INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN
IBADAN

PHYSICS
EXTRA CLASS NOTE
SS 2/FIRST TERM
SEPTEMBER 2025

ON
1. DensityandArchimedes
2. Curvilinearmotion

3. EnergyandSociety
4. Molecular Arrangement of Solid’s Molecules

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 DENSITY AND ARCHIMEDE PRINCIPLE
Consider boxes A, B and C above:

Density of objects

• Box A has five spheres.

• Box B is the same size, and has the same volume as box A, but box B has 10
spheres.
• Box C has the same mass as box A, with five spheres, but box C has a larger
volume than boxes A and B.
So, the spheres in box B are more tightly packed than the spheres in box A likewise the
spheres in box A are more tightly packed than the spheres than the spheres in box C.
So, box B is denser than box A and box A is denser than box C.
Definition
Density is defined as a measure of how compact a material is .it indicates how much
space or volume a given mass occupies.
Mathematically
Density
• 3
The S.I unit of density is kg/m
• One of the most common uses of density is in how different materials interact
when mixed together. Wood floats in water because it has a lower density, while an
iron sinks because the metal has a higher density. Helium balloon floats because
the density of helium is lower than the density of air.
Worked Examples
3 3 3
1. The density of 400m of palm oil was 0.9kg/m before frying and 0.6kg/m after
frying, assuming no loss of oil due to spillage, calculate its volume after frying.
Solution
Case 1: Before frying
3 3
Density of the oil = 0.9kg/m , volume of the oil = 400m

mass of the oil = 0.9 x 400 = 360kg

Case 2: After frying

3
The density of the oil = 0.6kg/m , but recall that mass is always constant, therefore the
mass of the oil after frying is also = 360kg
3
600m
3
Therefore the volume of the oil after frying is 600m
3 3 -3 3
2. A liquid of volume 2.00m , density 1.00 x 10 kgm is mixed with 3.00m of another
3 3
liquid of density 8.00 x 10 kgm . Calculate the density of the mixture.

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Solution
st 3 st 3 -3
Case 1: Volume of 1 liquid = 2.00m , density of 1 liquid = 1.00 x 10 kgm
So, since Density =
st 3 3
Mass of 1 Liquid = 2 x 1.0 x 10 = 2 x 10 kg
nd 3 3 -3
Case 2: Volume of 2 liquid = 3.00m , density = 8.00 x 10 kgm
Density =
nd 3 3
Mass of 2 Liquid = 3 x 8 x 10 = 24 x 10 kg
3 3 3
• Total mass = 2 x 10 + 24 x 10 = 26 x 10 kg
• 3
Total volume = 2 + 3 = 5m
3 -3
Density of the mixture = = = 5.2 x 10 kgm
s
You will observe that gases have the smallest density. This is because a given volume
of a gas contains molecules that are far apart and consequently, a relative large portion
of the volume is empty. Unlike molecule of solid and liquid that are relatively packed;
which make them have larger masses and smaller volumes.

Upthrust or Buoyant Force

Why is it easy for a man to pull up the bucket of water with one hand when the bucket is
completely in the water, but immediately the bucket is out of the water, two hands are
needed to draw the bucket of the water?
It is easy for a man to pull up the bucket of water with one hand when the bucket is in
the water because there is a force in a fluid called Upthrust or buoyant force; this force
acts on objects immersed either partially or completely in a fluid. This force acts upward.
Upthrust, U is thus defined as the upward force exerted by the fluid (liquid or gas) on
objects immersed partially or completely in it.
Because of this force, the object has an apparent loss in its weight. Thus, if the true
weight of an object in air is W1 , and the apparent weight in liquid is W2 , the Upthrust U is
given as:
U = W1 – W2

Statement of Archimedes’ principle

Archimedes’ principle states that when a body is totally or partially immersed in a fluid
(liquid or gas), it experiences an upthrust which is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced.

Another Formula for Upthrust or Buoyant Force

From Archimedes' principle;
Upthrust = weight of the liquid displaced
But Weight, W =
Weight of liquid displaced = mass of liquid displaced
Also, mass = density x volume.
Weight of liquid displaced = density of liquid displaced volume of liquid displaced
Upthrust of a liquid = V

Worked Example

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3. A body completely immersed in water has a weight of 40N when the upthrust of water
2
on the body is 15N. Calculate the mass of the body (g = 10m/s )
Solution
Upthrust =15N, apparent weight of the body in water W2 = 40N , mass of the body =?
U = W1 – W2
15 = W1 – 40
W1 = 15 + 40 = 55N
Since W = mg
m = = = 5.5kg
5 3 3 -3
4. A block of volume 3 x 10 m and density 2.5 x 10 kgm is suspended from a spring
-3
balance with 2/3 of its volume immersed in a liquid of density 900kgm . Determine the
-2
reading of the spring balance. [g=10ms ]
Solution
5 3 3 -3 5 5 3
= 3 10 m , = 2.5 10 kgm , submerged inside in liquid = 3 x 10 = 2 10 m , =
-3
900kgm .
5 3 8
Mass of the block = = 3 10 2.5 10 = 7.5 10 kg
Weight in block air (W1 ) = mg
8 9
W1 = 7.5 x 10 x 10 = 7.5 x 10 N
But U =
5 9
U = 900 3 10 10 = 1.810 N
(Note: = volume of the object submerged inside the liquid)
Hence, U = W1 W2
9 9
1.8 x 10 = 7.5 x 10 W2
9 9 9
W2 = 7.5 x 10 1.8 x 10 = 5.7 x 10 N
Principle of Floatation
How can a steel ship float on water while a small stone sink?
The answer to this question is provided by a principle known as Principle of floatation.
Principle of Floatation (Object’s weight vs Upthrust)
It should be noted that Buoyant force depends on the;
• Density of the liquid
• Acceleration due to gravity and
• Volume of the object which is also equal to the volume of the liquid displaced.
That is, U = Vg
So, the ship usually has long and wide base to increase the amount of water
displacement for a greater amount of buoyant force so the ship won’t sink.
Statement of Principle of Floatation
The law of floatation thus states that when a body floats on a fluid, the weight of the
fluid displaced is equal to the weight of the floating body.
That is, when:
• Object’s weight = Upthrus…the body floats
But when:
• Object’s weight > Upthrust…the body sinks
• Object’s weight < Upthrust…the body stays on the surface of the liquid

Worked Examples

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5. A solid of mass 1.00kg suspended by a string, is completely immersed in water. If the
tension on the string when it is in water is 5.0N, calculate:
(i) The upthrust on the solid
(ii) The volume of the solid, and
(iii) The density of solid
3 -3
(g = 9.78 m/s, of water = 10 kg m )

Solution
m = 1.00kg, g = 9.78m/s
Real Weight of solid = 1.00 x 9.78 = 9.78N (weight in air, W1 )
• Apparent weight of solid = 5.0N (i.e. weight in water, W2 ),
3 -3
• Density of water, = 10 kgm
(i). U = W1 – W2
U = 9.78 – 5.00 = 4.78N
(ii). Upthrust = density of liquid volume of solid g
3
4.78 = 10 volume of solid 9.78
-4 3
volume of solid = = 4.9 10 m
(iii)
3 3
= 2.0 x 10 kg/m
Relative Density
Relative density is a measure of density of a body relative to the density of a reference
substance. Relative density is also called Specific Gravity and is expressed by the
formula:

The reference material could be anything, but the most common reference substance is
3
pure water of density 1000kg/m .
For the calculation purpose, relative density can be expressed in different forms as
follows

Worked Example
6. Calculate the density of a sea water whose relative density is 1.024. (density of water
3
is 1000kg/m )
Solution
3
Relative density of sea water = 1.024, density of the water = 1000kg/m
density of sea water =?
R.D
34
Density of sea water = 1.024 x 1000 = 1024kg/m

7. A can weighs 3g when empty, 53g when filled with water and 66g when filled with
glycerine. Find the relative density of glycerine
Solution
mass of can = 3g
mass of glycerine = 66 – 3 = 63g,

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And mass of equal volume of water = 53 – 3 = 50g
Specific gravity of glycerine =?
R
R = 1.26

EXERCISES
3 -3
1. An object of volume 400 cm and density 2.5 g cm is suspended from a spring
balance with half its volume immersed in water. Determine the reading on the spring
-3
balance. (Density of water = 1 g cm ).
2.

A small metal ball of mass 100 g is gently dropped into a measuring cylinder containing
some water. The water level rises as illustrated by the diagram above. Calculate the
density of the material of the ball.
-3
3. 200g of a substance of density 20 gcm is wholly immersed in a liquid of density 2
-3
gcm . Calculate the mass of the liquid displaced.
3 3 -3 3
4. A liquid of volume 2.00m , density 1.00 x 10 kgm is mixed with 3.00m of another
3
liquid of density 8.00 x 103kgm . Calculate the density of the mixture
5. An object weighs 40g in air and 30g when wholly immersed in water. If it weighs 35g
in a liquid X, calculate the relative density of X.
6. A piece of stone weighs 0.80N in air, 0.60N when completely immersed in water and
0.66N when completely immersed in a liquid X. Calculate the relative density of X.
3 -3
7. A body of volume 0.046m is immersed in a liquid of density 980kgm with ¾ of its
-2
volume submerged. Calculate the upthrust on the body [g = 10ms ]

CURVILINEAR MOTION

Curvilinear motion is a movement of an object along the circumference of a circle or

rotation along a circular path. Examples are:
• an athlete running along a curved track,
• a car tuning round a roundabout,
• an airplane changing direction,
• the orbit of the earth, as well as those other planets of the solar system about
the sun,
• the motion of electrons around an atomic nucleus.
Relationship between Angular and Linear Speed of a Uniform Cicular Motion
Consider a body at point A, if it moves to point B after time, t;
• Then AB = linear displacement = arc length, S and
• = angular displacement
length, S of the arc is given as:
o
But recall that 360 = 2 radians

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 =
= ------------------------------------ 1
S.I unit of is radians
Angular speed/velocity, =
= ---------------------------------------- 2
S.I unit of is radian/s
If the body moves round a circle once, it completes a revolution. So, the angular
distance covered with time (period T) is 2π i.e. θ = 2π.
Hence, angular speed/velocity, is given as:
● = ----------------------------------- 3
Where T is the period.
Period is the time taken a body to complete one revolution.
Frequency is the number of revolutions completed in one second.
------------------------------------------ 4
= 2 ---------------------------------------- 5
Linear speed/velocity, v =
------------------------------------------- 6
Now by substituting equation 1 into equation 2, we have;
------------------------------------------ 7
From equation 6; S =
Therefore, substitute S = into equation 7

r ------------------------- 8
• The unit of is radian/s. is measured in radians, is measured in m/s

Worked Example
1. A body moves along a circular path of radius 5m with a uniform angular speed of
0.6rad/s. Calculate
i. the speed of the body round the circle
ii. the velocity of the body round the circle
iii. the linear speed with which the body will move off the circle if the centripetal force is
cut.
Solution
what we know: r = 5m, ω = 0.6rad/s
what we want to know: the constant speed, the changing velocity and the linear speed/
velocity
i. v = rω = 5 x 0.6 = 3m/s
ii. v = rω = 5 x 0.6 = 3m/s
iii. v = rω = 5 x 0.6 = 3m/s
2. If a wheel 1.2m in diameter rotates at 1rev/s, calculate the velocity of the wheel. (π =
3.14)
Solution
what we know: diameter = 1.2m
= 0.6m, ω = 1rev/s.
Convert ω from rev/s to rad/s as follow:

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 o
1rev = 360 = 2πrad; and time for 1rev = 1s
ω = = = 6.28rad/s
what we want to know: v =?
v = rω = 0.6 x 6.28 = 3.8m/s

Centripetal Acceleration of Uniform Circular Motion

If a man is whirling a ball round his head on a piece of string, to describe its motion,
firstly we will say that; It is travelling in a circle and at a particular time, the ball is
moving at a velocity that is tangent to that circle. As the ball continues to turn around,
we will see that the velocity also changes because it is a vector quantity.
But recall that ω = i.e. = t
or or

Centripetal and Centrifugal Force of Uniform Circular Motion

Centripetal force is defined as, “The actual force acting on a body in curvilinear motion
that is directed toward the center of curvature or axis of rotation,” while centrifugal force
is defined as, “The apparent force, equal and opposite to the rotation, caused by the
inertia of the body”.
● Note that while centripetal force is an actual force, centrifugal force is defined
as an apparent force.
● For example, when twirling a mass on a string, the string exerts an inward
centripetal force on the mass, while mass appears to exert an outward force on the
string.
Mathematical Expression of Centripetal Force
Or Or
3. Calculate the centripetal force required to cause a 20kg of an object to rotate round a
circular path of radius 2m at a speed of 12m/s
Solution
what we know: m = 20kg, r = 2m, v = 12m/s
what we want to know: F =?
= 1440N
4. A 6kg mass tied to a string 5m long is spun round in a circle. If the tension on the
string is 40N, find the angular velocity
what we know: m = 6kg, r =5m, F = 40N
what we want to know: =?
2
F=mr
2
40 = 6 x x 5
2
=
ω = = 1.08rad/secs

ENERGY AND SOCIETY

Greenhouse Effect
We have learnt that energy can be transformed from one form to another, and during

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this conversion, all the energy that we put into a device comes out. However, all the
energy that we put in may not come out in the desired form. Basically what greenhouse
effect is, is the sun, which emits mostly long wave radiation and shortwave radiation, all
this radiation comes in in the morning or during daytime without any problem. The
atmosphere, which has various kinds of gases like oxygen, nitrogen, little bit of carbon
dioxide, etc, these radiations basically pass through. And the solar radiation, part of it
actually gets reflected back out into the space from these clouds. Whatever reaches the
Earth, here down below, part of it heats up the atmosphere or the Earth's surface, some
of it is used for growing plants, some of it evaporates waters and runs the hydrological
cycle. And during nighttime, all this energy that has come in during daytime generally
will go back into the space as longwave radiation, which is infrared radiation. So it
comes in in shortwave and longwave, but all of it tries to go back or will go back in long
wave radiation. Now, the gases, like CO2 , in the atmosphere generally have the unique
capability to trap this infrared radiation that is going out. And these gases absorb the
infrared radiation, keeping a part of the radiation that would've otherwise gone out
within the atmosphere. So this is called greenhouse effect, and due to this effect,
o
because of these gases, the atmosphere right now is at an average temperature of 59 F.
Without this effect, for example if there was no CO2 in the atmosphere, no greenhouse
gases, it's totally of oxygen and nitrogen, all the energy that would come in in the
o
daytime if it had gone out in the nighttime, the Earth would be freezing at 0 F. So at this
temperature, nothing can grow on this planet, and the planet would be uninhabitable. So
this greenhouse effect is what is turning this planet into a habitable planet by keeping
o
the average temperature at about 59 F. This temperature is the temperature that we
normally see averaged over entire year at all places, including North Pole, South Pole,
equator, day, night, various seasons, etc. So greenhouse effect is what is actually
making this planet habitable by warming up little bit. Unfortunately, if we emit more and
more greenhouse gases (CO2 ) into the atmosphere like what we have been doing, more
o
and more thermal energy will be trapped inside the atmosphere, and this 59 F
temperature is likely to increase. And that's what we call global warming, or climate
change, or increase in this temperature is detrimental. So the question is whether we
should blame greenhouse effect for this or global warming as a bad phenomenon.

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Greenhouse Gases
A greenhouse gas (sometimes abbreviated GHG) is a gas that absorbs and emits
radiant energy within the thermal infrared range. Greenhouse gases cause the
greenhouse effect. Examples are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide
and ozone.
The concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has been changing over the
past 150 years. Since pre-industrial times atmospheric concentrations of the gases have
increased.
Scientists have confirmed that this is primarily due to human activities, which include
burning coal, oil, and gas, and cutting down forests.

Global Warming
The sun is the main source of energy and, as we have discussed earlier, it is the net
balance between the incoming solar energy and the outgoing energy that causes the
temperature changes.
In definition, Global warming is the increase in the earth’s average surface temperature
o
beyond 59 F.
The following must be noted:
(I) What is known for certain? Human activities change the Earth's Atmosphere.
(II) What is likely? Greenhouse gases contribute to global warming. Several factors
impact temperature (clouds, fine particles, oceans). Global Warming affects health,
water resources, polar regions, coastal zones and forests.
(III) What is uncertain? The long term effects of global warming, especially for smaller
areas.

Introduction to Ozone
Ozone (O3 ) is a triatomic oxygen molecule gas that occurs both in the Earth’s upper
atmosphere and at ground level. Ozone can be good or bad, depending on where it is
found: It is a bluish gas that is harmful to breathe. Therefore, it is bad at the ground
level.
Good ozone occurs naturally in the Earth's Stratosphere (upper atmosphere) 10 to 30
miles above the Earth's surface-where it shields us from the sun's harmful ultraviolet
rays called UVB band. 90% of the Earth's ozone is in the stratosphere and is referred to
as Ozone Layer.

Bad ozone occurs in the Earth's lower atmosphere, near ground level, when pollutants
emitted by cars, power plants, industrial boilers, chemical plants, and other sources
react chemically in the presence of sunlight. Ozone pollution is a concern during the
summer months when the weather conditions needed to form ground level ozone (lots
of sun and hot temperatures) naturally occur. Effects of Ozone Depletion

Effects of ozone depletion can result in

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(I) increased cases of skin cancer (II) skin damage
(III) cataracts and other eye damage (IV) immune suppression.

Energy Diversification
Energy diversification means using different energy sources, suppliers and
transportation routes to reduce dependence on a single resource or provider. A country
that diversifies its energy mix insulates itself from energy disruptions and strengthens
its energy security.
Energy Crisis
An energy crisis is any great blockage in supply of energy resources to an economy. It
often refers to a decrease in the supply of electricity as compared to its demand.
Causes are:
(i) Tax hikes (ii) Industrial Strikes action
(iii) Military coup (iv) Political events
(v) Severe hot summers or cold winters.

Molecular Arrangement of Solid’s Molecules

Solids have definite shape and volume because the average distance between the
molecules or atoms remain constant and do not change with time. The arrangement of
molecules inside a solid differs from one to another. This results in two types of solids:
● Crystalline solids
● Amorphous solids

Crystalline Solids
These are the most common type of solids. Their characteristics are what we associate
solids with. They are firm, hold a definite and fixed shape, are rigid and incompressible.
They generally have geometric shapes and flat faces. And examples include diamonds,
metals, salts etc.

Amorphous solids
Amorphous solids are rigid structures, but they lack a well-defined shape. They do not
have a geometric shape. So they are non-crystalline. This is why they do not have edges
like crystals do. The most common example of an amorphous solid is Glass. Gels,
plastics, various polymers, wax, thin films are also good examples of amorphous solids.
Amorphous solids break into uneven pieces with irregular edges. And they do not have
any distinct arrangement or shape of molecules. So they cannot be identified by their
structure as crystals.
Differences between crystalline and amorphous solids
Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids
All the bonds have All the bonds are not
the same bond equally strong.
strength.

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They have a precise These solids do not
melting point. have a precise
melting point.
They exist like grains They exist in
powered form
They are soluble in They are insoluble in
water water
They are either They are always in
hydrated (contain anhydrous form
water of
crystallization) or
anhydrous (dry)
Examples of Examples of
crystalline solids are amorphous solids
quartz, calcite, rock are chalk, rubbers,
salt, sugar, mica, glass, plastic,
alum and cement and paraffin
diamonds.

Unit Cell and Crystal Lattice

Crystal Lattice
Crystalline solid is made up of small crystals and the pattern of crystal is known as
Crystal lattice. That is, the regular three dimensional arrangement of points in space is
called Crystal lattice.

Unit Cell
The smallest repeating pattern in a crystal structure is called Unit Cell. The unit cell in
three dimensional lattice is represented by length a, b and c. and the angles , and .

The 7 Crystal System

The structure of all crystals can be classified according to symmetry of the unit cells.
There are in total 7 groups, collectively called Crystal Systems:
1. Cubic 2. Tetragonal 3. Orthorhombic 4. Monoclinic,

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5. Triclinic 6. Trigonal 7. Hexagonal.
The symmetry of each group is described by the relationship between the lattice sides a,
b and c and angles , and

Cubic and Hexagonal Crystal Systems

The majority of common metals have either a
● A cubic Crystal structure or
● A Hexagonal Crystal structure
Cubic Crystal Systems
A Cubic Crystal System is of three forms:
● Simple cubic crystal (SC)
● Body centre cubic crystal (BCC)
● Face centre cubic crystal (FCC)

Simple Cubic Crystal (SC): In this type of unit cell atoms are present only at the corners
of the unit cell. Examples are: Calcium, Caesium

Body Centre Cubic Crystal (BCC): In this type of unit cell atoms are present only at the
corners and at the centre of the unit cell. BCC metals are less ductile and malleable but
stronger. Examples are: Chromium, alpha Iron, Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Barium,
Niobium, Vanadium, Tungsten,

Face Centre Cubic Crystal (FCC): In this type of unit cell atoms are present only at the
corners and at the centre of the each faces of the unit cell. FCC metals are usually soft,
malleable and ductile which means they can be bent and shaped easily without
breaking. Examples are: Sodium, Potassium, Aluminium, Copper, Gold, Lead, Nickel,
Silver, Platinum, gamma Iron, Iridium.

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 Hexagonal Crystal Structure (HCP)
Of four axes, three are of equal length, are separated by equal angles, and lie in the
same plane. The fourth axis is perpendicular to the plane of the other three axes.
Hexagonal cells have lattice points in each of the two six-sided faces. HCP metals are
usually brittle. Examples are: Beryllium, Magnetism, Zinc, Cadmium, Cobalt, Titanium,
Zirconium

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