended procedures to remain within protected airspace.
3. Avoid sloppy flying; precise maneuvers enhance safety.

Understanding and properly executing holding procedures are essential skills for safe and efficient
IFR flight.

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13. Circling Approaches
These notes cover the essential concepts of circling approaches in instrument flying, focusing on
their criteria, procedures, and considerations for new student pilots.

Introduction to Circling Approaches:

1. Circling approaches are used when:

a. The approach does not meet runway alignment criteria.
b. A landing is required on a runway other than the one aligned with the final approach course.
2. Approach charts designate a straight-in landing runway if available.
a. Landing on another runway requires circling, and different minimums apply.

Criteria for Straight-In Approaches:

1. The angle between the final approach course and the extended centerline of the runway cannot
exceed:
a. 30 degrees for most approaches.
b. 15 degrees for GPS approaches.
2. A "circling only" approach is designated when:
a. The approach is not aligned within the acceptable angle.
b. The straight-in approach would require an excessive descent rate.

Examples of Circling Approaches:

1. Aspen-Pitkin County Airport (Localizer/DME Echo approach):

a. Requires a descent of 3,863 feet over 5.7 miles.
b. At 90 knots ground speed, descent rate exceeds 1,000 feet per minute.
c. Due to high descent rate, only circling minimums are provided.
2. Newton City-County Airport (VOR/DME approach):
a. Approach designated VOR/DME Alpha.
b. Classed as circling because the angle exceeds 30 degrees.

Procedures for Circling Approaches:

1. Fly the charted approach procedure until the airport or runway is in sight.
2. Maintain visual contact with the airport during the circling maneuver.
3. If an identifiable part of the airport is not distinctly visible while circling at or above MDA:
a. A missed approach must be executed.
b. Exception: momentary loss of sight due to normal bank during turning flight.
4. Descent from MDA or DA cannot be made until:
a. The aircraft is in a position for a normal descent and landing using normal maneuvers.

Aircraft Approach Categories:

1. Categories are based on approach speed.

a. Determine the radius of the circling maneuvering area.
2. Circling obstacle clearance areas are determined by connecting arcs from runway ends.
3. Minimum Descent Altitudes (MDAs) increase with each category.
4. If flying at a higher speed:
a. You must use the minimums for the higher category.
b. Example: A Skyhawk flying at 100 knots (Category B) must use Category B minimums.
5. Circled "C" symbol on charts indicates expanded protected areas for circling approaches.

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Considerations for Circling Approaches:

1. Circling MDAs can be less than 400 feet to over 1,000 feet AGL.
2. Circling at low altitudes in marginal weather requires careful attention.
3. Example at Rock Springs, Wyoming:
a. Category A circling MDA is 7,120 feet (360 feet above airport elevation).
b. Minimum visibility is 1 statute mile.
c. Advisable to land straight-in if possible due to difficulty of circling at minimums.
4. Example at Russell, Kansas:
a. Category A circling MDA is 376 feet above airport elevation.
b. Night circling approach at minimums can be challenging.
5. Always assess weather conditions and consider safer alternatives.
6. If weather permits, fly the circling approach at pattern altitude.

Executing Circling Approaches:

1. If weather allows, a straight-in approach and landing may be performed even with circling
minimums.
2. During circling:
a. Maneuver by the shortest path to the base or downwind leg.
b. No restriction against flying over the airport or other runways.
c. If ceiling permits, overfly the airport to observe wind indicators and traffic.
3. Some procedures have circling limitations due to terrain or obstructions:
a. Check procedure notes on the approach chart.

Missed Approach Procedures:

1. If a landing cannot be made:

a. Execute a missed approach starting at the missed approach point.
b. Follow the published missed approach or alternate clearance.
2. If visual reference is lost while circling:
a. Start a climbing turn toward the landing runway.
b. Continue the turn until established on the missed approach course.

Remember, always exercise caution during circling approaches, consider weather conditions, and
prioritize safety when deciding whether to attempt a circling maneuver.

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14. Closer Look: Designing Approaches
This section emphasizes the importance for pilots to understand the standards and concepts behind
approach design procedures, even though pilots do not design approaches themselves.

Understanding Key Concepts in Approach Design

1. Recognize the importance of approach design standards:

a. Pilots don't design approaches and should not attempt to create their own private approaches.
b. As users of approach procedures, pilots should understand the standards to which they are
designed.
2. Familiarize yourself with key acronyms:
A. OCS (Obstacle Clearance Surface):
a. An imaginary line drawn at the highest obstacle within a defined area.
b. No obstacles can penetrate the OCS.
B. ROC (Required Obstacle Clearance):
a. The minimum vertical separation between the aircraft flying an approach and the OCS.
b. Can be constant, as in a level segment, or sloping, as when an aircraft descends on a
glideslope.

Obstacle Clearance Areas

1. Understand obstacle clearance buffers:

a. Width required for obstacle clearances includes reasonable buffers.
2. Initial segment of the approach:
a. ROC is 1,000 feet in the entry area, maneuvering zone, and primary area.
b. The primary area extends beyond the 10-mile procedure turn limit.
3. Secondary area:
a. Encloses the entry area, maneuvering zone, and primary area.
b. Obstruction clearance starts at 500 feet and tapers to zero at the extreme edges.

Descent Gradients and Procedure Turn Altitudes

1. During the initial segment:

a. Optimum descent gradient is 250 feet per mile.
b. Maximum descent gradient is 500 feet per mile.
2. Procedure turn completion altitude:
a. Should be as close as possible to the final approach fix altitude.

Obstacle Clearance in Intermediate and Final Approach Segments

1. Intermediate segment:
a. Obstacle clearance can be reduced to 500 feet in the primary area.
b. Tapers to zero at the extreme edge of the secondary area.
2. Final approach segment for straight-in approaches:
a. Minimum obstruction clearance in the primary area is typically 250 feet for Localizer, VOR,
LNAV, or LP approaches.
b. For ILS or LPV approaches, minimum clearance is typically 200 feet due to the presence of a
glideslope.
3. Variations in primary obstacle clearance areas:

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 A. Example of an ILS approach:
a. Resembles a funnel 16,000 feet wide 8 miles from the runway, tapering to 1,000 feet wide
200 feet from the runway.
b. A secondary area extends out from each side.
B. Minimum obstruction clearances vary from 720 feet, 5.5 miles from the runway, to 135 feet at
the Decision Height (DH).
4. Circling areas:
a. Minimum obstacle clearance is 300 feet.
b. Circling area can eliminate sectors with prominent obstacles by noting on the approach chart
that circling is prohibited in certain sectors.

Impact of Obstacles on Approach Design

1. ROC's effect on approach design:

A. If an obstacle penetrates the standard OCS:
a. The minimum descent altitude might have to be raised.
b. The angle of the glideslope might increase.
c. Step-down fixes might be added to the final approach segment.
2. Changes in approach types due to obstacles:
a. An airport with only LNAV minimums may have obstacles preventing LPV approaches along
the final approach course.

Missed Approaches and Obstacle Protection

1. Considerations for missed approaches:

a. The missed approach is based on initiating at the MDA (Minimum Descent Altitude) or DH and
at the Missed Approach Point (MAP).
b. No consideration is given for an abnormally early turn.
c. Missed approach turns can only be made at the Missed Approach Point.

Understanding these principles helps pilots safely utilize approach procedures, recognizing the
importance of obstacle clearance and the impact of obstacles on approach availability and design.

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15. Visual Descent Points and DME
This section covers the concepts of Visual Descent Points (VDPs) and Distance Measuring
Equipment (DME), essential for safe and precise non-precision approaches, especially at night.

Understanding Visual Descent Points (VDPs):

1. Definition of VDPs:
a. A defined point on the final approach course.
b. Allows a normal descent from Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) to the runway.
c. Ensures the descent is obstruction-free.
2. Identification of VDPs:
a. Usually marked as a "V" on the approach chart's profile view.
b. Based on DME, GPS fixes, or any approved navigational fix.
3. Using VDPs during approaches:
a. Do not descend below MDA before reaching the VDP and having the runway in sight.
b. No special techniques required other than identifying the VDP.

Using VDPs During Night Approaches:

1. Importance of VDPs at night:

a. Helps in avoiding unlit obstacles like ridges, trees, or wires.
b. Provides a reference point for starting a safe descent.
2. Relation to Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI):
a. VDP is positioned where the VASI glide slope intersects the lowest MDA.
b. At the VDP and MDA, you should see proper approach slope indications from the VASI.

VDPs vs. Missed Approach Points (MAPs):

1. Differences between VDP and MAP:

a. VDP is designed for beginning a safe descent to landing.
b. MAP is the point where you must execute a missed approach if the runway isn't in sight.
2. Example:
a. On certain approaches, the VDP may be several miles before the MAP.
b. Do not confuse the two when planning your approach.

Using DME in Approaches:

1. Role of DME:
a. Defines required fixes on ILS, localizer, and VOR approaches.
b. Used to identify step-down fixes and the MAP.
2. Identifying DME sources:
a. DME may come from the ILS/localizer frequency or a nearby VOR/DME.
b. Approach charts indicate the DME source with symbols and identifiers.
3. Importance of correct DME usage:
a. Ensure you're using the correct DME for the approach.
b. Errors can lead to incorrect position estimations and unsafe approaches.

Using GPS as a Substitute for DME:

1. IFR-approved GPS units:

a. Can substitute for DME when properly equipped.

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 b. Verify that the GPS distance is relative to the appropriate waypoint.
2. Confirming waypoints:
a. Ensure the GPS is displaying distance to the correct fix or VOR.
b. Helps maintain accuracy during the approach.

Optional Step-Down Fixes:

1. Understanding step-down fixes:

a. Allows descent to lower altitudes incrementally.
b. Defined by DME or other navigational fixes.
2. Optional use:
a. If equipped to identify the fix, you can descend to lower altitudes.
b. If not equipped, continue at the higher altitude until the next fix.

Remember, always verify your equipment and fix identifications to ensure safe and accurate
approaches. Understanding VDPs and proper use of DME and GPS are crucial skills for instrument
flying.

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16. Closer Look: Approach Lighting Systems
This section explores approach lighting systems (ALS), highlighting their importance in instrument
flight rules (IFR) operations and assisting new pilots in understanding how to identify and utilize
these systems during flight.

Understanding Approach Lighting Systems:

1. Role of approach lighting systems (ALS):

a. Assist in transitioning from instrument to visual flight during landing.
b. Increase importance during IFR flights, especially in low visibility conditions.
2. Identifying ALS on approach charts:
a. ALS symbology displayed in the small airport diagram aligned with the runway.
b. Also found in the briefing strip at the top of the chart.
c. Refer to the legend in the digital terminal procedures supplement for specifics.
3. Components of ALS:
A. Configuration of signal lights starting at the landing threshold.
B. Extend into the approach area:
a. 2,400 to 3,000 feet for precision instrument runways.
b. 1,400 to 1,500 feet for non-precision instrument runways.
C. Some systems include sequenced flashing lights ("the rabbit"):
a. Appear as a ball of light moving towards the runway rapidly.

Preflight Preparation:

1. Determine the ALS for your intended runway:

A. Check approach charts for ALS symbology.
B. Example: ILS Runway 29 Right at Torrance, California:
a. "A5" in the briefing strip and near the runway on the chart.
b. "A5" represents MALSR (Medium Intensity Approach Lighting System with Runway
Alignment Indicator Lights).
c. Inverted dark coloring indicates pilot-controlled lighting.

Approach and Landing:

1. Critical role of ALS during low visibility:

a. Helps in deciding to continue landing or execute a missed approach.
2. Descent procedures when ALS is in sight:
A. Upon reaching minimum descent altitude (MDA) or decision altitude (DA):
a. If ALS is in sight, you may descend to 100 feet above the touchdown zone elevation.
b. Must have the runway environment in sight and required flight visibility to descend below
100 feet.

Examples of Other ALS:

1. ILS Runway 6 at Bradley International, Connecticut:

a. Symbol "A" represents ALSF-2 (Standard Approach Light System with Sequenced Flashers
and Category II configuration).
2. ILS Runway 27 Left at O'Hare International, Chicago:
a. Symbology indicates touchdown zone and centerline lighting systems.

Handling Inoperative ALS Components:

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1. Check NOTAMs for ALS outages:
a. If part of the ALS is out of service, refer to the inoperative components table.
b. Adjust landing minimums accordingly.
c. Always verify the status of ALS at your destination during preflight planning.

Remember, approach lighting systems are vital for safe IFR operations. Thorough preflight
preparation and understanding of these systems will aid in smoothly transitioning to unfamiliar
runways, especially in reduced visibility conditions.

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17. Going To An Alternate
This section outlines the FAA regulations and important considerations when planning for and using
alternate airports during IFR flight operations.

FAA Requirements for Alternate Airports:

1. Fuel Requirements Considering Weather Reports and Forecasts:

a. Must have enough fuel to fly to the first airport of intended landing.
b. Fly from that airport to the alternate airport.
c. Fly after that for 45 minutes at normal cruising speed.
2. Conditions When an Alternate is Not Required:
a. Destination ceiling of at least 2,000 feet and visibility of at least three miles.
b. Conditions must exist for at least one hour before and one hour after the estimated time of
arrival.
c. The airport must have an instrument approach procedure.

Alternate Airport Weather Minimums:

1. Airports with Published Alternate Minimums:

a. Indicated by a black triangle with the letter "A" on the approach chart.
b. Refer to the Terminal Procedures Supplement for specific IFR alternate airport weather
minimums.
c. To be used as an alternate when filing an IFR flight plan, the airport must have a forecast of
conditions equal to or better than the alternate minimums at the planned arrival time.
2. Basic Alternate Minimums when None are Specified:
a. For airports with a precision approach: Ceiling of 600 feet and visibility of two statute miles.
b. For airports with a non-precision approach: Ceiling of 800 feet and visibility of two statute
miles.
c. Airports with no instrument approach can be used as an alternate if conditions allow for a VFR
approach and landing from the minimum en route altitude.

Weather Forecasts for Planning:

1. If No TAF Published for Destination or Alternate Airport:

a. Refer to the Clouds and Visibility forecast layers on the Graphical Forecast for Aviation utility.
b. This is part of the Aviation Weather Center website.
c. Use the time slider on the map to select the appropriate forecast for the planned arrival time.

Challenges in Choosing an Alternate:

1. Weather Forecasters May Include Temporary or Probable Poor Conditions:

a. These may not meet the minimum alternate criteria.
b. Pilots must be aware and plan accordingly.
2. Pilot Responsibility:
a. Guard the alternate fuel reserves.
b. Keep options open in case of deteriorating weather.

Importance of Fuel Discipline:

1. Example of Avianca 707 Crash Near Kennedy Airport:

a. Aircraft held for more than 45 minutes before reaching initial destination.
b. Technically had required fuel at takeoff but ran out during extended holding.
2. Alternate Rule Enforces Fuel Discipline but Logic is Also Required:

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 a. If flying into a major metropolitan area with poor forecasts, it's wise to have enough fuel to
divert to an airport in a different area.
b. Even if not required by regulations, extra fuel increases safety margins.

Additional Considerations:

1. Not Required to Go to the Filed Alternate:

a. If unable to land at intended destination, pilots may choose a different suitable airport.
2. Weather Requirements Upon Arrival at Alternate:
a. Weather only needs to be good enough for the instrument approach used.
b. Alternate weather minimums are for flight planning purposes only.

Remember, thorough flight planning and adherence to fuel requirements ensure safety and flexibility
during IFR operations. Always plan ahead and be prepared for changes in weather conditions.

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18. Air Facts: What Is The Alternative?
This section discusses the practical use of alternate airports in flight planning and decision-making,
emphasizing safer strategies when facing below-minimum weather conditions.

The Purpose of Alternate Airports:

1. Alternate airports serve two main purposes:

a. They ensure you carry extra fuel for unforeseen circumstances.
b. They make you identify locations where the weather conditions are favorable.

The Reality of Alternate Airport Use:

1. In practice, most alternate airports are rarely used.

a. As a flight unfolds, better options often present themselves when the destination is below
minimums.

Scenario Example: Flight from Albuquerque to Kit Carson County:

1. Initial Planning:
a. Depart from Albuquerque, New Mexico to Kit Carson County, Colorado.
b. Kit Carson is foggy but forecasted to be at minimums by arrival time around 11:00 AM.
c. Alternate airport selected: Cheyenne County, 40 miles northeast of the destination.
d. Planning done at 7:00 AM for an arrival four hours later.
2. En Route Weather Updates:
a. Air Traffic Control informs that Kit Carson is still wrapped in fog.
b. There is a higher overcast above the fog, reducing the chance of it clearing.
c. Visibility at Kit Carson remains at a quarter mile, unlikely to improve by arrival.
3. Decision-Making En Route:
A. Options considered:
a. Attempting an approach at Kit Carson in below-minimum conditions (not advisable).
b. Diversion to the filed alternate, Cheyenne County.
c. Seeking better alternatives along the route.
B. Better Option Identified:
a. La Junta Municipal Airport is along the route with VFR conditions.
b. Decide to land there and wait for weather improvement at Kit Carson.

Best Practices for Dealing with Destination Below Minimums:

1. Avoid the temptation to "take a look":

a. Attempting an approach in impossible conditions is risky.
b. Continuing toward the destination in consistent below-minimum weather is unsafe.
2. Choose safer options:
a. Land at an airport with acceptable weather en route.
b. Wait for improvement before proceeding to the destination.
3. Consider fuel and convenience:
a. Missing an approach and then flying to an alternate consumes extra fuel.
b. Avoid reaching low fuel states and unnecessary stress.

Tips for Selecting Real-World Alternates:

1. Consider the last overflown airport with an approach and favorable weather:
a. An airport you recently passed may offer better conditions and is within range.

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2. Land en route if destination conditions are unfavorable:
a. If the destination is below minimums or lacks weather reporting, it's prudent to land elsewhere.
b. Refuel and wait for conditions to improve.

By making informed decisions and being flexible with your flight plan, you enhance safety and
reduce stress during flights affected by adverse weather conditions.

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Chapter 4 - Weather for IFR

1. Checking Weather for an IFR Flight

This section covers the essential aspects of checking weather for an IFR (Instrument Flight Rules)
flight, emphasizing the importance of understanding weather conditions and how to obtain and
interpret weather information for safe flying.

Importance of Weather Briefing for IFR Flights

1. Recognize that IFR weather planning goes beyond ceiling and visibility:
a. Understand the nature of clouds, including potential icing, turbulence, and thunderstorms.
2. Focus on visibility and ceiling at the destination and alternate airports.
3. Be aware of en route weather conditions to plan for possible deviations or early landings.

Understanding the Weather Synopsis

1. Use technology like smartphones and tablets to access comprehensive weather information.
2. Identify the most crucial information for an IFR flight:
a. Learn the location of highs, lows, and fronts to understand weather patterns.
3. Cultivate a continuous curiosity about weather, even when not flying.

Essential Weather Products

1. Study key aviation weather products:

a. Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs)
b. Winds Aloft Forecasts
c. METARs (Meteorological Aerodrome Reports)
d. Pilot Reports (PIREPs)
e. Radar Images
f. AIRMETs (Airman's Meteorological Information)
g. SIGMETs and Convective SIGMETs (Significant Meteorological Information)
2. Supplement with additional tools:
a. Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA)
b. Forecast Icing Maps
c. Forecast Discussions
d. Convective Forecasts
3. Approach weather briefing in a deliberate and systematic manner.

Interpreting Forecasts and Reports

1. Understand that forecasts are based on computer models and are continually improving.
2. Compare METARs (current conditions) with TAFs (forecasts):
a. If discrepancies exist, investigate further as it may indicate changes in weather trends.
3. Use PIREPs cautiously:
a. Consider the age of the report and the type of aircraft when evaluating the information.
4. Analyze radar images carefully:
a. Determine if precipitation indicates steady rain or convective activity like thunderstorms.
b. Remember that radar images may be delayed and conditions can change rapidly.

Additional Weather Tools

1. Utilize Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA):

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 a. Gain an interactive overview of weather along your route.
b. Access cloud top forecasts for planning altitudes.
2. Refer to Winds Aloft Forecasts to:
a. Estimate flight time and fuel requirements.
b. Select appropriate cruising altitudes.
c. Assess potential structural icing conditions based on temperature forecasts.
3. Use Current and Forecast Icing Products (CIP and FIP):
a. Identify icing probabilities and severity at various altitudes and times.
b. Plan routes and altitudes to avoid icing conditions.
4. Check Convective SIGMETs and Convective Forecast Maps for thunderstorm activity.
5. Consult Turbulence Forecasts to find smoother air and enhance passenger comfort.

In-Flight Weather Monitoring

1. Continue checking weather conditions during flight:

a. Listen to SIGMETs and ATIS broadcasts over the radio.
b. Use datalink weather services (ADS-B or SiriusXM) for real-time updates.
2. Pay attention to actual flying conditions:
a. If you encounter unexpected weather, reassess your flight plan.
b. The aircraft's performance can provide real-time weather insights.

Tips for Safe IFR Flying

1. Ensure you are prepared for all weather conditions before takeoff.
2. Be cautious of large moisture supplies and unstable air masses:
a. These conditions can lead to icing and thunderstorm development.
3. Beware of occluded fronts and low-pressure systems:
a. These can cause severe wind shear and turbulence.
4. Consider terrain effects:
a. Strong winds over mountains can lead to significant updrafts, downdrafts, and turbulence.
b. This applies to both large western mountains and smaller eastern ranges.
5. Understand that winds aloft forecasts are averages:
a. Expect variations, especially near frontal zones or low-pressure troughs.
6. If actual winds or temperatures differ significantly from forecasts:
a. Recognize that other forecasted weather conditions may also be inaccurate.

By thoroughly checking and understanding weather conditions before and during an IFR flight, you
can make informed decisions to ensure a safe and efficient journey. Always remain vigilant and use
all available resources to stay aware of current and forecasted weather conditions.

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2. Air Facts: Developing Your Self-Weather Briefing
This section covers the importance of developing your own weather briefing process as a modern
pilot, emphasizing responsibility, completeness, and the use of available resources.

Introduction to Self-Weather Briefings

1. The traditional method of weather briefings is becoming outdated.

a. Pilots used to rely on Flight Service Stations or phone briefings.
b. Now, we have extensive weather information on phones and tablets.
2. Modern technology provides more information than ever before.
a. Access to high-definition radar maps and weather data.

Responsibility of the Pilot in Command

1. Pilots must take full responsibility for their own weather briefings.
a. Review all important weather information before flight.
b. Make safe decisions based on thorough analysis.
2. Avoid taking shortcuts in the briefing process.
a. Don't rely solely on a quick glance at a radar image.
b. A complete briefing is essential, especially for IFR flights.

Importance of a Complete Briefing

1. Follow a step-by-step process to ensure completeness.

a. Tailor the process to your experience, aircraft, and location.
2. A complete briefing should:
a. Cover all important information.
b. Follow a logical order.

Elements of a Complete Weather Briefing

1. Essential weather products to review:

a. Synopsis.
b. SIGMETs.
c. METARs.
d. TAFs.
2. Focus on weather factors relevant to your flight:
A. For the Great Lakes area:
a. Icing forecasts.
b. PIREPs.
B. For Florida:
a. Thunderstorms.
3. Consider personal minimums and alternate airports.
a. Plan for an alternate even if not legally required.
b. Equipment can fail and weather can change.
4. Always check NOTAMs and TFRs.
a. Avoid surprises like closed runways or airspace restrictions.

Organizing Your Briefing

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1. Use a plan that makes sense to you.
a. Consistency is key; follow the same procedure each time.
2. Two common approaches:
A. National to local scale:
a. Start with the synopsis and prog charts.
b. Review regional radar images.
c. Finish with METARs and TAFs for specific airports.
B. Standard flight service briefing order:
a. Begin with current conditions: synopsis, METARs, PIREPs.
b. Move to forecasts: winds aloft, icing forecasts, TAFs.

Resources for Weather Information

1. Choose tools that suit your needs.

a. Ensure information is from reputable sources.
b. Check the currency of weather products.

Using Electronic Flight Bag (EFB) Apps

1. Apps like ForeFlight and Garmin Pilot are comprehensive tools.

a. Include flight planning, charts, and weather information.
2. Utilize different sections of the app:
a. Imagery page for static weather maps.
b. Main map page for interactive weather layers.
c. Flights page to request standard weather briefings.

Additional Online Resources

1. [Link]:
a. Replicates traditional phone briefings online.
b. Provides interactive maps with weather overlays.
2. [Link] (National Weather Service):
a. Access to Graphical Forecast for Aviation (GFA).
b. Interactive AIRMET maps.
c. Detailed icing forecasts.
d. New forecast tools before they appear in apps.

Remember to embrace technology for self-weather briefings, take responsibility, and ensure your
briefing is thorough. Use the available resources to stay informed and make safe flying decisions.

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3. Airframe Icing
This section covers the importance of avoiding airframe icing, understanding the conditions that lead
to icing, and the necessary pilot actions to ensure safe flying practices.

Importance of Avoiding Airframe Icing:

1. Airframe icing is dangerous for light airplanes without full de-icing equipment.
a. Even with de-icing equipment, pilots should strive to avoid icing conditions.
2. Take immediate action at the first sign of icing.
a. Return to ice-free air to ensure safety.
b. Continuing into icing conditions can be hazardous.

Understanding Airframe Icing Conditions:

1. Airframe icing occurs when supercooled water droplets impact the airplane and freeze.
2. Supercooled water droplets:
a. Water droplets lifted from above freezing temperatures to below freezing temperatures.
b. Remain liquid until disturbed by an object, such as an airplane.
3. Severe icing is likely where there is both moisture and lifting.
a. Weather systems with lifting mechanisms increase the risk of icing.
4. Common areas for icing:
A. East and north sides of low-pressure systems.
a. Air flows counterclockwise into the low, causing upward movement and potential icing.
b. Mixing with colder air increases icing risk.
B. Mountains with perpendicular wind flow.
a. Mechanical lifting over mountains can produce strong updrafts and heavy icing.
C. Over the Great Lakes.
a. Instability due to warmer lake surfaces creates lake-effect snow and potential icing.

Strategies for Dealing with Icing:

1. Take immediate action at the first sign of ice.

a. Return to non-icing conditions promptly.
2. Consider changing altitude.
a. Stratus cloud layers may be thin; a climb or descent can help.
3. Land at the nearest suitable airport if necessary.

Types of Airframe Ice:

1. Clear Ice:
a. Formed from large supercooled water droplets.
b. Typically found in cumulus clouds, unstable air, or over mountains.
2. Rime Ice:
a. Milky in appearance, formed from small supercooled droplets.
b. Common in stratus clouds.
3. Mixed Ice:
a. Combination of clear and rime ice.
b. Most commonly encountered type.

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Detecting Airframe Icing:

1. Be vigilant when flying in visible moisture and low temperatures.

2. Visual cues for icing:
a. Ice formation on the outside air temperature probe.
b. Ice accumulation on wing leading edges.
c. Use a flashlight at night to inspect for ice.

Freezing Rain Hazard:

1. Freezing rain can coat an airplane quickly and is a severe hazard.

2. Occurs when warm rain falls from above into colder air below, north of a warm front.
3. Strategies to escape freezing rain:
a. Climb into warmer air above the freezing rain.
b. Find a safe place to land away from the freezing rain area.
4. Dangers of approaching or landing in freezing rain:
a. Ice accumulation increases as you descend.
b. Lack of windshield de-icing leads to loss of forward visibility.
c. A go-around may become impossible due to ice buildup.

Rules of Thumb Regarding Ice:

1. Ice is less likely below -15°C in stratus clouds.

a. However, strong lifting can produce ice at colder temperatures.
2. Average thickness of an icing cloud may be 2,000 feet.
a. This can vary significantly; don't rely solely on this estimation.
3. Older clouds are less likely to contain ice.
a. Supercooled droplets become ice crystals over time.
b. Newer clouds, especially east of a low, pose greater icing risks.

Using Pilot Reports of Icing:

1. Pilot reports (PIREPs) are useful if:

a. They are recent, due to rapidly changing conditions.
b. They are from aircraft similar in speed to yours.
2. Consider the effect of aircraft speed on icing:
a. Faster aircraft surfaces are warmer due to air friction.
b. A report of no icing from a faster aircraft may not apply to slower aircraft.

Remember, always avoid flying in icing conditions when possible, and take immediate action if ice is
encountered to ensure your safety in flight.

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4. Air Facts: Ice As A Practical Matter
This section covers the practical aspects of icing in aviation, its effects on aircraft, and procedures to
handle inadvertent icing encounters, emphasizing safety for new pilots.

Effects of Ice on Aircraft:

1. Changes to aerodynamic surfaces:

a. Ice accumulates primarily on leading edges, altering the shape of wings and control surfaces.
b. Disfiguration increases stalling speed and affects lift.
2. Increased weight:
a. Ice adds significant weight, affecting performance and handling.
3. Impact on propeller performance:
a. Ice changes propeller's airfoil shape.
b. If ice sheds unevenly, it can unbalance the propeller.
4. Interference with aircraft systems:
a. Ice can clog components and cause antennas to fail.
5. Lack of testing in icing conditions:
a. Aircraft not approved for icing haven't been tested in such conditions.
b. Pilot assumes role of test pilot when encountering ice.

Procedures During Inadvertent Icing Encounter:

1. Consult and follow the emergency checklist in the Pilot Operating Handbook (POH).
2. Key recommendations:
A. Approach at higher than normal airspeed:
a. Ice increases stalling speed due to disfigured airfoils and added weight.
b. Many icing accidents occur during landing approach after exiting icing conditions.
B. Limit or avoid use of flaps:
a. Extending flaps can cause uncontrollable nose-down pitching moments.
b. Without flaps and with ice, higher approach speeds are required.
c. Consider landing on a long runway to accommodate higher speeds.
d. Pilot in command must decide based on the situation.

Windshield Icing Considerations:

1. Defrosters are ineffective against ice on the windshield.

2. If windshield is iced over and surface temperatures are below freezing:
A. Landing may need to be made with limited or no forward visibility.
B. Attempting to scrape ice through the storm window may be impractical.
C. Best to land on a runway equipped with an Instrument Landing System (ILS):
a. Provides guidance down the centerline to the touchdown zone.
b. Use storm window for additional visibility if possible.

Ice Shedding During Descent:

1. Descending into warmer air may cause ice to shed from the aircraft surfaces.
2. Be prepared for loud noises as ice impacts different parts of the aircraft:
a. Ice from wings may hit the tail.
b. Ice from the nose may strike the windshield.
3. Inform passengers in advance:

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 a. Reassure them that noises are normal and harmless.

Icing Forecasts and Planning:

1. Be cautious of broad icing forecasts:

a. Often blanket statements cover large areas and altitudes.
b. Indicates possibility of icing; pilot must ensure to avoid it.
2. Utilize the FAA's online icing forecast tool:
a. Provides probability of icing as percentages on a map.
b. Covers altitudes from 3,000 to 18,000 feet and up to 12 hours ahead.
c. More accurate than blanket forecasts.

Final Thoughts:

1. Avoid flight into icing conditions whenever possible.

2. Maintain de-icing equipment if your aircraft is equipped:
a. Even with de-icing, minimizing exposure to ice is best.
3. Remember:
a. The best place for ice is in your favorite cold drink, not on your aircraft.

Understanding the dangers of icing and knowing how to respond ensures both your safety and that
of your passengers. Always plan ahead and stay vigilant to keep your flying experiences safe and
enjoyable.

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5. Closer Look: Ice Protection Systems
In this section we'll take a look at deicing systems.

Review:

The common deicing tool is the boot system. Inflatable boots are affixed to the leading edges of the
wings and the tail. Using air pressure, the boots are inflated. This breaks off any ice that might have
accumulated.

Propellers are handled either with heating elements, or by slowly discharging fluid onto the prop.
This is actually an anti-ice system, to prevent formation. Windshields usually have electrically heated
segments though some systems use fluid.

Another form of deicing for the wings and tail uses fluid. Dubbed a weeping wing system, it utilizes a
porous leading edge through which fluid seeps.

If you are using the boot system, follow the recommendations of the manufacturer.

For an aircraft to be certified for flight in icing conditions, it must have a complete system that has
been tested in a prescribed variety of icing conditions.

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6. Thunderstorms
This section covers the dangers of thunderstorms to aviation and essential avoidance techniques for
new pilots.

Dangers of Thunderstorms:

1. Thunderstorms pose significant risks to all aircraft regardless of size:

a. Strong storms can render an airplane uncontrollable.
b. Aircraft may lack the structural strength or performance to withstand a storm.
2. Turbulence in and around storms:
a. Greatest turbulence is often found around the outside of a storm.
b. Areas where inflow and outflow of air mix create severe turbulence.
c. Turbulence is most severe on the front side and the side fed by moisture.
3. Vertical gusts can exceed aircraft design limits:
a. General aviation aircraft are designed for vertical gusts of 30-50 feet per second.
b. Gusts in storms have been recorded up to 75 feet per second.
c. Rapid changes between updrafts and downdrafts can cause extreme stress on the aircraft.
4. Impact on different aircraft types:
a. Light airplanes with lower wing loading are more affected by turbulence.
b. Control authority may be exceeded in severe turbulence.
5. Gust fronts extend far from the storm:
a. Gust fronts can reach 15-20 miles ahead of a strong storm.
b. Surface winds can change rapidly in speed and direction.
c. Wind shear and pulsations within gust fronts pose additional hazards.

Thunderstorm Characteristics:

1. Conditions required for thunderstorm formation:

a. Lifting action.
b. Instability in the atmosphere.
c. Moisture.
2. Types of thunderstorms:
A. Air mass thunderstorms:
a. Caused by surface heating or air flowing over mountains.
B. Frontal thunderstorms:
a. Associated with low-pressure systems and fronts.
b. Can form squall lines, clusters, or be embedded in other clouds.
3. Embedded thunderstorms:
a. Often occur in warm or stationary fronts.
b. Lack clear visual definition.
c. Can be as dangerous as other thunderstorms.
4. Rapid development and movement:
a. Thunderstorms can build quickly between existing cells.
b. Gaps between storms can close rapidly due to new cell development.
c. Updrafts of 1800 feet per minute mean significant growth in just 10 minutes.

Thunderstorm Avoidance Techniques:

1. Develop skills for thunderstorm avoidance during all flight phases:

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 a. Departure.
b. En route.
c. Arrival.
2. Utilize weather information services:
a. Before takeoff, gather all available information on thunderstorms.
b. In-flight, use convective SIGMETs for updates on thunderstorm activity.
c. Understand the limitations of onboard equipment if any.
3. Convective SIGMETs:
a. Provide information on tornadoes, lines of thunderstorms, and embedded thunderstorms.
b. Indicate areas with thunderstorms of intensity level four or higher.
c. Issued hourly at 55 minutes past the hour and during special updates.
4. Maintain visual separation and situational awareness:
a. Always ensure you can see where the airplane is going.
b. Do not fly into areas where visibility is poor or reduced.
c. Be cautious of storms forming in your flight path, especially when flying towards fronts.
5. Understand the importance of patience and good judgment:
a. Be willing to delay, divert, or detour to avoid thunderstorms.
b. Recognize that giving way to storms ensures safety.
c. Use the advantages of your aircraft's mobility to navigate safely.

Remember, thunderstorms are powerful and unpredictable. As a pilot, your best defense is to stay
informed, remain vigilant, and always prioritize safety by avoiding these dangerous weather
phenomena.

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7. Convective Forecasts
This section introduces convective forecasts and their importance in aviation, helping new pilots
understand how to interpret and use these forecasts for safer flight planning.

Understanding Convective Forecasts:

1. Convective forecasts predict thunderstorm activity, which is crucial for flight safety.
2. Challenges with convective forecasts:
a. Thunderstorms can intensify and weaken rapidly.
b. The threats posed by thunderstorms can evolve quickly over time.
c. Forecast accuracy decreases the further into the future you look.

The Extended Convective Forecast Product (ECFP):

1. Purpose:
a. Provides a graphical projection of thunderstorm likelihood.
b. Helps determine how thunderstorms may impact your flight.
2. Accessing the ECFP:
a. Available at [Link]/ecfp.
b. Found in aviation apps like ForeFlight under "Imagery" > "Extended Convective Fcst".
3. Characteristics of the ECFP:
a. Not a human forecast:generated by computer models.
b. Runs four times daily at 3, 9, 15, and 21 UTC.
c. Model data is available about 3 hours after each run begins.
4. Interpreting the ECFP:
a. Hashed areas: 40-59% probability of thunderstorms.
b. Solid lined areas: 60-79% probability of thunderstorms.
c. Solid blue filled areas: >80% probability of thunderstorms.

Comparing ECFP and TCF:

1. TFM Convective Forecast (TCF):

a. A high-confidence forecast created by meteorologists.
b. Specifies coverage and expected echo tops of convection.
c. Accessible at [Link]/tcf and in ForeFlight under "Imagery" > "Convective Fcast".
2. Differences between ECFP and TCF:
a. ECFP is computer-generated; TCF is human-generated.
b. ECFP does not include echo tops; TCF does.
c. Shading and symbols differ between the two products.
3. Usage:
a. Meteorologists use ECFP to identify potential convective hotspots.
b. Pilots should use both products for comprehensive briefing.
c. Always review additional weather information: radar, SIGMETs, PIREPs, etc.

Utilizing NOAA Storm Prediction Center (SPC) Forecasts:

1. Accessing SPC Forecasts:

a. Available at [Link].
b. Found in aviation apps like ForeFlight.
2. Understanding SPC Products:
A. Day 1-3 Convective Outlooks:

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 a. Include general thunderstorm probability areas.
b. Up to five categories indicating increasing severity: Marginal, Slight, Enhanced, Moderate,
High risk.
B. Day 4-8 Convective Outlooks:
a. May issue 15% (Slight risk) and 30% (Enhanced risk) severe thunderstorm areas.
C. Text discussions provide insights on coverage, intensity, and threats.
D. Day 1 forecasts include specific tornado, wind, and hail probabilities.

Performing a Reality Check:

1. Don't rely solely on forecasts:conduct your own analysis.

2. Key questions to ask:
a. Is there a front or low-pressure area nearby?
b. Is the surface air warm and humid?
c. Is the air aloft cold and dry?
d. Is there significant wind shear with altitude?
e. Is it a season prone to thunderstorms?
3. Factors supporting convection:
a. Warm, moist air at the surface.
b. Cold, dry air aloft.
c. Strong wind shear.
4. Factors suppressing convection:
a. High-pressure systems causing sinking air.
b. Cold, dry air near the ground.
c. Warm, humid air aloft.
d. Temperature increasing with altitude (inversion).
e. Little to no wind shear.
5. Understand the environment to gauge storm potential and severity.

By comprehending convective forecasts and performing thorough pre-flight analysis, new pilots can
make informed decisions to ensure safer flights.

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8. Wind Shear and Microbursts
This section covers the concepts of wind shear and microbursts, their effects on flight, and how
pilots can recognize and respond to these atmospheric phenomena to ensure safe flying practices.

Overview:

1. Wind Shear Definition:

a. Wind shear is a change in wind speed or direction over a short distance.
b. It can occur at any altitude and in any area of the atmosphere.
2. First Indication:
a. A sudden change in indicated airspeed is the first in-cockpit sign of wind shear.
3. Low-Level Wind Shear:
a. Occurs close to the surface, affecting both visual and instrument weather conditions.
b. Significant because it can impact aircraft performance during takeoff and landing.
4. Impact on Aircraft:
a. Wind changes faster than the aircraft can accelerate or decelerate, affecting performance.
b. Can cause deviations from glide slope and unintended changes in airspeed.

Wind Shear During Approach:

1. Headwind to Tailwind Shear:

a. Performance decreases, indicated airspeed drops, nose pitches down, and rate of descent
increases.
b. Pilot must add power to stabilize on the glide slope; failure to do so can result in landing short.
c. After stabilization, power must be reduced appropriately to maintain glide slope.
2. Tailwind to Headwind Shear:
a. Performance increases, indicated airspeed rises, nose pitches up, and rate of descent
decreases.
b. Pilot must reduce power initially, then add power as needed to maintain glide slope.
c. Failure to manage power correctly can result in overshooting or undershooting the glide slope.

Causes of Wind Shear:

1. Frontal Activity:
A. Cold Fronts:
a. Shear significant up to 3 hours after frontal passage.
b. Shear greater with faster-moving fronts and larger temperature differences.
B. Warm Fronts:
a. Shear significant from before to 6 hours after frontal passage.
b. Most critical before the warm front passes.
2. Temperature Inversions:
a. Wind shear expected when wind speed between 2,000 and 4,000 feet AGL is 25 knots or
more.
3. Thunderstorms:
a. Wind shear present on all sides and beneath thunderstorms.
b. Associated with downdrafts and microbursts.

Microbursts:

1. Definition:

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 a. A localized column of sinking air within a thunderstorm.
b. Causes a downdraft followed by a strong horizontal outflow when it reaches the ground.
2. Characteristics:
a. Downdrafts can exceed 6,000 feet per minute.
b. Horizontal wind speeds can be 45 knots or more.
c. Microburst outflow diameter typically 2-3 miles near the ground.
d. Duration usually less than 15 minutes.
3. Effects on Aircraft:
a. Initial increased headwind leads to performance increase (sucker punch).
b. Followed by strong downdraft and tailwind, causing significant performance decrease.
c. Can result in loss of altitude and control if not properly managed.
4. Recognition and Warning Signs:
a. Presence of convective activity, thunderstorms, heavy rain, or virga.
b. Surface temperature-dew point spread of 15 to 30 degrees Celsius.
c. Pilot reports of significant indicated airspeed changes (15 knots or more).
5. Avoidance and Response:
a. Avoid areas with known or suspected microburst activity.
b. Use caution during takeoff and landing in convective weather.
c. At airports equipped with sensors, heed ATC warnings of microbursts and wind shear.

Precautions for Pilots:

1. Takeoff Considerations:
a. Use the longest suitable runway.
b. Apply maximum rated power.
c. Consider higher liftoff airspeed.
2. Landing Considerations:
a. Stabilize the approach early, preferably by 1,000 feet AGL.
b. Avoid large power reductions.
c. Use increased approach speed for added safety margin.
d. Be prepared to execute a go-around if needed.
3. General Strategies:
a. Stay informed about weather conditions and forecasts.
b. Monitor ATIS and ATC advisories for wind shear reports.
c. Respect wind shear warnings and adjust flight plans accordingly.
4. Limitations:
a. Some microbursts may exceed the performance capabilities of any aircraft.
b. Avoidance is the best strategy whenever possible.

Understanding wind shear and microbursts is crucial for flight safety. Proper recognition and
appropriate responses can greatly reduce the risks associated with these phenomena.

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9. Flying With Datalink Weather
This section covers the use of datalink weather systems in instrument flying and how to utilize them
effectively and safely.

Introduction to Datalink Weather:

1. Datalink weather provides real-time weather information to pilots:

a. Includes radar, METARs, TAFs, pilot reports, and TFRs.
b. Helps make smarter in-flight decisions.
2. Understanding limitations is crucial:
a. Data delays can impact decision-making.
b. Requires proper interpretation to enhance safety.
3. Pilot in command has the final decision:
a. Datalink weather is a tool, not a definitive answer.
b. Use it to aid, not replace, pilot judgment.

Types of Datalink Weather Systems:

1. ADS-B Weather:
a. Uses ground stations to transmit data to aircraft.
b. Coverage can be limited at low altitudes or in mountainous areas.
c. No subscription fee required.
2. SiriusXM Weather:
a. Uses satellites to provide continuous nationwide coverage.
b. Available even on the ground.
c. Requires a subscription service.
3. Differences between ADS-B and SiriusXM:
a. Resolution of radar images varies.
b. SiriusXM offers additional weather products like storm cell tops and satellite imagery.
c. ADS-B has varying radar resolutions depending on proximity.

Rules for Using Datalink Weather:

1. Start with the big picture:

a. Understand weather systems, fronts, and atmospheric conditions.
b. Integrate datalink weather into this broader context.
2. Be aware of data delays:
a. Radar images may have delays of 15-20 minutes.
b. Check time stamps but recognize they may not show total delay.
3. Use strategically, not tactically:
a. Make large-scale deviations early.
b. Avoid navigating through tightly packed storms.
4. Utilize all available weather products:
a. Beyond radar and METARs, use PIREPs, lightning layers, and turbulence forecasts.
b. Combine information for a comprehensive understanding.
5. Trust your eyes and experience:
a. Visual observations are real-time and critical.
b. Don't rely solely on datalink weather displays.

Interpreting Datalink Weather:

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1. Avoiding thunderstorms:
A. Determine if weather is convective.
B. Consider Shape, Intensity, Gradient, and Height (SIGH) of radar returns:
a. Shape: Irregular shapes like hooks or bows can indicate severe weather.
b. Intensity: Red and magenta signify heavy rain and turbulence.
c. Gradient: Steep transitions from green to red suggest stronger storms.
d. Height: Cells with tops over 30,000 feet should be avoided.
C. Use additional products like lightning data and pilot reports.
2. Avoiding icing conditions:
A. Rely on pilot reports for real-time icing information.
B. Consider aircraft type and flight conditions in PIREPs.
C. Use forecast icing products for planning:
a. Understand they are predictive, not real-time.
b. Useful for assessing icing severity at different altitudes and times.
D. Use cloud top imagery to identify potential climb above icing conditions.

Conclusion: Datalink weather is a valuable tool for enhancing flight safety when used correctly.
Combine it with sound judgment, thorough understanding of weather systems, and visual
observations to make informed decisions.

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10. Air Facts: Reading The Weather Signs
This section discusses the importance of reading weather signs, understanding how actual
conditions may differ from forecasts, and emphasizes the need for pilots to observe and interpret
these signs for safe flight operations.

Fog and Low Visibility Operations:

1. Experience with automatic landings in foggy conditions:

a. British Airways Concorde landing with Category III approach at Kennedy Airport.
b. Decision height was 15 feet; pilot needed visual reference or a go-around was required.
c. The landing was automatic, but visibility was extremely limited even upon touchdown.
2. Pilots' considerations in poor visibility:
a. Many airline pilots avoid zero-zero landings to avoid taxiing in very poor surface visibility.

Recognizing Weather Signs:

1. Fog Indicators:
a. Temperature and dew point proximity indicate potential fog formation.
b. Visual signs include halos around lights and fog collecting in low-lying areas.
2. Wind as a Weather Sign:
A. Surface Winds:
a. Stand with your back to the wind; in the Northern Hemisphere, low pressure is to your left.
b. If actual winds are stronger than forecasted, the weather system is stronger than
anticipated.
c. If winds are weaker, the system is weaker than forecasted.
B. Winds Aloft:
a. More southerly and stronger winds aloft indicate a stronger low-pressure system to the
west.
b. Brisk southerly or southwesterly winds aloft over a cold surface can lead to low ceilings
and visibility.
c. Calm or light surface winds with stronger winds aloft may cause wind shear on approach.
d. Strong south or southwest winds at 18,000 feet (500 millibar level) may signal severe
storms to the west.
e. Surface low-pressure systems tend to track with winds at the 500 millibar level.
3. Comparing Forecasts to Actual Conditions:
a. If actual weather significantly differs from forecasts, pre-flight plans may no longer be valid.
b. In uncertain situations, consider landing at the nearest suitable airport to gather updated
information.

Early Morning Departures:

1. Limitations of early morning weather information:

a. Overnight reporting is limited; automated stations provide 24-hour data but may lack detail.
b. Forecast freshness is crucial; newer forecasts are more reliable.
2. Understanding Forecast Timing:
A. Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs) are issued approximately 30 minutes before their valid
times (0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, 1800Z).
B. For early departures, forecasts may be older; for example:
a. 0800 EST (1300Z) departure on the East Coast uses the relatively new 1200Z forecast.
b. 0800 PST (1600Z) departure on the West Coast relies on an older 1200Z forecast.
C. Pilots should gather as much information as possible but remain cautious of early morning

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 forecasts.

Remember, always be attentive to weather signs and be prepared to adjust plans based on actual
conditions to ensure a safe flight.

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11. Turbulence
This section discusses the nature of turbulence, how to identify and report its different types, and
offers techniques for safely navigating through turbulent conditions, helping new pilots ensure a
smoother and safer flight experience.

Types of Turbulence:

1. Light Turbulence:
a. Slight erratic changes in altitude or attitude.
b. Occupants may feel a slight strain against seat belts.
c. Unsecured items might move about slightly.
d. Light Chop: rhythmic bumpiness without appreciable changes in altitude or attitude.
2. Moderate Turbulence:
a. Definite strains against seat belts.
b. Unsecured objects are dislodged.
c. Moderate Chop: rapid bumps or jolts without appreciable altitude or attitude changes.
3. Severe Turbulence:
a. Large, abrupt changes in altitude and/or attitude.
b. Large airspeed variations.
c. Aircraft may be momentarily out of control.
d. Occupants are forced violently against seat belts.
e. Unsecured objects move freely about the cabin.
4. Extreme Turbulence:
a. Aircraft is violently tossed about and is practically impossible to control.
b. May result in structural damage to the aircraft.
c. Conditions inside the aircraft can be worse than severe turbulence.

Reporting Turbulence:

1. Include aircraft type when reporting turbulence:

a. A report of moderate turbulence from a small aircraft (e.g., Cessna 210) and a large airliner
can indicate different conditions.
2. Understand the criteria for turbulence levels:
a. Pilots should report turbulence accurately according to definitions.
b. Avoid overstating the severity; light aircraft pilots may perceive turbulence as more severe.
c. Moderate turbulence involves straining against seat belts and unsecured items moving
around.
d. Severe turbulence is violent by definition.

Avoiding Turbulence:

1. Aim to provide the smoothest ride possible for passengers:

a. Rough rides and bad landings are major concerns for passengers.
b. While not always possible, strive to minimize turbulence during flights.
2. Be aware of turbulent weather conditions:
a. After thunderstorms, turbulence can occur in other weather situations.
b. Significant turbulence can be encountered downwind of mountain ranges when strong winds
are perpendicular to the range.
c. Turbulence is common as fronts occlude and with troughs aloft.
d. Moderate turbulence is often forecast on windy, post-frontal days.

Turbulence in Mountainous Areas:

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1. Mountain Waves and Rotor Turbulence:
a. Severe turbulence can occur downwind of mountains.
b. Rotors form just below ridge level; avoid these areas, especially when flying IFR.
c. Strong downdrafts may exceed the aircraft's ability to climb.
d. This is a concern not just in the Rockies but also in eastern mountains.
2. Mountain Flying Techniques:
a. Avoid airways where the MEA is within 4,000 to 6,000 feet of the aircraft's service ceiling in
moderately windy conditions.
b. If winds at ridge level are 40 knots or greater, consider delaying the flight.

Convective Turbulence:

1. Characteristics of Convective Turbulence:

a. Common during warm days, especially on warm summer afternoons with light winds.
b. In the east, IFR pilots can often fly above the turbulence.
c. In the west, over high deserts or mountains, it can extend upwards to FL200 or higher.
d. Afternoon convective turbulence can be severe; desert pilots often fly early or late in the day.
2. Avoiding Convective Turbulence:
a. Cumulus clouds formed by convective turbulence can be turbulent as they grow.
b. IFR pilots should avoid flying through cumulus clouds whenever possible.

Understanding Wind Shear:

1. Definition of Wind Shear:

a. A change in wind direction and/or velocity with altitude or distance.
b. A primary cause of turbulence when flying IFR.
2. Importance of Weather Knowledge:
a. Pilots should study weather to understand wind shear turbulence.
b. Helps in anticipating and avoiding turbulent areas.
3. Turbulence Associated with Fronts:
A. Warm Fronts:
a. Warm air overrunning cold air, creating a sloped front.
b. Turbulence occurs due to wind direction changes along the slope.
B. Cold Fronts:
a. Cold air moving under warm air with a steeper slope.
b. Turbulence from the wind shear at the frontal slope.
C. Occluded Fronts:
a. When a cold front overtakes a warm front, creating significant atmospheric confusion.
b. Leads to low-level wind shear and increased turbulence.

Flying Techniques in Turbulence:

1. Airspeed Considerations:
a. Slower speeds can reduce the effect of turbulence on the aircraft.
b. However, avoid slowing too much to prevent getting close to stall speeds during gusts.
2. Maneuvering Speed (Va):
a. The speed at which the aircraft can withstand abrupt control movements without structural
damage.
b. Based on the aircraft's weight; decreases as weight decreases.
c. Flying at or slightly above Va in turbulence helps protect the aircraft structure.

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3. Smooth Control Movements:
a. Develop a smooth touch on the controls, especially in turbulence.
b. Avoid abrupt movements which can increase stress on the aircraft.

Final Thoughts:

1. Anticipate Turbulence:
a. By understanding weather patterns, pilots can predict and avoid turbulent areas.
b. Helps in providing a smoother ride for passengers.
2. Experience and Practice:
a. Fly in various conditions to gain experience handling turbulence.
b. Practice flying under the hood on windy days to improve instrument skills.

Remember, while it's ideal to have smooth flights, knowing how to handle turbulence and
understanding its causes will enhance safety and comfort for everyone on board.

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12. Middle Altitude Weather
This section discusses the considerations of flying at middle altitudes, typically between 15,000 and
20,000 feet, including weather patterns, wind, turbulence, icing, and other factors that affect flight in
these altitudes.

Flying in Middle Altitudes

1. Aircraft Capabilities:
a. Many non-turbocharged singles and light twins can reach altitudes of 16,000 to 17,000 feet.
b. Supplemental oxygen is required above 12,500 feet.
c. High-altitude flights are beneficial with strong tailwinds, especially on eastbound trips in winter.
2. Myths About Cloud Clearance:
a. Flying higher does not guarantee clear skies; time spent in clouds may be similar to lower
altitudes.
b. At higher altitudes, you may spend more time in clouds during certain weather patterns like
warm fronts.
3. The Importance of Instrument Proficiency:
a. Pilots flying at higher altitudes must maintain sharp instrument flying skills.
b. As Barry Goldwater said, "The tops of the clouds are usually one thousand feet above the
ceiling of whatever airplane you are flying."

Weather Considerations

1. Warm Fronts and Cloud Layers:

a. Warm fronts can have extensive cloud layers extending into middle altitudes.
b. Cloud thickness can be greater at higher altitudes, leading to longer periods of instrument
flying.
2. High Winds and Jet Streams:
a. Jet stream cores can affect winds in the high teens, with velocities approaching 100 knots in
winter.
b. Strong winds can cause pronounced turbulence, especially in unstable flow patterns.
c. It's important to climb to and maintain smooth air when possible.
3. Wind Gradients and Turbulence:
a. Wind speed increases with altitude are not always linear.
b. Significant wind changes can cause turbulence known as wind shear.
c. Further turbulence during climb indicates substantial wind changes aloft.
4. Icing in Middle Altitudes:
a. Icing can be a problem in warm fronts outside winter, with freezing levels between 15,000 and
20,000 feet.
b. Supercooled water droplets form due to rising air along the warm front slope.
5. Weather Between Airplane and Ground:
a. High-altitude flying can place more weather systems between the aircraft and the surface.
b. Congested cumulus clouds can be unavoidable during descent, leading to a rough ride.
c. Radar interpretation is more challenging at higher altitudes without proper tilt adjustments.

Turbulence

1. Clear Air Turbulence:

a. Occurs due to wind shear without visible clouds.
b. Affects light aircraft similarly to jets, causing uncomfortable but manageable chop.
c. Not associated with up and down drafts of convective turbulence.

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2. Wind Shear Turbulence:
a. Common in areas with significant wind changes, such as near jet streams or troughs aloft.
b. Requires attention but usually doesn't demand excessive control input.
c. Strong turbulence reports (moderate chop) indicate uncomfortable conditions for light aircraft.
3. Strategies for Handling Turbulence:
a. Adjust altitude to find smoother air, even if it means flying lower.
b. Avoid flying through clouds with signs of turbulence (e.g., dark appearance, virga, mammatus
clouds).
c. Maintain awareness of weather systems and adjust flight plans accordingly.

Weather Visualization and Forecasting

1. Importance of 500 Millibar Charts:

a. At middle altitudes, surface weather maps are insufficient for flight planning.
b. 500 millibar charts provide information about conditions at flight levels around 18,000 feet.
c. Use winds aloft forecasts to visualize expected conditions.
2. Understanding Wind Flows and Patterns:
a. West-to-east flows generally indicate stable conditions unless affected by terrain or large
bodies of water.
b. Northwest flows might still be stable but can include clear air turbulence.
3. Troughs and Ridges:
a. Presence of troughs and ridges can lead to turbulent and cloudy conditions aloft.
b. Turbulence is expected when transitioning through these weather features.
4. Closed Low Aloft (Cut-off Low):
a. A closed low aloft is a complete counter-clockwise circulation in the atmosphere.
b. Difficult to forecast and can unpredictably affect surface weather.
c. Can cause long periods of bad flying weather and significant wind shear turbulence.

Despite the challenges, flying in middle altitudes can be rewarding. Pilots must remain vigilant about
weather patterns, understand atmospheric conditions, and adjust flight plans to ensure safety and
comfort during flight.

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13. Air Facts: Nighttime Weather
This section discusses important considerations and challenges associated with nighttime weather
flying, particularly under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR), and provides advice for pilots to ensure safe
operations during night flights.

Dealing with Bad Weather at Night:

1. Bad weather in the early evening is likely to worsen before improving unless a significant event
occurs.
a. Events like frontal passages may change weather patterns.
b. Without such events, conditions typically deteriorate at night.
2. When facing bad weather at night:
a. Consider landing at the nearest suitable airport.
b. It's safer to get on the ground and reassess the situation.

Misconceptions About Nighttime Thunderstorms:

1. Some pilots believe it's easier to avoid thunderstorms at night due to visible lightning.
a. While lightning can indicate storm locations, relying solely on it is risky.
2. Dangers of navigating by lightning flashes:
a. Risk of entering turbulent cumulus clouds without visible cues.
b. Individual storm cells may not be avoided effectively.

Challenges of Night IFR Flying:

1. Night IFR conditions are generally more demanding than daytime conditions.
a. Reduced visibility and increased fatigue can affect pilot performance.
2. Pilots often have limited experience with night IFR flying.
a. Review your logbook to assess your night IFR hours.
b. Less experience can lead to increased risks.
3. Accident statistics indicate:
a. A higher proportion of IFR accidents occur at night.
b. Most accidents happen during the approach phase.

Visual Illusions at Night:

1. Uneven lighting can cause disorientation during night operations.

a. Taking off from airports with unevenly lit surroundings can create illusions.
b. Pilots may perceive incorrect bank angles due to illuminated clouds on one side.
2. To mitigate visual illusions:
a. Maintain focus on instrument flight to ensure accurate attitude control.
b. Be aware of potential disorienting factors during night flights.

Enjoyable Aspects of Night IFR Flying:

1. Unique visual experiences:

a. Cities can illuminate clouds, creating a glowing effect.
b. Views of city lights from high altitudes are spectacular.
2. Appreciating the beauty of night flying:
a. Observation of widespread city lights and landmarks.
b. Enjoying the serene environment of night flights.

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Remember, being cautious and prepared for the unique challenges of night flying will enhance safety
and allow you to enjoy the unique experiences it offers.

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140
Chapter 5 - Advanced IFR

1. Trainer To High Performance

This section discusses the transition from training aircraft to high-performance single-engine
airplanes, emphasizing the importance of gaining experience and proper training before advancing
to more complex aircraft.

Starting with Familiar Aircraft

1. Many pilots complete instrument training in familiar airplanes like the Cessna 172.
2. After obtaining an instrument rating, pilots are legally permitted to fly high-performance, complex
airplanes.
3. However, immediately transitioning to high-performance aircraft is not recommended.
a. These aircraft have more complex systems and require advanced skills.

Challenges of High-Performance Aircraft

1. Increased speed and workload demand more attention from the pilot.
2. Systems management becomes more complex.
3. Operational considerations change with sophisticated equipment and higher-powered airplanes.

Recommendations for New Instrument Pilots

1. Gain proficiency flying IFR in the aircraft you trained in before advancing.
a. Stick with your training airplane until you have some IFR experience.
2. Focus on integrating the airplane with air traffic control and weather systems.
3. Avoid the added complexity of learning a new aircraft initially to maximize your experience.

Importance of Thorough Training and Recurrent Checkouts

1. Obtain a thorough checkout in every airplane you fly, including:

a. Avionics.
b. Autopilot systems.
2. Engage in recurrent training for any aircraft used in IFR flying.
3. Make operation of the aircraft and its systems second-nature.

The goal is to master aircraft operations and systems management, allowing you to focus on the
essential skill of instrument flying.

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2. Flight Director and HSI
This section introduces the Flight Director and Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI), essential tools
that assist pilots in controlling the airplane, especially during instrument approaches, and enhance
situational awareness.

Flight Director:

1. Purpose and Function:

a. Assists with airplane control by guiding pitch and bank inputs.
b. Provides visual cues on the attitude display to maintain altitude, fly a heading, or execute an
instrument approach.
c. Offers the same information sent to the autopilot but requires manual control inputs from the
pilot.
2. Controls and Modes:
a. The same controls are used to set both the flight director and autopilot modes.
b. The primary difference is that the autopilot is not engaged when using only the flight director.
c. Always verify the correct mode is annunciated when making changes from the control panel.
3. Types of Flight Directors:
A. Mechanical Flight Directors:
a. Common in older aircraft before electronic flight displays.
b. Use bright yellow V-bars and an orange triangular airplane symbol on the attitude indicator.
B. Electronic Flight Directors:
a. Found in systems like the Garmin G1000.
b. Display a magenta V-bar in the center of the attitude display.
c. Pilots align the airplane symbol within the V-bars to follow guidance commands.
4. Benefits:
a. Enhances precision during instrument approaches without constant interpretation of CDI
needles.
b. Guides pilots to make continuous small corrections when flying solely by reference to
instruments.
c. Requires practice to ensure proper scanning of all flight instruments.

Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI):

1. Description and Components:

a. A combination of a heading indicator, Omni Bearing Selector (OBS), and course deviation
indicator (CDI).
b. Includes a heading bug for selecting a desired heading to fly.
c. Displays glide slope indications, either on the sides of the instrument (mechanical HSIs) or
next to the altimeter (Garmin G1000).
2. Features:
a. Automatically determines heading using a compass sensing system; no need to manually set
it like a traditional directional gyro.
b. System automatically monitors accuracy and displays a red "X" if inaccuracies are detected.
c. Enhances situational awareness by providing a visual representation of aircraft position
relative to the navigation path.
3. Advantages:
a. Simplifies flying intercepts and approaches, especially without a flight director.
b. Makes localizer back course approaches easier by allowing pilots to set the tail of the OBS
needle to the inbound bearing and fly toward the CDI needle.

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Using Flight Director and HSI in an ILS Approach:

1. Setup for Approach:

a. Begin with vectors to final from Air Traffic Control (ATC) on an assigned heading to intercept
the localizer.
b. Flight director should be in heading and altitude hold mode.
c. Press the "Approach" button to arm the approach mode, indicated by white "LOC" and "GS"
annunciations.
d. Select the inbound bearing of the localizer on the HSI.
2. Intercepting the Localizer:
a. As the CDI needle moves toward center, the flight director commands a bank to intercept the
localizer.
b. Once intercepted, "LOC" annunciation turns green, indicating capture.
c. Heading mode is no longer active after localizer capture.
3. Capturing the Glide Slope:
a. The glide slope remains armed until it is centered.
b. As the glide slope needle centers, the "GS" annunciation turns green.
c. Flight director now provides pitch cues to follow the glide slope to the runway.
4. Final Descent and Landing:
a. Configure the airplane for final descent: landing gear down, flaps as required, and power set
for approach speed.
b. Follow the flight director commands, making small adjustments to stay aligned.
c. Adjust power as necessary to maintain desired airspeed.
d. If visual references are insufficient at decision altitude, initiate a go-around.
e. Disengage the approach mode and reprogram the flight director for climb as needed.

Additional Features and Techniques:

1. Go-Around Mode:
a. Some flight directors have a go-around button, often located on the throttle or power levers.
b. Activating it commands a climb attitude for the missed approach procedure.
c. If equipped with altitude preselect, set the desired altitude, and the flight director will command
a level-off.
2. Control Wheel Steering (CWS):
a. Allows the pilot to manually fly the airplane to a desired attitude while holding the CWS button.
b. Upon releasing the button, the flight director maintains the commanded attitude.
3. Highway in the Sky Concept:
a. Some electronic systems display a "highway" with boxes representing the desired flight path.
b. The pilot keeps the flight path marker centered in each box to stay on course and altitude.
c. Acts as a visual guide similar to a flight director.
4. Using the HSI for Intercepts:
a. Without a flight director, use the white index mark on the HSI for intercepts.
b. On a 30-degree intercept, start turning when the CDI needle aligns with the index mark.
c. Keep the index mark over the tip of the CDI needle for an accurate intercept.

Important Reminders:

1. Equipment Familiarity:
a. Always get a thorough checkout on new equipment and aircraft systems.
b. Study the manuals and understand all functions and modes.
2. Safety Precautions:

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 a. Never take off into Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) conditions with equipment you are not
completely familiar with.
b. Practice using flight director and HSI during visual conditions before relying on them in IFR.

Understanding and effectively using the Flight Director and HSI will enhance your flying precision
and situational awareness, especially during instrument approaches. Regular practice and thorough
knowledge of these systems are essential for safe and proficient flying.

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3. IFR Use Of The Autopilot
Training Notes: IFR Use Of The Autopilot

This section provides an overview of using autopilots during Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)
operations, focusing on skills essential for new student pilots.

Introduction to Autopilot Use:

1. Autopilots assist with basic airplane control and reduce pilot workload.
a. Used during private pilot training for long flights and emergency IMC situations.
2. Essential for IFR flying in all phases of flight.
a. Reduces fatigue and increases safety margins during instrument approaches.
3. Automation management skills are required during IFR training and checkrides.
a. Use the autopilot to control the airplane while setting up and flying instrument approaches.

Types of Autopilots:

1. Single-Axis Autopilots:
a. Controls roll only.
b. Used to maintain headings or GPS courses.
2. Dual-Axis Autopilots:
a. Controls both roll and pitch.
b. Adds ability to climb, descend, and hold altitude.
3. Three-Axis Autopilots (Larger Aircraft):
a. Adds rudder control via a yaw damper.
b. Prevents excessive yawing in rough air for a smoother ride.

Learning About Your Autopilot:

1. Refer to the Airplane Flight Manual Supplement or Pilot's Operating Handbook (POH).
a. Find information specific to your autopilot model.
2. Review any standalone autopilot manuals or pilot guides.
a. Provides detailed instructions on autopilot modes and operations.

Operating Limitations and Emergency Procedures:

1. Understand autopilot operating limitations:

a. Minimum and maximum speeds for autopilot engagement.
b. Minimum altitudes for autopilot disengagement during approaches.
2. Familiarize yourself with emergency procedures:
a. Methods to disengage the autopilot.
b. Responding to runaway electric trim situations.
3. Use of the autopilot disconnect button:
a. Press once to disengage the autopilot.
b. Press and hold to interrupt electric trim in case of failure.
4. Never attempt to assist the autopilot in flying the airplane.
a. If you need to take control, disengage the autopilot first.

Using the Garmin GFC-500 Autopilot:

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1. Features and Interface:
a. Connects to Garmin flight displays like the G5.
b. Uses buttons and knobs for control; displays modes on the G5.
2. Autopilot Status Box on the G5:
a. Shows lateral mode, autopilot status, and vertical mode.
b. Green indicates active modes; white indicates armed modes.
3. Engaging the Autopilot:
a. Press the AP button; defaults to Roll (ROL) and Pitch (PIT) modes.
b. ROL maintains current bank angle; PIT maintains current pitch angle.
4. Vertical Speed and Airspeed Hold Modes:
a. VS mode holds a selected rate of climb or descent.
b. IAS mode holds a specific airspeed during climbs or descents.
5. Altitude Hold Function:
a. Press ALT to maintain the current altitude.
b. Set a preselected altitude for automatic level-off during climbs or descents.
6. Heading and Navigation Modes:
a. HDG mode follows the heading bug on the HSI or autopilot controller.
b. NAV mode tracks GPS courses or VOR radials.

Preflight Setup:

1. Set up flight instruments and autopilot on the ground:

a. Set runway heading and planned altitude.
b. Plan for autopilot modes to engage after takeoff.
2. Engaging Autopilot After Takeoff:
a. Use HDG mode for directional control.
b. Use IAS mode to maintain climb speed.
c. Autopilot will level off at the preselected altitude.

Using Autopilot During Instrument Approaches:

1. Approach Mode (APR):

a. Used for approaches with vertical guidance (ILS, LPV, LNAV+V).
b. Arms the autopilot to capture the final approach course and glide path.
2. Activating APR Mode:
a. Press APR when cleared for the approach.
b. Monitor mode annunciations for GPS and glide path capture.
3. During the Approach:
a. Adjust power to maintain final approach airspeed.
b. Monitor autopilot performance.
4. Disconnecting the Autopilot:
a. Must be disconnected 200 feet above ground level (AGL).
b. Continue manually to landing or initiate missed approach procedures.
5. Re-engaging Autopilot After Missed Approach:
a. Do not engage autopilot below 800 feet AGL except in approach mode.
b. Set up autopilot similar to initial climb-out after takeoff.

Final Considerations:

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1. Importance of Understanding Autopilot Systems:
a. Autopilots differ between aircraft; always review specific characteristics.
b. Ensure proper training for each autopilot and aircraft combination.
2. Benefits of Proper Autopilot Use:
a. Acts as a valuable aid in single-pilot IFR operations.
b. Enhances safety and reduces workload when used correctly.
3. Risks of Misuse:
a. Lack of understanding can lead to safety issues.
b. Always stay informed and attentive when using automation.

Remember, mastering your aircraft's autopilot system is crucial for safe and efficient IFR flying.
Proper use of automation enhances your capabilities and confidence as a pilot.

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4. Air Facts: Night IFR
This section covers the critical aspects of flying under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) at night,
emphasizing the increased risks and essential practices to ensure safety for new student pilots.

Importance of Night IFR Training

1. Night IFR flying is significantly more challenging than daytime IFR.

a. The accident rate for night IFR is approximately three times higher than for daytime IFR in
personal and business flying.
2. No specific night training is required for obtaining an instrument rating.
a. Pilots often lack experience in night IFR conditions.
3. Increased risk necessitates thorough preparation and practice.

Understanding Night IFR Risks

1. Mechanical failures account for only about 10% of serious night IFR accidents.
a. Engine failures are a small fraction of these incidents.
2. Major risks stem from:
a. Pilot errors.
b. Systems failures (e.g., vacuum, electrical, instrument display errors).

Preparation for Night IFR

1. Recognize that night IFR is a completely different operation from daytime IFR.
a. Lack of peripheral visual cues in darkness.
b. Cockpit lighting can leave dark areas; use flashlights as necessary.
2. Ensure all necessary equipment is within reach:
a. Keep flashlights accessible.
b. Adjust digital chart displays to minimize ambient light.

Night IFR Takeoff Procedures

1. Understand immediate loss of visual ground references after takeoff.

a. Be prepared to transition immediately to instrument flying upon rotation.
2. Maintain appropriate nose-up pitch attitude:
a. Target pitch attitude between 5 to 10 degrees.
b. Allows the airplane to climb at the desired angle or rate.
3. Continuously cross-reference instruments:
a. Verify expected performance using the Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI).
4. Practice night IFR takeoffs with an instructor.
a. Experience the unique challenges in a controlled environment.
b. Consider wearing a view-limiting device to simulate instrument conditions.

Minimizing Errors at Night

1. Recognize that any error is more serious at night.

a. Misreading instruments or charts has greater consequences due to lack of visual cues.
2. Utilize technology to enhance situational awareness:
a. Use terrain and obstacle awareness features on tablets or panel displays.

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Maintaining Situational Awareness

1. Stay aware of your exact position and altitude at all times.

2. Focus on lights associated with the airport:
a. Runway lights.
b. Approach lights.
c. Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) lights.
d. Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL).

Approach Considerations at Night

1. Do not descend below published minimum altitudes unless you have runway lights in sight.
2. Be cautious of illusions during descent:
a. Never descend based on sighting non-airport lights.
3. Approaching runways without glideslope guidance:
a. Develop your own stable approach slope.
b. Track a stationary point on the ground in the windshield.
c. Maintain a minimum acceptable rate of descent (e.g., 500-600 ft/min).
4. If there is no ILS or GPS glidepath available:
A. Use distance to runway as a guideline.
B. Estimate descent rate using 400 feet per mile.
a. At 1 mile out, be approximately 450 feet above ground level (AGL).
b. At 2 miles out, be approximately 850 feet AGL.
5. Consider initiating a missed approach if a normal descent cannot be made safely.

Circling Approaches at Night

1. Circling approaches are especially risky at night.

a. Many commercial operations prohibit night circling approaches.
2. If a night circling approach is necessary:
a. Study the approach chart thoroughly in advance.
b. Identify terrain and obstacles near the planned circling path.
c. Remain at Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) until aligned with the runway.
d. Do not descend below MDA without visual glideslope indicators.
e. Initiate missed approach if a normal rate of descent is not possible.

Utilizing GPS Visual Approach Features

1. Use the Visual Approach feature on GPS navigators when available.

a. Provides lateral and vertical guidance to the runway.
b. Displays guidance similar to an ILS or LPV approach.
2. Benefits of GPS visual approaches:
a. Enhances situational awareness.
b. Helps maintain a stabilized descent to the runway.
c. Advisory guidance supplements visual cues.

Practicing Night IFR

1. Schedule training flights with an instructor after sunset.

a. Practice IFR takeoffs and approaches in actual night conditions.
2. Gain experience before flying solo night IFR flights.

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 a. Build confidence and proficiency.

Remember, night IFR flying is rewarding but demands heightened awareness and preparation. By
practicing and adhering to safe procedures, you can enhance your safety and enjoyment while flying
at night under instrument conditions.

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5. Engine Instrumentation
This section introduces the complexity of modern aircraft engines and the importance of engine
instrumentation for monitoring performance and ensuring safe operation.

Engine Evolution:

1. Early aircraft engines were simple and not highly stressed:

a. Example: Wright Flyer's engine produced 13 horsepower from 201 cubic inches.
2. Modern engines produce more power from less displacement:
a. Normally aspirated engines: 1 horsepower per 2 cubic inches.
b. Turbocharged and geared engines: up to 1 horsepower per 1.5 cubic inches.
3. Advancements leading to increased power and complexity:
a. Controllable pitch propellers.
b. Geared engines and turbocharging.
c. Higher compression ratios.
d. Direct fuel injection.

Need for Engine Instrumentation:

1. Monitoring additional performance factors became necessary:

a. Manifold pressure gauges.
b. Fuel pressure and flow gauges.
c. Cylinder head temperature gauges.
d. Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) gauges.
e. Turbine inlet temperature (TIT) gauges for turbocharged engines.
2. Fixed Pitch Propellers:
a. Tachometer indicates engine power based on RPM.
3. Constant Speed Propellers:
a. Propeller control acts like a gearshift.
b. Requires both tachometer and manifold pressure gauge to indicate power output.
c. Improper settings can lead to high cylinder pressures and engine damage.

Mixture Control and Fuel-Air Ratio:

1. Importance of precise mixture control for engine performance.

2. Instrumentation aiding mixture control:
a. Fuel flow gauges.
b. Exhaust gas temperature gauges.
c. Cylinder head temperature gauges.
d. Turbine inlet temperature gauges (for turbocharged engines).
3. Fuel Flow and Pressure:
a. Fuel pressure gauges can indicate flow rates in injected systems.
4. Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT):
A. Used to determine the optimal fuel-air mixture.
B. Peak EGT corresponds to the hottest fuel-air ratio.
C. Systems may have single or multiple probes:
a. Single probe systems are less precise.
b. Multi-probe systems allow monitoring each cylinder individually.

Temperature Monitoring:

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1. Excessive temperatures can damage the engine.
2. Oil Temperature Gauge:
a. Provides general indication of engine temperature.
3. Cylinder Head Temperature Gauge:
a. Gives early warning of increasing temperatures.
b. Adjust mixture, cowl flaps, and pitch attitude to maintain normal ranges.
4. Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT) Gauge (for turbocharged engines):
a. Monitors temperature of exhaust gases entering the turbocharger.
b. Used for setting mixture based on peak TIT.
c. Refer to the Pilot's Operating Handbook for specific procedures.

Understanding engine instrumentation and proper use of controls is crucial for safe and efficient
aircraft operation, especially with modern high-performance engines.

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6. Air Facts: Keeping It Running
This section emphasizes the importance of proper engine care and handling techniques to ensure
reliable performance, especially when flying more complex or powerful aircraft engines.

Importance of Proper Engine Care

1. Advanced engines require more care and understanding than basic trainers.
2. Treat the engine correctly to ensure reliable and faithful service, crucial during instrument flying.

Handling Advanced Engines

1. Feed the engine proper amounts of fuel and be gentle when changing power.
a. Avoid slamming the throttle or yanking it back.
b. Abrupt throttle movements can make engines unreliable.
c. Always handle the throttle smoothly.
2. Monitor cylinder head temperatures (CHT):
a. Keep CHTs under 400 degrees for best reliability.
b. Manage CHT using throttle, airspeed, cowl flaps (if installed), and mixture.

Engine Care for Owners

1. Owners have advantages due to continuous contact with their airplane:

a. Monitor engine operating trends.
b. Keep records on engine temperatures and pressures.
c. Use modern engine monitors for detailed analysis.
2. Conduct regular oil analysis:
a. Effective for catching potential problems.
b. Focus on trends rather than specific values.
c. Perform oil analysis at every oil change.
3. Consider regular inspections:
a. Inspect the engine every 100 hours, even if not required.
b. Borescope cylinders during inspections to examine the combustion chamber.

Engine Care for Renters

1. Get to know the maintenance personnel:

a. Understand the dedication of the people maintaining the aircraft.
b. FAA approval is less important than their commitment to quality.
2. Assess the rental fleet's maintenance:
a. Note any unattended discrepancies on the aircraft.
b. Consistently inoperative items are a bad sign.
3. Perform thorough preflight checks:
a. Check the oil during preflight inspections.
b. Look at the oil's color; black oil could indicate problems.
c. Smell the oil; a burnt smell may suggest cylinder issues and excessive blow-by.
4. Monitor oil consumption:
a. If an engine uses more than a quart of oil every three hours, address the issue promptly.

With careful operation and good maintenance habits, airplane engines can provide thousands of
hours of reliable service. Treat the engine like you own it, even if you don't.

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7. Principles of Turbocharging
This section introduces the principles of turbocharging in aircraft engines, explaining how
turbochargers work and their impact on engine performance, especially at higher altitudes.

Effects of Altitude on Engine Performance

1. Effect of decreased atmospheric pressure:

a. Non-turbocharged (normally aspirated) engines lose power as altitude increases.
b. At full throttle, manifold pressure decreases by approximately one inch per 1,000 feet.
c. This results in about a 3% loss of horsepower for every 1,000 feet gained.

Principles of Turbocharging

1. Purpose of turbocharging:
a. Compresses intake air to increase its pressure and density.
b. Allows engines to maintain or increase power at higher altitudes.
2. Components of a turbocharger:
a. Turbine driven by exhaust gases.
b. Compressor connected to the turbine via a common shaft.
c. Compressor increases the pressure of intake air for combustion.
3. Benefits of turbocharging:
a. Maintains engine performance at higher altitudes.
b. Can increase overall power output in some systems.

Types of Turbocharged Engines

1. Turbo-normalized (Altitude Engines):

A. Maintain sea-level manifold pressure at higher altitudes.
B. Do not increase manifold pressure above sea-level values.
C. May include an intercooler to reduce intake air temperature and prevent detonation.
D. Examples:
a. Stock engines with bolt-on turbochargers.
b. Factory-installed turbo-normalized systems.
2. Ground Boosted Engines:
A. Increase manifold pressure above standard sea-level pressure.
B. Directly increase the engine's overall power output without increasing engine size.
C. Examples:
a. Cirrus SR22T producing 36.5 inches of manifold pressure up to 16,000 feet.
b. Piper Malibu's TIO-540 engine boosted beyond 42 inches of manifold pressure.
D. Require careful operation due to increased stress on engine components.

Wastegate and Manifold Pressure Control

1. Function of the wastegate:

a. Regulates turbine speed by controlling exhaust gas flow to the turbine.
b. Open wastegate: exhaust gases bypass turbine; minimal boost.
c. Closed wastegate: exhaust gases drive turbine; increased boost.
2. Types of wastegate control systems:
A. Manual control:
a. Pilot adjusts wastegate position directly.
B. Fixed wastegate:

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 a. Preset opening allows a constant exhaust gas flow.
C. Throttle-wastegate interconnect:
a. Wastegate position changes with throttle movement.
b. Pilot must monitor manifold pressure to avoid overboosting.
D. Automatic control systems:
a. Sensors adjust wastegate position to maintain desired manifold pressure.
3. Critical altitude:
a. Highest altitude where the engine can maintain maximum continuous power.
b. Above this altitude, wastegate is fully closed; turbocharger cannot compensate for further
altitude increase.
4. Effects of airspeed changes:
a. Decrease in airspeed reduces turbine speed and manifold pressure.
b. Updrafts and downdrafts can cause power fluctuations due to airspeed changes.

Operating Considerations

1. Overboosting:
a. Occurs when manifold pressure exceeds engine limits.
b. Can damage or destroy the engine.
c. Modern systems have safeguards like pressure relief valves.
d. May still occur with rapid throttle movements, especially with cold oil.
e. Pilots must monitor manifold pressure to prevent overboosting.
2. Sensitivity to throttle movements:
a. Turbocharged engines need time to adjust to throttle changes.
b. Automatic systems may respond slowly, especially with cold oil temperatures.
3. Heat management:
A. Turbocharging increases intake air temperature.
B. Higher risk of pre-ignition and detonation.
C. Intercoolers reduce intake air temperature and improve performance.
D. May need to open cowl flaps or enrich the fuel mixture to control temperatures.
E. Use onboard sensors to monitor:
a. Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT).
b. Cylinder Head Temperature (CHT).
c. Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT).

Understanding turbocharging principles is essential for safely operating high-performance aircraft at

higher altitudes. Proper management of turbocharged engines ensures optimal performance and
longevity.

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8. Oxygen Use
This section covers the importance of oxygen use in aviation, the effects of hypoxia on the human
body, and the regulations regarding supplemental oxygen use at high altitudes.

The Human Body and Oxygen:

1. The human body functions like a heat engine and needs fuel:
a. Fuel comes from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats found in food.
b. Oxidation converts this fuel into heat and energy.
c. Oxidation is a burning process that requires oxygen.
2. Oxygen is extracted from the air by the lungs and distributed through the body via the circulatory
system.
3. Composition of air:
a. Approximately 20% oxygen.
b. Approximately 79% nitrogen.
c. About 1% other gases.
d. The percentage of oxygen remains fairly constant up to the lower stratosphere.

Effects of Altitude on Oxygen Intake:

1. At higher altitudes, air is less dense:

a. The body assimilates less oxygen.
b. Total air pressure and the partial pressure of oxygen are reduced.
2. Oxygen transfer to the blood depends on oxygen pressure in the lungs.
3. Hypoxia occurs when insufficient oxygen pressure prevents oxygen from entering the
bloodstream:
a. Hypoxia is a condition where the body lacks sufficient oxygen.

Signs and Symptoms of Hypoxia:

1. At 10,000 feet:
a. Blood can pick up 90% of its oxygen capacity.
b. Possible slight impairment and reduced concentration over time.
2. At 14,000 feet:
a. Pilots may fly off course, forget tasks, or ignore hazards.
3. At 18,000 feet and above:
a. Exposure can lead to collapse.
4. Common symptoms of hypoxia:
a. Euphoria and a false sense of security.
b. Dulled mental faculties and impaired coordination.
c. Drowsiness and nonchalance.
d. Dizziness and tingling skin.
e. Cyanosis (bluish lips and fingernails).
f. Increased heart rate.
g. Narrowed vision and blurred instruments.
h. Personality changes similar to intoxication.
5. Hypoxia affects the brain first, making it difficult for individuals to recognize their impairment.

Factors Affecting Hypoxia Onset:

1. Individual factors:
a. Physical condition, age, lung capacity, acclimatization, and endurance.

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2. The relationship between altitude and hypoxia is not linear:
A. Symptoms develop faster and are more severe at higher altitudes.
B. Time of useful consciousness decreases with altitude:
a. At 25,000 feet: approximately 2 minutes.
b. At 30,000 feet: 1 minute or less.

Supplemental Oxygen and Regulations:

1. Pilots flying at high altitudes need a pressurized cabin or supplemental oxygen.

2. FAR Part 91 regulations:
A. Above 12,500 feet cabin pressure altitude:
a. Minimum flight crew must use supplemental oxygen after 30 minutes.
B. Above 14,000 feet cabin pressure altitude:
a. Flight crew must use supplemental oxygen continuously.
C. Above 15,000 feet cabin pressure altitude:
a. Supplemental oxygen must be provided for all occupants at all times.
3. More stringent regulations for aircraft operated for hire:
a. Flight crew must use supplemental oxygen after 30 minutes above 10,000 feet cabin pressure
altitude.
b. Flight crew must use supplemental oxygen continuously above 12,000 feet cabin pressure
altitude.
4. Night vision is affected by hypoxia at lower altitudes:
a. At 8,000 feet, prolonged exposure can impair night vision.
b. Supplemental oxygen can improve visibility after a few breaths.

Importance of Recognizing and Preventing Hypoxia:

1. Hypoxia onset is often pleasurable, masking the danger.

2. Pilots may not recognize hypoxia symptoms in themselves.
3. Risks of accidental hypoxia:
a. Oxygen hose disconnecting or kinking.
b. Pilots may lose consciousness without realizing the issue.
c. Restoration of oxygen can revive an unconscious pilot.
4. Having a second pilot onboard increases safety against hypoxia risks.

Remember, understanding the effects of altitude on your body and complying with oxygen use
regulations are crucial for safety during flight operations.

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9. Pressurization
This section covers the fundamentals of aircraft pressurization systems, their operation, and the
benefits of flying at higher altitudes.

Benefits of High-Altitude Flight:

1. Increased efficiency:
a. Aircraft consume less fuel for a given airspeed at higher altitudes.
2. Improved safety and comfort:
a. Better chance of avoiding weather hazards and turbulence.
b. Smoother air above convective weather systems.

Methods to Reach Higher Altitudes:

1. Use supplemental oxygen for crew and passengers.

2. Fly a pressurized airplane.

Pressurization System Basics:

1. Sealed cabin areas:

a. Cabin, flight deck, and sometimes baggage compartments form a sealed vessel.
b. Capable of retaining air at higher pressure than outside atmospheric pressure.
2. Air supply sources:
a. Piston-powered aircraft: Air is pumped from the engine's turbocharger.
b. Turbine aircraft: Use bleed air from the compressor section of the engine.
3. Pressure regulation:
a. Air is released from the cabin through outflow valves.
b. Outflow valves regulate the rate to maintain desired cabin pressure.

Piston-Powered Aircraft Pressurization:

1. Engine's turbocharger components:

a. Turbine driven by exhaust gases.
b. Compressor connected to the turbine via a shaft.
2. Compressed air process:
a. Compressed air passes through a sonic venturi to slow its velocity.
b. Air then goes through a heat exchanger (intercooler) to dissipate heat.
c. Even after cooling, the air entering the cabin is warmer than ambient.
3. Cabin sealing:
a. The cabin is sealed as tightly as possible to maintain pressure.
4. Outflow valves:
a. Primary outflow valve controls maximum allowable pressure (maximum differential).
b. Connected to a cockpit controller for pilot adjustments.
c. Safety (secondary) valve acts as a relief if the primary valve fails.

Operating the Pressurization System (Piper Malibu Example):

1. Understanding pressure terms:

a. Sea level ambient pressure: approximately 14.7 PSI.
b. Ambient pressure decreases with altitude (e.g., 5.7 PSI at 24,000 feet).
c. Differential pressure: Difference between cabin pressure and ambient pressure.

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2. Maximum differential pressure:
a. Piper Malibu's maximum differential: 5.5 PSI.
b. Turbine aircraft can have higher maximum differentials (8-9 PSI).
3. Calculating cabin altitude:
A. At 24,000 feet with a 5.5 PSI differential:
a. Cabin pressure = Ambient pressure + Differential pressure.
b. Cabin pressure = 5.7 PSI + 5.5 PSI = 11.2 PSI (approx. 8,000 feet cabin altitude).
B. At lower altitudes, can achieve sea level pressure in the cabin.
4. Using the cabin pressure controller:
a. Set to 500 feet above planned cruise altitude before takeoff.
b. Controller displays corresponding cabin altitude.
5. Rate controller:
a. Adjusts rate of cabin climb or descent.
b. Example: 9 o'clock position may equate to 500 feet per minute.
6. Pressurization instruments:
a. Cabin altitude indicator.
b. Cabin climb/descent rate indicator.
c. Differential pressure gauge.
d. May be displayed digitally or on mechanical dials.
7. Managing cabin pressure during flight:
A. Climb:
a. System pressurizes the cabin gradually to the set cabin altitude.
B. Cruise:
a. Monitor instruments to ensure cabin altitude and differential pressure are within limits.
b. Be aware of warning systems (e.g., cabin altitude exceeding 10,000 feet).
C. Descent:
a. Set controller to landing airport elevation plus 500 feet.
b. Ensures cabin depressurizes comfortably before touchdown.

Considerations and Limitations:

1. Cabin leaks:
a. All aircraft cabins leak air to some extent.
b. Older aircraft may leak more, affecting maximum differential pressure.
2. Structural requirements:
a. Pressurized aircraft require stronger structures and thicker windows.
3. Additional equipment:
a. Heat exchangers, outflow valves, and controllers add complexity.
4. Maintenance:
a. Regular checks are essential to ensure pressurization system integrity.

Understanding and properly managing the pressurization system allows pilots to fly at higher
altitudes safely and comfortably, enhancing flight efficiency and passenger experience.

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10. Closer Look: Flight Level Rules and Procedures
This section outlines the rules and procedures associated with flying in the flight levels, particularly
within Class A airspace, and highlights important considerations for new student pilots advancing to
higher altitudes.

Introduction to Flight Levels and Class A Airspace:

1. Most instrument training occurs below 10,000 feet.

2. As you progress to higher performance airplanes:
a. You may climb into the flight levels (above 18,000 feet MSL).
b. Flight levels begin at Flight Level (FL) 180 (18,000 feet MSL) and extend up to FL600.
3. Class A airspace:
a. Requires an Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) flight plan.
b. Pilots must be in communication with Air Traffic Control (ATC).
c. An instrument rating is mandatory.

Pilot Responsibilities in Class A Airspace:

1. Though on an IFR flight plan, you may fly in Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC).
2. Pilot-in-command responsibilities:
A. Maintain "see and avoid" separation in VMC, even in Class A airspace.
B. Be vigilant due to high closure rates:
a. A 360-knot closure rate can result in a collision hazard within 15 seconds at a 3-mile
distance.
C. ATC provides radar traffic advisories but visual separation is the pilot's responsibility.

High-Altitude Endorsement Requirement:

1. The FAA requires a high-altitude endorsement to act as pilot-in-command of:

a. Pressurized airplanes with a service ceiling or maximum operating altitude above 25,000 feet.
b. This requirement applies regardless of whether you climb to that altitude.

Flight Level Definitions and Altimeter Settings:

1. Flight levels increase in 1,000-foot intervals starting from FL180:

a. Examples: FL190, FL200, etc.
2. At or above FL180:
a. Set altimeter to the standard 29.92 inches of mercury.
b. Ensures uniform altitude separation between aircraft.
3. Below FL180:
a. ATC will provide the local altimeter setting upon descent clearance.

Reduced Vertical Separation Minimums (RVSM):

1. Applies when flying at or above FL290.

2. Requirements for aircraft and operator:
a. Two independent altimeter systems installed.
b. An altitude control system (autopilot).
c. An alert system for altitude deviation warnings.

Lowest Usable Flight Levels Based on Altimeter Settings:

1. To maintain minimum 1,000-foot vertical separation:

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 a. The lowest usable flight level adjusts with altimeter settings below 29.92.
2. Example:
A. If altimeter setting is between 29.42 and 29.91:
a. The lowest usable flight level is FL185.
b. Practically, FL190 becomes the lowest assignable flight level.

High-Altitude En Route Charts and Preferred Routes:

1. Single-direction preferred routes are indicated with an arrowhead.

2. Example Routes:
A. Between 1100Z and 0300Z, J211 is preferred from Westminster to Johnstown.
B. Segment of J30 eastbound from Appleton to Kassel:
a. Minimum Enroute Altitude (MEA): 20,000 feet.
b. Maximum Authorized Altitude (MAA): 39,000 feet.

Navigational Requirements Above FL240:

1. When navigating via VOR at or above FL240:

a. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is required.
b. A suitable GPS system can be used in lieu of DME.

Q-Routes and RNAV Procedures:

1. Q-Routes are available for RNAV-equipped aircraft between FL180 and FL450.
2. Characteristics of Q-Routes:
a. Established between RNAV waypoints.
b. May include altitude limitations similar to jet routes.
c. Included in most IFR GPS receivers and FMS databases for easy flight plan entry.

Weather Considerations at High Altitudes:

1. Do not assume higher altitudes are free from clouds or hazardous weather.
2. Convective weather can extend into the flight levels:
a. Requires strategic planning to navigate around, not over, such conditions.

Always be prepared for the unique challenges of flying at higher altitudes, including regulatory
requirements, navigational procedures, and weather considerations to ensure a safe flight.

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11. Air Facts: All-Weather Airplane?
This section discusses the limitations of aircraft in adverse weather and highlights the importance of
pilot judgment in ensuring safe flight operations.

Limitations of All-Weather Flying:

1. No airplane is truly an all-weather airplane:

a. Even large aircraft like a 747 can be overwhelmed by severe weather such as thunderstorms.
b. Certain weather conditions are too hazardous for any aircraft to fly through.
2. Pilots must avoid overconfidence:
a. Believing one can handle any weather is dangerous.
b. Every pilot should recognize and respect weather limitations.

Benefits of Proper Equipment:

1. Enhancing IFR operations with the right equipment:

a. Datalink weather displays storm systems from 100 miles away, including lightning and satellite
imagery.
b. Onboard radar shows real-time precipitation at your altitude.
c. Anti-ice systems help safely escape icing conditions.
d. Turbocharging or pressurization allows climbing above bad weather for smoother flights.
2. Equipment extends options but doesn't eliminate risks:
a. These tools help avoid severe weather, not penetrate it.
b. Experiencing moderate ice is uncomfortable, even with ice protection:exit is essential.

Importance of Pilot Decision-Making:

1. Pilot skill is more crucial than equipment:

a. Safe flying depends on how tools are used, not just having them.
b. Sometimes equipment informs the need to cancel or divert a flight.
2. Be willing to accept "no" for an answer:
a. Recognize when conditions like storms, ice, or low visibility make flight unsafe.
b. Attempting to fly in unacceptable conditions greatly increases risk.
3. The pilot's responsibilities include:
a. Flying the airplane well in acceptable conditions.
b. Avoiding flight in unacceptable conditions.

Remember, advanced equipment and performance capabilities enhance safety when used wisely,
but sound judgment and decision-making are the foundations of safe flight.

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163
Chapter 6 - IFR Flying Techniques

1. Instrument FARs
This section provides an overview of the Federal Aviation Regulations related to instrument flight
rules (IFR), focusing on the requirements for both the pilot and the aircraft to operate legally and
safely under IFR conditions.

Responsibility Shift After Instrument Rating:

1. As a student, your instructor ensures compliance with regulations.

2. Once you obtain an instrument rating, you are responsible for adhering to IFR rules.

Aircraft Requirements Under FAR 91.205:

1. All aircraft must meet VFR equipment requirements plus additional IFR equipment:
a. Items listed in FAR 91.205 for IFR flight.
b. Additional requirements for night flight.
2. Specific equipment for IFR flight includes:
A. Two-way radio communication and navigation equipment suitable for the route.
A. In Class B airspace, must have:
a. A working VOR or TACAN.
b. Or an operable and suitable area navigation system (e.g., IFR-approved GPS).
B. Gyroscopic instruments:
a. Gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator (exceptions apply for certain aircraft with third attitude
instrument system).
b. Slip-skid indicator (often included with turn coordinator or second attitude indicator).
c. Sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric pressure changes.
d. Gyroscopic pitch and bank indicator (attitude indicator).
e. Gyroscopic direction indicator (heading indicator).
C. A clock displaying hours, minutes, and seconds with a sweep-second pointer or digital display.
D. A generator or alternator of adequate capacity.

VOR Equipment Checks:

1. VOR receiver must be operationally checked within the preceding 30 days for IFR use.
2. Common methods for checking VOR receivers:
a. VOR Test Facility (VOT).
b. Designated surface checkpoint.
c. Designated airborne checkpoint.
d. Dual VOR receiver check.
3. VOT check:
a. Transmits 360-degree radial in all directions.
b. CDI should center on 360° FROM or 180° TO indication.
c. Tolerances: ±4° on the ground or in flight.
4. Surface checkpoint:
a. Located at specific points on an airport.
b. Check CDI against known radial; tolerance is ±4°.
5. Airborne checkpoint:
a. Designated over specific landmarks or intersections.
b. Tolerance is ±6°.

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6. Dual VOR receiver check:
a. Compare two independent VOR receivers tuned to the same station.
b. Maximum allowable difference is 4°.
7. Other checks:
a. Test signal from a certificated repair station.
b. Homemade airborne checkpoints using known radials over landmarks.
8. Recording VOR checks:
a. Log must include Date, Place, Bearing error observed, Signature (acronym: PADS).

Required Inspections and Checks:

1. Pilot in Command is responsible for determining aircraft airworthiness.

2. Required inspections for IFR flight:
A. VOR check (every 30 days for IFR).
B. Annual inspection (every 12 calendar months).
C. Transponder inspection (every 24 calendar months).
D. Altimeter, encoder, and static system checks (every 24 calendar months for IFR in controlled
airspace).
E. If using an approach-approved GPS:
a. Current database required for instrument approaches.
b. Required operating manuals on board.
3. All inspections and checks must be properly recorded and current.

Pilot Requirements for IFR Flight:

1. Pilot must hold an instrument rating.

2. Pilot must meet recent instrument flight experience requirements.

Instrument Recent Experience Requirements:

1. Within the preceding 6 calendar months, pilot must have logged ("Six Sixes"):
a. Six instrument approaches.
b. Holding procedures.
c. Interception and tracking courses using navigation systems.
2. Requirements can be met in actual or simulated instrument conditions.
3. Can be accomplished in the appropriate category of aircraft, flight simulator, or training device.
4. If currency lapses beyond 6 months:
a. Pilot has another 6 months to regain currency with safety pilot or approved simulator.
b. After 12 months, an Instrument Proficiency Check (IPC) is required.
5. IPC must be conducted by an instrument instructor or examiner.
6. IPC includes tasks from the Instrument Rating Airman Certification Standards.

Use of Safety Pilots and Simulators:

1. Safety pilots:
a. Must hold at least a private pilot certificate with appropriate category and class ratings.
b. Must have a current medical certificate.
c. Not required to have an instrument rating.
d. Aircraft must have fully functioning dual controls.
2. Flight simulators and training devices:
a. Can be used to meet instrument recent experience requirements.
b. Approved Aviation Training Devices (ATD) have specific requirements and are only valid for 2

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 calendar months.

Logging Instrument Flight Time:

1. Must log each instrument approach flown, including location and type of approach.
2. For simulated instrument time, record the name of the safety pilot.
3. Contact or visual approaches do not count towards instrument experience requirements.

By understanding and adhering to these regulations, you ensure both your legality and safety when
operating under instrument flight rules. Always stay current with FARs and keep meticulous records
of your flights and aircraft inspections.

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2. Air Facts: Check It Out
This section emphasizes the critical role of checklists in aviation, particularly for IFR flying, and offers
insights on how to utilize and optimize them for safe and efficient flight operations.

Importance of Checklists:

1. Checklists are vital in all flying, especially under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR).
a. They ensure all necessary procedures are completed before each phase of flight.
2. Avoiding complacency:
a. Using a checklist should be a methodical process, not a mindless routine.
b. It's essential to prepare the aircraft properly for what comes next.
3. Real-world example of checklist importance:
a. A twin-engine aircraft took off IFR without securing the cabin door.
b. The unsecured door led to a risky low-level maneuver to return for landing.
c. Omitting a simple checklist item added unnecessary risk to the flight.

Enhancing Your Checklist:

1. Personalizing your checklist:

a. Include every item from the manufacturer's list.
b. Organize the checklist to follow a logical flow in your cockpit.
2. Improving checklist organization:
a. Avoid checklists that jump around the cockpit; aim for a smooth progression.
3. Expanding on generic items:
a. Simple entries like "Radios : set" may need elaboration for complex avionics.
b. Detail specific radio and navigation settings as needed.
4. Memorization and verification:
a. Pilots flying the same aircraft may memorize checklists.
b. Always use the checklist to verify that all items are completed, even if memorized.

The In-Range Checklist:

1. Implementing an in-range checklist:

a. Consider starting it 60 miles from the destination airport.
b. Use any distance that allows sufficient time and remain consistent.
2. Actions to perform in-range:
a. Make the final fuel tank selection for landing.
b. Ensure the aircraft lighting is appropriate for landing conditions.
c. Tune into the Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS).
d. Set up the final avionics configuration for the approach.
e. In pressurized aircraft, check cabin settings for landing.
3. Preparing for potential missed approaches:
a. If weather is near minimums, select an alternate airport.
b. Planning ahead reduces workload during critical phases of flight.
4. Benefits of the in-range checklist:
a. Reduces pressure during the busy pre-landing phase.
b. Allows for safer, more organized approach and landing procedures.

Final Pre-Landing Checks:

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1. Single-pilot operations:
a. The final check is often a reflexive response rather than a formal checklist.
2. Using the GUMPS check as a last-minute reminder:
a. Gas : Ensure fuel is on the correct tank.
b. Undercarriage : Verify landing gear is down.
c. Mixture : Set mixture as required.
d. Prop : Adjust propeller settings if applicable.
e. Seat belts and switches : Secure seat belts and set switches appropriately.
3. Eliminating surprises:
a. A thorough pre-landing check enhances safety and confidence.
b. Consistent use of checklists ensures all critical items are addressed.

Remember, using a checklist effectively makes flying safer and more enjoyable by ensuring all
procedures are completed and reducing the likelihood of unexpected issues.

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3. IFR Communications and ATC Reports
This section discusses the importance of effective communication in IFR flying, including standard
phraseology, basic communication techniques, required reports, and handling special situations.

Importance of Effective Communication in IFR Flying

1. Clear communication ensures understanding between pilots and air traffic controllers:
a. Brevity is desirable, but not at the expense of clarity.
b. Ensure the controller understands your intentions.
c. Confirm you understand the controller's instructions before proceeding.

Standard Phraseology and the Pilot/Controller Glossary

1. Use standard phraseology to enhance mutual understanding:

A. Avoid slang, jargon, or non-standard terms.
B. Use words from the Pilot/Controller Glossary:
a. Available online and included in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).
b. Controllers use this glossary as well.
C. Using expected words improves comprehension.

Basic Communication Techniques

1. Listen before transmitting:

a. After switching to a new frequency, wait a moment.
b. Avoid interrupting ongoing conversations.
2. Avoid simultaneous transmissions:
a. Transmitting at the same time as another pilot causes interference.
b. Ensure you know what you are going to say before you key the microphone.
3. Prepare before speaking:
a. Think through your message before transmitting.
b. Be concise but clear.
4. Use call signs correctly:
A. Always use your call sign at the beginning of the transmission.
B. Helps the controller identify which aircraft is speaking.
C. Use full call sign on initial contact and when another aircraft has a similar call sign.
D. After communication is established, you may abbreviate:
a. Use aircraft type and last three characters of call sign.
b. Example: "Skylane six one six seven Lima" becomes "Skylane six seven Lima".
5. Be cautious of stuck microphones:
a. A stuck mic can block the frequency, preventing communication.
b. If you notice silence or strange noises, check for a stuck mic.
c. Always ensure your microphone is not inadvertently transmitting.

Format of Radio Calls

1. Basic format:
a. Identify the facility you are calling.
b. Identify yourself (using call sign).
c. State your message.
2. Example of a common IFR call:
a. "Indy Center, Cessna Six Three Three Niner Two is level at one zero thousand."

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 b. This is typically done after a frequency change in the en route environment.
3. Altitude reporting:
A. When climbing or descending, report passing altitudes and assigned altitudes when
contacting a new controller.
B. Use "thousands" and "hundreds" to state altitudes:
a. Example: "Four thousand five hundred" or "One three thousand six hundred".
C. Pronounce numbers clearly:
a. "Nine" is pronounced "niner".
b. "Three" is "tree", and "five" is "fife".
4. Altitude assignments:
a. In IFR flight, ATC assigns altitudes in controlled airspace.
b. Pilot-determined altitudes based on direction of flight apply mainly in uncontrolled (Class G)
airspace.
5. Flight levels above 18,000 feet:
a. Set altimeter to 29.92 at or above 18,000 feet MSL.
b. Use flight levels, e.g., "Flight Level One Eight Zero" (FL180).

Copying IFR Clearances

1. Write down clearances verbatim:

a. Don't try to understand while writing; focus on recording the information.
b. Read back the clearance to confirm accuracy.
c. Then interpret and understand the clearance.
2. Avoid trying to visualize complex routings while copying.
3. Clearances are read back to the controller unless they specify otherwise.

Required IFR Communications

1. Report hazardous or unforecast weather:

a. Inform ATC of any unexpected weather conditions encountered.
2. Report avionics malfunctions:
a. Notify ATC of any equipment issues that could affect flight safety.
3. Report deviations from clearance:
a. If you deviate (e.g., to avoid traffic or in an emergency), inform ATC as soon as possible.
4. Report altitude changes:
a. When vacating an assigned altitude for a new one.
b. When changing altitude while flying VFR on top.
5. Report inability to maintain assigned parameters:
a. If unable to maintain 500 feet per minute climb or descent.
b. If true airspeed varies by more than 5% or 10 knots (whichever is greater) from the filed
speed.
6. Holding pattern reports:
a. Report time and altitude when reaching a holding fix.
b. Report when leaving the holding fix.
7. Missed approach reports:
a. Inform ATC if you execute a missed approach.
b. Include your intentions (e.g., request for another approach or diversion).

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Position Reporting When Not in Radar Contact

1. Additional required reports:

a. Time and altitude over compulsory reporting points.
b. If estimated time over a reporting point changes by more than three minutes.
c. Leaving the final approach fix inbound on a non-precision approach.
d. Leaving the outer marker or equivalent fix inbound on a precision approach.
2. Compulsory reporting points:
a. Depicted as solid triangles on charts.
b. Required reporting at these points when not in radar contact.
c. Includes fixes defining your route if not on an airway.
3. Format of position reports:
a. Identify yourself.
b. Name of the reporting point.
c. Time over the reporting point.
d. Altitude.
e. Estimated time over the next reporting point.
f. Name of the following reporting point.
4. Recognize radar status:
a. "Radar contact lost" or "radar service terminated" indicates need for position reports.
b. "Radar contact" indicates position reports are not required.

Handling Minimum Fuel and Emergencies

1. Minimum fuel advisory:

a. If fuel supply is such that undue delay cannot be accepted, inform ATC of "minimum fuel"
status.
b. This is not an emergency but indicates potential for one if delays occur.
c. No priority handling is provided for minimum fuel.
2. Declaring an emergency:
a. If safety is in doubt and immediate assistance is required, declare an emergency.
b. Use the word "emergency" to receive priority handling.

Effective communication is crucial in IFR flying. By following standard procedures and maintaining
clear communication with ATC, pilots can enhance safety and efficiency during flights.

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4. Air Facts: Radio Pro
This section emphasizes the importance of clear and professional radio communication when flying
under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR). Anticipating ATC communications and thinking before
transmitting are key to enhancing safety and efficiency in the air.

Essential Practices for IFR Radio Communication:

1. Anticipate ATC instructions:

a. Knowing what you're likely to hear makes it easier to understand ATC's instructions.
2. Think before you key the mic:
a. Planning what you want to say helps you sound more professional and keeps communications
concise.

The 7 Deadly Sins of IFR Communications:

1. Avoid using the phrase "with you":

a. Keep check-ins with new controllers short and simple.
b. For example: "Cincinnati Approach, Cessna 53417, four thousand."
c. Saying "with you at four thousand" is unnecessary and wastes airtime.
2. Don't use "Roger" as a readback:
a. "Roger" acknowledges receipt but doesn't confirm understanding of essential details.
b. Always read back clearances or instructions fully, including altitudes and headings.
c. Example: If ATC says, "Cessna 53417, turn left heading one seven zero, cleared for the ILS
runway one four approach at Republic Airport," you should repeat the essential parts to
confirm.
3. Avoid starting transmissions with "Ah..." or "And...":
a. Filler words waste airtime and add no value.
b. Pause and think before transmitting to ensure clarity.
4. Don't give too much information upfront:
a. When checking in, keep initial communications brief.
b. Wait for the appropriate time to make requests.
c. Example: "Center, Cessna 53417, with request."
5. Don't make unnecessary transmissions on guard frequency:
a. Guard frequency (121.5 MHz) is for emergencies and safety communications.
b. Avoid non-essential chatter that could block important transmissions.
6. Refrain from referencing IFR fixes at a non-towered airport:
a. Use plain language that all pilots can understand.
b. VFR pilots may not know IFR waypoints or procedures.
c. Example: Instead of "At KWIPS on the RNAV approach," say "Five miles northeast, inbound
for runway 26."
7. Never use the phrase "Any traffic in the area please advise":
a. The phrase is unnecessary and can clutter the frequency.
b. Monitor the CTAF and listen for traffic before announcing your intentions.
c. It's not other pilots' responsibility to report their positions on demand.

Remember, being professional on the radio means being clear, concise, and considerate. Effective
communication enhances safety and efficiency in the aviation environment.

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5. Lost Communications Procedures
This section covers procedures and best practices for pilots to follow in the event of a two-way radio
communications failure, ensuring safety and compliance with regulations.

Actions to Re-establish Communications

1. Try to contact ATC on the previous frequency to verify the new one.
2. Use another communication radio if available.
3. Communicate through another aircraft on the frequency to relay messages to ATC.
4. Check charts or GPS database for a frequency appropriate to your position.
5. Attempt to contact Flight Service over a nearby navaid.
6. Try calling on the emergency frequency 121.5 MHz if necessary.
7. Use a handheld transceiver if available:
a. Ensure it has fresh batteries or is fully charged.
b. Place the antenna near the window to improve transmission.
c. Consider installing an external antenna for better performance.
8. As a last resort, consider using a cell phone to contact ATC in an emergency.

Regulations and Pilot Responsibilities

1. FAR 91.185 outlines actions for two-way radio communication failure.

2. The AIM notes it's impossible to cover all situations; pilots must exercise good judgment.
3. Pilots have emergency authority to deviate from rules as necessary.
4. ATC will clear airspace for possible pilot actions during communication failure.

Procedures in VFR Conditions

1. If failure occurs in VFR conditions or VFR is encountered after failure:

a. Continue flight under VFR.
b. Land at the nearest appropriate airport.
c. Do not re-enter IMC or continue to your destination unless nearby.

Procedures in IMC Conditions

1. ATC expects you to fly a specific route and altitude.

Route to Fly

1. Fly the route assigned in your most recent ATC clearance, unless being radar vectored.
2. If being radar vectored:
a. Fly directly to the fix or route specified in the vector clearance.
3. If no assigned route:
a. Fly the route ATC advised may be expected.
4. If no assigned or expected route:
a. Fly the route filed in your flight plan.

Altitude to Fly

1. Fly the highest of the following altitudes:

a. Last assigned altitude by ATC.
b. Altitude ATC has advised to expect.
c. Minimum IFR altitude for your route segment.
2. Monitor and adjust altitude for higher minimum IFR altitudes on future route segments.
3. Remain at required altitude until reaching your destination.

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Descent for Approach

1. Begin descent when both conditions are met:

a. At the initial approach fix or fix where approach begins.
b. As close as possible to your estimated time of arrival.

Selecting an Approach

1. If you acknowledged receipt of approach clearance from ATC:

a. Use the assigned approach and initial approach fix.
2. If not acknowledged:
a. Select an appropriate approach and initial approach fix.

Holding Patterns

1. If communication failure occurs while holding:

a. Leave the holding fix at the expect further clearance (EFC) time.

Transponder Code for Communications Failure

1. Set transponder code to 7600 to alert ATC of communication failure.

2. Be aware that ATC may not see you immediately, especially outside radar coverage.

Electrical Failures

1. Generator or alternator failure can lead to loss of all electrical systems, including NAV/COM
radios.
2. Monitor charging system instruments (ammeter, voltmeter, loadmeter, warning lights).
3. If failure is caught early:
a. Reduce unnecessary electrical load.
b. Inform ATC of the problem.
c. Plan an approach and landing at the nearest suitable airport.
4. Options decrease significantly when battery power is low.

Importance of Knowing VFR Conditions

1. During preflight briefing, determine where the closest VFR weather is located.
2. In total NAV/COM failure, flying to VFR conditions may be the best solution.

Understanding and following these procedures ensures safety during a two-way radio
communication failure. Always be prepared, exercise good judgment, and prioritize safety in all
situations.

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6. The Pilot's Role in The System
This section emphasizes the importance of understanding and respecting the roles and
responsibilities of both pilots and air traffic controllers to ensure safe and efficient flight operations.

Pilot Responsibilities:

1. The pilot is directly responsible for and is the final authority on the safe operation of the aircraft.
2. Authorized to deviate from a clearance or regulations in an emergency requiring immediate
action.
3. Must be honest with controllers about any problems and should not hesitate to declare an
emergency when necessary.

Air Traffic Controller Responsibilities:

1. First priority: Separation of aircraft and issuance of radar safety alerts (terrain, obstruction, and
aircraft conflict alerts).
2. Second priority: Other required services not involving separation of aircraft.
3. Third priority: Additional services to the extent possible.

Mutual Understanding:

1. Pilots and controllers must understand and respect each other's responsibilities.
2. The system works effectively when both parties communicate clearly and cooperate.

Potential Conflicts:

1. Situations may arise where a pilot prefers not to comply with a controller's instruction:
a. Example: A vector heading toward a cloud the pilot deems unsafe.
2. Pilot's actions in such cases:
a. Understand the controller's decision is based on aircraft separation.
b. Communicate concerns to the controller about safety.
c. Be patient while the controller adjusts the plan to accommodate safety concerns.
d. If necessary, declare an emergency and take immediate action.

Communication Etiquette:

1. Do not complain to a controller over the frequency.

2. If there is a concern about handling:
a. Note the frequency and time.
b. Contact the facility after landing to discuss the issue.

Following Instructions:

1. Controllers can see altitude (Mode C) but not heading:only the aircraft's track.
2. Importance of flying assigned vector headings precisely:
a. Ensures accurate horizontal separation.
b. Avoids confusion on the radar scope.
3. Pilots must faithfully follow assigned headings unless safety concerns are communicated.

Responsibility and Respect:

1. Controllers respect the responsibilities placed upon pilots.

2. Controllers expect pilots to uphold their responsibilities.
3. If a pilot shifts responsibility to the controller:
a. The controller may declare an emergency on behalf of the pilot.
b. The controller will prioritize getting the aircraft on the ground safely.

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4. Pilots must continue to fly the aircraft and not abdicate responsibilities.

Remember, effective communication and mutual respect between pilots and controllers are essential
for maintaining safety and efficiency within the air traffic system.

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7. Building Margins
This section discusses the importance of building safety margins in flight operations, emphasizing
planning, preparation, and self-awareness to ensure safer and more comfortable flying experiences.

Utilizing Slack Time Effectively:

1. During IFR flights, especially in clear weather:

a. It's easy to feel there's not much to do beyond basic tasks.
b. Use slack time to enhance flight safety by planning ahead.
2. Preparation can ease changes in plans:
a. Understand weather conditions throughout the area.
b. Be aware of the mechanical condition of the airplane.
c. Consider passenger needs that may require landing.

Keeping Options Open:

1. Formulate alternate plans in advance to increase safety margins.

2. Continuously assess options to handle unexpected weather or issues.

Night Flying Requires Greater Margins:

1. Increased risks at night due to limited visibility.

2. Higher accident rates emphasize the need for greater precautions.
3. Ways to build safety margins at night:
a. Use precision approaches (e.g., ILS) when possible.
b. Ensure airports have visual aids like VASI.
c. Carry extra fuel to allow diversion if necessary.
4. Carry essential equipment:
a. Multiple flashlights with extra batteries.
b. Battery-operated handheld transceiver.
c. Portable GPS unit.

Building Personal Margins:

1. Avoid flying when unwell or fatigued:

a. Reduces safety margins and impacts decision-making.
b. Recognize fatigue and its effects.
2. Set personal limitations:
a. Fly at night only if weather is above minimums.
b. Consider flying with another pilot.
c. Set time limits on flying hours.
3. Stay alert and refreshed:
a. Use supplemental oxygen at night, even at lower altitudes.
b. Consume beverages like coffee or soda.

Preparation and Proficiency:

1. Study approach charts and procedures in advance.

2. Strive for perfection on every flight to build proficiency.
3. Participate in recurrent training programs.
4. Recognize signs of minimal margins:
a. If you "just barely managed" a situation, it's time to build more margin.

Managing Thought Processes:

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1. Continuously challenge yourself during flight operations.
2. Use techniques to enhance situational awareness:
a. Perform verbal challenge-response checklists.
b. Make altitude callouts (e.g., "500 feet above").
c. Monitor headings, airspeeds, and navigation closely.
3. Utilize autopilot systems to aid in flight management.

Single-Pilot vs. Two-Crew Operations:

1. Recognize limitations of single-pilot IFR operations:

a. Lack of backup during critical phases like approaches.
b. No co-pilot to advise against risky decisions.
2. Avoid going below approach minimums to maintain safety margins.

By actively building safety margins through planning, preparation, and self-awareness, you can
enhance flight safety and confidently enjoy the challenges of instrument flying.

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8. Air Facts: Flight Plans, Fact & Fiction
This section discusses the elements of an IFR flight plan, what information is critical for air traffic
control, and how pilots should treat certain items flexibly to ensure safe and efficient flights.

Understanding IFR Flight Plans

1. The ICAO flight plan form requests detailed information, including:

a. Avionics specifications
b. Survival equipment
c. Aircraft color
2. Key information for Air Traffic Control (ATC):
a. Proposed route
b. Altitude
c. Speed
3. Other details are used for search and rescue if you fail to arrive.

Facts and Initial Requests

1. Important factual items to provide in your flight plan:

a. Aircraft registration number
b. Aircraft type and equipment
c. True airspeed
d. Departure point
e. Fuel on board
f. Pilot's name and address
g. Number of people on board
h. Aircraft color
2. Initial requests included in the flight plan:
a. Requested cruising altitude
b. Proposed route of flight
3. Potential fiction items (should be treated flexibly):
a. Time of departure
b. Destination
c. Time en route
d. Alternate airport

The Importance of Flexibility

1. Do not feel compelled to adhere strictly to the flight plan's details:

a. ATC may assign different altitudes or routes due to traffic or procedures.
b. Weather conditions may require changes in altitude or route.
2. Avoid rushing to meet the filed departure time:
a. Safety should not be compromised to stick to a proposed time.
b. ATC holds your clearance for two hours after the proposed departure time.
3. Continuously monitor and adjust for actual conditions:
a. Update destination and time en route based on winds aloft and groundspeed.
b. Choose an alternate airport based on current weather, not just what's on the plan.
4. Communicate changes with ATC:
a. If you need to change your route or destination, inform the controller.
b. ATC is flexible and will assist with adjustments.

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Remember, pre-flight planning is essential, but actual flight conditions may differ. Use your in-flight
resources and maintain flexibility to ensure a safe and efficient flight.

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9. Below Minimum Weather
These notes cover important considerations for flying in weather conditions that are below the
established minimums, emphasizing the challenges and best practices for ensuring safety.

Understanding Approach Minimums:

1. Instrument Landing System (ILS) Approach Minimums:

a. Requires at least half-mile visibility or a Runway Visual Range (RVR) of 1800 feet (about 3/8
of a mile) at some locations.
b. Decision Height is usually 200 feet above ground level.
2. Non-Precision Approach Minimums:
a. Localizer or straight-in VOR approaches may have half-mile visibility minimums with Minimum
Descent Altitudes (MDAs) in the 400 to 600-foot range.
b. The lowest possible MDA for a VOR approach is 250 feet.
c. For NDB approaches with the beacon on the airport, the lowest MDA is 350 feet.

Weather Conditions Causing Below Minimums:

1. Fog:
A. Advection Fog:
a. Occurs when warm moist air flows over cold surfaces like snow-covered ground.
b. Common in winter when warm Gulf air moves over cold ground.
B. Radiation Fog:
a. Forms on clear nights with little to no wind and small temperature-dew point spread.
b. Typically forms at night or near daybreak; may thicken after sunrise.
C. Upslope Fog:
a. Occurs when moist stable air is cooled as it moves up sloping terrain.
b. Common in the Great Plains with gentle slopes.
2. Rain:
a. Warm rain falling through cool air near the surface can cause fog.
b. Often results in low scud clouds that reduce visibility.
3. Industrial Areas:
a. Abundance of condensation nuclei from pollution enhances fog formation.
b. Thicker fogs are common in areas with high by-products of combustion.

Challenges with Fog:

1. Difficulty in Forecasting Fog Dissipation:

a. Forecasters may not accurately predict when fog will lift.
b. Pilots must be cautious and plan for the fog persisting longer than expected.
2. Impact of Higher Clouds:
a. High clouds can minimize the sun's effect, slowing fog dissipation.
b. Fog may persist beyond forecasted lifting times.
3. Ground Fog Hazards:
a. Shallow fog may allow visibility from above but obscure the touchdown zone.
b. Condition where the lower you descend, the less you can see.
4. Effects of Wind:
a. Light winds help lift radiation fog.
b. Advection and upslope fogs require stronger winds to dissipate.

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Takeoff Considerations:

1. Part 91 Takeoff Minimums:

a. No regulatory takeoff minimums for non-commercial operations.
b. Legal to take off in zero-zero conditions, but not necessarily safe.
2. Safety Practices:
a. Minimum acceptable visibility should be at least the length of the takeoff roll.
b. Have a takeoff alternate with weather at or above landing minimums.
c. This ensures you can land quickly if necessary.

Flying in Below Minimum Conditions:

1. Legal vs. Safe:

a. Pilots may legally attempt approaches in below-minimum weather.
b. Safety should be the priority over legality.
2. Approaching Airports Reporting Below Minimums:
a. Pilots can shoot an approach; if runway is in sight at MDA or DA, landing is legal.
b. Regulations specify flight visibility determined by the pilot.
3. Risks with Non-Precision Approaches:
a. Limited obstacle clearance without visual references.
b. Wise to avoid attempting approaches in below-minimum weather.

Risks Associated with Below Minimum Weather:

1. IFR Approach Accidents:

a. Most accidents occur during approach phases.
b. Pilots intentionally descend below safe altitudes.
2. "Duck Under" Phenomenon:
a. Pilots descend below minimums hoping to see the runway.
b. Often results in controlled flight into terrain.
c. Descending lower in fog reduces visibility further.
3. Multiple Approach Attempts:
a. Repeated approaches increase risk.
b. Pilots may descend lower each time, leading to accidents.
4. Visual Illusions at Night:
a. Lights beneath the aircraft may mislead pilots.
b. Seeing lights straight down does not ensure a safe approach and landing.

Best Practices:

1. Avoid Multiple Approaches:

a. If weather is below minimums, divert to an alternate airport.
b. Consider possible weather changes before attempting another approach.
2. Prioritize Safety Over Legality:
a. Just because an action is legal doesn't mean it's safe.
b. Assess risks carefully before proceeding in marginal conditions.
3. Understand Weather Reports:
a. Pay attention to visibility, ceiling, and conditions like scud or fog.
b. Recognize that rain can create low scud and reduce visibility.

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Remember, flying in below minimum weather requires cautious decision-making. Always prioritize
safety, adhere to established minimums, and avoid unnecessary risks to ensure safe flight
operations.

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10. Air Facts: Talking to Controllers
This section provides insights from an experienced Air Traffic Controller and pilot, Eddie Albert, to
help new pilots better understand how to communicate and work with Air Traffic Controllers
effectively.

Visiting ATC Facilities:

1. Visiting an ATC facility helps pilots understand Air Traffic Control operations.
2. Talking to controllers provides valuable insights into their perspective.

Filing Direct Routes:

1. Filing direct is generally acceptable, but consider the following:

A. In busy airspace with preferred routes:
a. You might receive a long clearance with preferred routing.
b. Check preferred departure routes to avoid surprises.
B. Controllers know their own airspace but may not be aware of distant restrictions:
a. Restricted Areas or Military Operations Areas (MOAs) might be active beyond their
airspace.
b. Plan ahead to anticipate possible route adjustments.
C. Center controllers cover larger areas and may advise on en route restrictions.
D. When approaching busy airports:
a. You may be required to join an arrival route near the destination.

Departure Tips Under Class B Airspace:

1. File for altitudes below 10,000 feet to avoid being assigned lengthy preferred departure routes.
2. Once airborne and climbing:
a. Request higher altitudes, e.g., from 6,000 feet upwards.
b. Controllers can assess traffic and may clear you higher without significant deviations.
c. This is preferable to flying many miles off course just to reach a higher altitude.

Understanding Altitudes and Airspace:

1. Standard altitudes may not always be practical:

a. Short-term deviations are acceptable, especially near departures and arrivals.
b. In areas like Florida, standard east/west rules may not apply due to predominant north/south
traffic.
c. Controllers can coordinate non-standard altitudes when necessary.
2. Important considerations for requesting non-standard altitudes:
a. Safety concerns like avoiding icing or turbulence.
b. Controllers will coordinate with adjacent sectors to accommodate your needs.

Communicating with ATC:

1. Be proactive in sharing information with controllers:

a. They are unaware of issues unless you tell them.
b. Examples include moderate turbulence, emergencies, or equipment problems.
2. Benefits of informing ATC about your situation:
a. They can adjust traffic flow to assist you.
b. May prioritize you in the sequence or provide dedicated assistance.
c. Helps prevent potential incidents.
3. No negative consequences for reporting problems:

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 a. You won't have unnecessary paperwork or reprimands.
b. Controllers aim to help ensure safety.

Remember, effective communication with Air Traffic Control enhances safety and efficiency in flight
operations.

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11. Planning For The Approach
This section emphasizes the importance of meticulous planning for the instrument approach and
landing, which requires the most attention to detail and precise flying, especially when pilots may be
fatigued at the end of an IFR flight.

Preflight Planning:

1. Start approach planning on the ground as part of preflight preparation.

2. Review potential Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs):
a. Examine any notes or restrictions related to the procedure.
b. Identify any crossing altitudes or speed restrictions.
c. Understand that while some restrictions apply to faster jets, important instructions may apply
to all aircraft types.
3. Assess weather information:
a. Check for a Digital ATIS transcript at the destination airport.
b. If unavailable, use current and forecast winds to anticipate the runway and approach.
c. Note that most towered airports default to ILS approaches but RNAV approaches can be
requested.
4. Analyze the approach chart:
A. Look for limitations or differences in the remarks section.
B. Determine if there are penalties for DA (Decision Altitude) or MDA (Minimum Descent Altitude)
due to unavailable local altimeter settings.
C. Identify the available approach lighting systems.
D. Examine the plan view to anticipate how ATC will clear you from your flight plan to the initial
approach fix.
E. Check frequency listings for ATIS or automated weather services.
F. Determine if the airport is within radar coverage:
a. If so, a procedure turn may not be required.
b. If not, understand the indicated procedure turn.
G. Review the profile view:
a. Identify step-down fixes and how to recognize them.
b. Find the distance from the final approach fix to the missed approach point.
c. Plan how to identify the missed approach point using navigation radios or GPS.

Practical Application:

1. Flight planning example to William P Hobby Airport (Houston, Texas) from the Dallas area.
2. Plan the route via the College Station VOR:
a. Use the BLUEBELL THREE arrival, College Station transition.
b. Starts 19 miles from the BLUBL intersection along the 153° radial of the College Station VOR.
c. Note that the crossing at BLUBL at 9,000 feet applies to turbojet aircraft and can be
disregarded if not applicable.
d. Proceed along the route to COWZZ, SNDAY, ending at CHEWI.
e. Expect ATC vectors to the airport at or before the CHEWI intersection.
3. Review weather and NOTAMs:
a. Last METAR reports winds at 20 knots from the northeast.
b. TAF forecasts northeast winds, visibility of 1.5 miles, and a ceiling of 400 feet at arrival time.
c. A NOTAM indicates that approach lights for ILS runway 4 are out of service.
4. Analyze approach options:
a. ILS approaches available for runways 13R, 4, and 31L; Localizer approach for runway 22.
b. Communications frequencies and services are listed in the Airport/Facility Directory.
c. With northeast winds, ILS runway 4 is the most likely approach.

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5. Review the approach plate for ILS runway 4:
A. DME fixes are shown; identifier I-H-U-B means DME frequency is the same as the localizer
frequency (109.9).
B. An approved GPS can substitute for DME if the fix names are in the GPS database.
C. No procedure turn is required (no procedure turn symbol present).
D. The missed approach procedure goes to the RAYCI intersection and hold.
E. The profile view shows two step-down fixes before the glide slope intercept at 1,500 feet.
F. The glide slope angle is a standard 3 degrees.
G. At ESAAY intersection, the glide path is at 1,500 feet MSL.
H. The decision altitude is 244 feet MSL, which is 200 feet above the touchdown zone elevation
of runway 4.
I. Required visibility is 1,800 feet RVR for categories A through E.
J. Due to the approach lights being out of service:
a. Consult the inoperative components table in the TPP.
b. Increase visibility minimums to 4,000 feet RVR.
6. Organize charts and resources:
a. If using a tablet, use the Plates or Binder function to group required charts.
b. Include airport diagrams, SIDs, STARs, and approach charts.
c. Add departure airport approaches in case a return is necessary.

Remember, thorough planning and review of all available information are essential for a safe and
successful instrument approach and landing.

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12. Closer Look: FAA vs. Jeppesen Charts
This section provides an overview of the differences between FAA and Jeppesen charts, highlighting
their features and usage for new student pilots in flight planning and instrument procedures.

Introduction to Chart Types:

1. FAA Charts:
a. Primary charts used during instrument training.
b. Referenced on the instrument rating knowledge test.
2. Jeppesen Charts:
a. Produce VFR and IFR charts globally.
b. Formatted differently but meet FAA standards for terminal procedures.
c. Contain all pertinent flight data.
d. Widely used by airlines and professional flight departments.
e. Available in digital form through mobile apps.

Key Differences Between FAA and Jeppesen Charts:

1. Supplemental Information:
A. FAA Charts:
a. Supplemental data like non-standard alternate minimums, inoperative components tables,
and nonstandard takeoff minimums are found in the Terminal Procedures Supplement.
B. Jeppesen Charts:
a. Include inoperative component penalties directly in the minimums section.
b. Display minimums in both RVR (Runway Visual Range) and statute miles.
2. Approach Procedures:
a. Jeppesen adds rate of descent tables for approaches with a glideslope or glide path (e.g., ILS
or LPV approaches).
b. Helps pilots determine the required descent rate in feet per minute at various groundspeeds.
3. Departure Procedures and Airport Diagrams:
a. Jeppesen presents takeoff minimums and obstacle departure procedures on individual pages
for each airport.
b. Includes detailed taxiway and runway diagrams.
4. Chart Presentation:
a. Jeppesen certain departure (SID) and arrival (STAR) procedure charts are drawn to scale.
b. Provides accurate spatial representation of waypoints and segments.
c. Allows overlay of the airplane's location on the chart during flight.
d. FAA departure and arrival charts do not offer this feature.
5. En Route Charts:
A. Jeppesen IFR en route charts are data-driven and increase in detail as you zoom in.
B. Available in two versions:
A. Low Altitude Charts:
a. Depict Victor airways and RNAV T-routes flown below 18,000 feet.
B. High Altitude Charts:
a. Show Jet Routes and RNAV Q-routes published for flight levels (above 18,000 feet).
6. Airport Depictions:
A. Jeppesen Charts:
a. Airports with instrument approaches are shown in blue.

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 b. The city name is displayed in capital letters above the airport name.
c. Airports without instrument approaches are shown in green.
d. Display only the airport name, city, identifier, and elevation.
B. FAA Charts:
A. Use blue or green to depict airports with instrument approach procedures.
B. Airports without instrument approaches are depicted in brown.
C. Include additional information:
a. Length of the longest runway.
b. AWOS or ATIS frequency.
c. Airport identifier.
d. Class C or D airspace indication.
e. Availability of airport lighting and pilot-controlled lighting.
7. Additional Features:
A. Jeppesen Charts:
a. Zooming in reveals localizer or back course depictions for applicable runways.
B. Jeppesen Airway Manual:
a. A comprehensive aviation directory for each continent.
b. Includes international flight procedures, airport directories, charting change notices, and
more.

Understanding both FAA and Jeppesen charts enhances your flight planning skills and prepares you
for flying domestically and internationally.

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13. The Instrument Flight Test
This section provides an overview of the practical test for obtaining your instrument rating, including
preparation, requirements, and what to expect during the test.

Introduction to the Instrument Flight Test:

1. The practical test is the final step toward earning your instrument rating.
a. Administered by an FAA inspector or a designated examiner.

Items to Bring to Your Appointment:

1. Pilot and medical certificates.

2. Logbook endorsed by your instructor.
3. Written test report.
4. Photo ID.
5. Completed application for an airman certificate or rating.
6. Flight planning equipment:
a. Current charts.
b. Flight computer and plotter.
c. Flight plan forms and flight logs.
d. Current Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).
e. Hood or other view-limiting device.
7. Fee for the designated examiner.

Eligibility Requirements (FAR 61.65):

1. Total flight time requirements:

A. At least 50 hours of cross-country flight time as Pilot-in-Command (PIC).
a. 10 hours must be in an airplane.
B. If training under FAR Part 141:
a. Minimum cross-country flight time requirements may differ.
2. Instrument flight time requirements:
A. 40 hours of actual or simulated instrument time.
a. 15 hours must be with an instructor.
b. 3 hours of instruction within 2 calendar months of the test.
B. Instrument cross-country flight:
a. One IFR cross-country flight of at least 250 nautical miles.
b. Instrument approach at each airport.
c. Total of three different types of approaches.
3. Application process:
a. Many examiners use IACRA (Integrated Airman Certification and/or Rating Application).
b. IACRA replaces paper form 8710, reducing errors and streamlining paperwork.

Aircraft Requirements:

1. Required instruments and equipment:

A. IFR-certified GPS with current database (if applicable).
B. Radios capable of communicating with ATC.
C. Navigation equipment to perform:
a. Two different non-precision approaches.
b. One precision approach (e.g., ILS).

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2. Maintenance records:
a. Present all required maintenance records.
b. Ensure inspections and equipment checks are current.

The Practical Test Structure:

1. Consists of two phases:

a. Ground phase (oral examination).
b. Flight phase.
2. Ground phase includes:
a. Obtaining and analyzing weather information.
b. Presenting and explaining a pre-planned IFR cross-country flight.
c. Discussing aircraft systems and performance.
d. Understanding navigation equipment and flight instruments.
e. Performing an instrument cockpit check.
3. Flight phase expectations:
A. Complying with ATC clearances for departure, en route, holding, and arrival.
B. Handling simulated equipment or instrument failures.
C. Approach procedures:
a. Two non-precision approaches.
b. One precision approach (e.g., ILS or LPV if equipped with WAAS GPS).
c. Perform one non-precision approach without primary flight instruments (attitude and
heading indicators).
d. Include a procedure turn or terminal arrival area procedure on one approach.
D. Use of equipment:
a. If equipped with GPS, expect to perform a GPS approach.
b. If equipped with an autopilot, use it during one non-precision approach and other
appropriate times.
E. Additional maneuvers:
a. Executing a missed approach.
b. Performing a circling approach and landing.
c. Basic instrument maneuvers.
d. Recoveries from unusual attitudes.

Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM) Skills:

1. Examiner will evaluate the following SRM competencies:

a. Aeronautical Decision Making.
b. Risk Management.
c. Task Management.
d. Situational Awareness.
e. Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT) Awareness.
f. Automation Management.
2. These skills should be evident in all tasks performed.

Preparation Tips:

1. Use your resources effectively:

a. If unsure about a question, offer to find the answer using your materials.
2. Understand aircraft systems:
a. Pitot-static system and associated instruments.

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 b. Gyroscopic instruments and their operation.
c. Effects of vacuum pump or electrical failures.
3. Instrument cockpit check:
a. Follow the checklist carefully.
b. Ensure all instruments and equipment are functioning properly.
4. Manage stress and avoid rushing:
a. It's normal to feel apprehensive ("checkitis").
b. If you need more time, request delay vectors from ATC.
5. Review the Practical Test Standards (PTS):
a. Know what to expect during the test.
b. Understand the performance criteria for each task.

Post-Test Advice:

1. Continue learning and staying current:

a. Review training materials regularly.
b. Keep informed about changes in regulations and procedures.
2. Maintain proficiency:
a. Practice instrument flying skills.
b. Seek additional training and experiences.
3. Your commitment to learning ensures you remain a safe and competent instrument pilot.

By thoroughly preparing and understanding the requirements, you will be well-equipped to succeed
on your instrument flight test and continue your journey as a proficient pilot.

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14. Glass Cockpit Checkride
This section covers important considerations for student pilots preparing for a glass cockpit
checkride, including understanding electrical systems, failure modes, and the use of automation.

Glass Cockpit Differences:

1. Understanding that glass cockpit airplanes may not have a vacuum system:
a. Many are all-electric, requiring pilot awareness of electrical systems.
2. Regulatory requirements:
a. The FARs require aircraft to have adequate electrical storage to operate essential equipment
for 30 minutes after a charging system failure.
3. Preparation for the instrument checkride:
a. Know the electrical system and backups specific to your airplane.

Practical Test Standards (PTS) for Glass Cockpits:

1. Non-precision approach using standby instrumentation:

a. Applicant must demonstrate proficiency with standby instruments in case of primary display
failure.
2. Tailoring failures to the aircraft:
a. Failures simulated should reflect realistic scenarios for the specific aircraft.
3. Autopilot usage:
a. Required to use the autopilot, if installed, to assist in managing the airplane on a
non-precision approach.
b. Understand automation management and stay within autopilot limitations.
4. GPS proficiency:
a. Must demonstrate GPS approach proficiency if equipped.
b. Ensure GPS database is current.
5. Importance of system knowledge:
a. Be familiar with all installed equipment, as examiners may focus on different aspects.

Garmin G1000 Specific Considerations:

1. Electrical Systems:
a. Use the checklist to check primary electrical system and standby battery.
b. Understand readings and their implications.
2. Failure Scenarios:
A. In case of charging system failure:
a. The aircraft battery provides power until a certain voltage.
b. Then, it switches to the standby battery and emergency bus for an additional 30 minutes.
B. Know what is operated by the emergency bus.
C. Be prepared to manually shed non-essential loads to maximize battery life.
3. Line Replaceable Units (LRUs):
a. Understand LRUs that drive the G1000 displays.
b. Know how the failure of an LRU affects cockpit indications and functions.
c. Be aware of backups for each type of failure.
4. Reversionary Mode:
a. Practice using the right display in reversionary mode if the left display fails.

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 b. This may be part of the partial panel requirement.
5. Simulating Failures during Training:
A. Examiners may use methods to simulate failures:
a. Using small covers to block parts of the Primary Flight Display (PFD).
b. Dimming the PFD to simulate display loss.
B. Understand limitations of simulations:
a. Cannot shut off the entire G1000 system as it disables integrated NAV/COM.
b. Simulating complete electrical failure may not allow completion of required approaches.

Key Takeaways for the Checkride:

1. Advantages of glass cockpits:

a. Large displays and moving maps enhance situational awareness.
2. Importance of system proficiency:
a. Lack of understanding may lead to unsuccessful checkride outcomes.
3. Preparation Tips:
a. Discuss expectations with the examiner during the oral exam.
b. Practice managing failures and using standby instruments.
c. Become proficient with autopilot and flight management systems.

Remember, thorough knowledge of your glass cockpit system and its management is essential for
both successful checkride performance and safe flying.

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