OSCILLATORS Electronic Devices — Millman & Halkias

OSCILLATORS
Introduction • Barkhausen Criterion • RC Phase Shift Oscillator • Wien Bridge
Oscillator
With complete derivations — Based on Millman & Halkias, Integrated Electronics

1. Introduction to Sinusoidal Oscillators

A sinusoidal oscillator is a circuit that generates a continuous, periodic sinusoidal waveform at a specific
frequency without any external input signal. It converts DC power from the supply into AC oscillatory output. The
basic oscillator model consists of an amplifier with a frequency-selective feedback network connected in a closed
loop.

Block Diagram

x_in Amplifier x_o

+ Gain = A

Feedback
Factor = β
x_f = β x_o x_o fed back

Figure 1: Closed-loop oscillator model — amplifier A with feedback network β

Key Insight

From the feedback formula: Af = A / (1 + βA). When −βA = 1, the denominator becomes zero and Af → ∞. This
means the circuit can produce an output with zero external input — i.e., it oscillates.

Loop gain: The signal travels from the input, through the amplifier (gain A), through the feedback network (β),
and back to the input. The loop gain = βA (or −βA when an inverter is included).

Component Role Examples

Provides gain to overcome losses; sustains

Amplifier (A) oscillations FET, BJT, Op-Amp

Returns part of output back to input; contains reactive RC ladder, Wien bridge, LC
Feedback Network (β) elements tank

Frequency Selector Determines oscillation frequency via phase condition R, C, L values

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2. The Barkhausen Criterion

The Barkhausen criterion states the necessary and sufficient conditions for a feedback amplifier to sustain
sinusoidal oscillations. Both conditions must be satisfied simultaneously at the frequency of oscillation f0.

Loop gain mag

● Condition 1: Magnitude ● Condition 2: Phase

Derivation of the Criterion

Step 1: Consider the closed-loop amplifier (Fig. 1). The output is x_o = A · x_e,

where x_e = x_in + x_f is the error (input) signal.

Step 2: The feedback signal is x_f = β · x_o.

For an oscillator (inverting summer): x_f = −x_in (the mixing circuit inverts).

Step 3: Substituting: x_f = β · A · x_e and x_e = x_in − x_f

⇒ x_o = A · x_e and A_f = A / (1 + βA).

Step 4: For self-sustaining oscillation, we need x_f = x_in exactly,

i.e., the feedback signal replaces the external input.

This requires: −βA = 1 ⇒ |βA| = 1 and ∠(−βA) = 0°.

Step 5: The frequency at which ∠(βA) = 0° is the oscillation frequency f■.

Only sinusoids preserve their waveform through a linear reactive network,

confirming purely sinusoidal oscillation under linear operation.

Practical Considerations
Exactly |βA| = 1 is unrealizable in practice because component values drift with temperature, aging, and voltage.
Therefore:

• If |βA| < 1: oscillations die out (insufficient gain to sustain them).

• If |βA| > 1: amplitude grows until transistor nonlinearity limits it.
• In every practical oscillator, |βA| is set ~5% above unity. Nonlinearity then acts as an automatic gain control to
stabilize the amplitude.
• A third principle: In every practical oscillator the loop gain is slightly larger than unity and the amplitude of the
oscillations is limited by the onset of nonlinearity.

3. RC Phase Shift Oscillator

The RC Phase Shift Oscillator is a classic audio-frequency oscillator using an amplifier followed by three
cascaded RC sections. Each RC section introduces a frequency-dependent phase shift. At one particular
frequency, the total phase through all three sections is exactly 180°, completing the 360° needed for oscillation (the
amplifier provides the other 180°).

Circuit Diagram (FET version)

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C C C
V_o (to gate)

R R R

60° 60° 60°

FET Amplifier
|A| ≥ 29, ∠180°

Figure 2: FET RC Phase-Shift Oscillator. Shaded region shows the three-section RC feedback network.

Derivation: FET Phase-Shift Oscillator

Assuming the RC feedback network does not load the amplifier (valid for FET with high input impedance):

The equivalent circuit has three mesh loops. Writing KVL for each mesh:

Mesh 1: V_o = I_1(R − j/ωC) − I_2 · R

Mesh 2: 0 = −I_1 · R + I_2(2R − j/ωC) − I_3 · R

Mesh 3: 0 = −I_2 · R + I_3(2R − j/ωC)

Let α = 1/(ωRC). Solving the mesh equations yields the transfer function:

β = V'_f / V_o = 1 / [(1 − 5α²) − j(6α − α³)]

For the phase of β to be exactly 180°, the imaginary part of the denominator must be zero:

6α − α³ = 0 ⇒ α² = 6 ⇒ (1/ωRC)² = 6

⇒ ω² = 1/(6R²C²) ⇒ ω_0 = 1/(RC√6)

⇒ f_0 = ω_0/2π = 1 / (2π√6 · RC)

At this frequency, the real part of the denominator: 1 − 5α² = 1 − 30 = −29

So β = 1/(−29) = −1/29. (The negative sign means 180° phase.)

For Barkhausen: |βA| ≥ 1 ⇒ |A| ≥ 29.

An FET amplifier with µ < 29 CANNOT oscillate in this configuration.

Key Formula — FET RC Phase Shift Oscillator

f■ = 1 / (2π√6 · RC)
Minimum amplifier gain required: |A| ≥ 29

Transistor (BJT) Phase-Shift Oscillator

For a BJT, the low input impedance h■■ loads the output resistor R of the feedback network. To account for this, a
modified analysis uses voltage-shunt feedback:

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The loop is broken at the base (B1−B2). An input test current I_b is assumed.

KVL is written for three meshes (with R■ = R − R_i to make sections identical).

The loop current gain = I_z/I_b must satisfy ∠(I_z/I_b) = 0° for oscillation.

Solving the phase condition gives:

f_0 = 1 / (2πRC √(6 + 4k)) where k = R_c / R

The gain condition |I_z/I_b| ≥ 1 gives:

h_fe ≥ 4k + 23 + 29/k

Minimizing over k: d/dk(4k + 29/k) = 0 ⇒ k = √(29/4) ≈ 2.69 ≈ 2.7

At k = 2.7 (optimum): h_fe(min) = 4(2.7) + 23 + 29/2.7 ≈ 44.5

A transistor with h_fe < 44.5 cannot oscillate in this circuit.

Key Formulas — BJT Phase Shift Oscillator

f■ = 1 / (2πRC√(6+4k)) | h_fe ≥ 4k + 23 + 29/k

k = R_c/R. Optimum: k = 2.7, giving minimum h_fe = 44.5

Variable-Frequency Operation
The RC phase-shift oscillator is suited to the audio frequency range (a few Hz to several hundred kHz). For
variable-frequency operation:

• All three capacitors C are varied simultaneously (ganged variable capacitors).

• This keeps the input impedance of the phase-shifting network constant, so |β| and |A| remain constant,
maintaining stable amplitude.
• The oscillator is operated in Class A to minimise distortion.

4. Wien Bridge Oscillator

The Wien Bridge Oscillator uses a balanced Wheatstone-type bridge as the frequency-selective feedback
network, with an operational amplifier as the active element. It is widely used for low-distortion audio sine-wave
generation.

Circuit Diagram

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OSCILLATORS Electronic Devices — Millman & Halkias

C R
V'

C
R

Op-Amp V_o
-

R■

f■ = 1 / (2πRC) | A■ ≥ 3 (R■ = 2R■) R■ = R■/2

Figure 3: Wien Bridge Oscillator. Z■ (series RC) and Z■ (parallel RC) form the frequency-selective arms. R■ and R■ set the gain.

Derivation: Oscillation Frequency

The bridge has four arms:

Z■ = R + 1/jωC (series RC, top-left arm)

Z■ = R ■ (1/jωC) = R/(1 + jωRC) (parallel RC, bottom-left arm)

R■ and R■ form the other two arms (right side, resistive).

The loop is broken at point P. External voltage V' is applied across terminals 3–4.

Auxiliary voltages V■ and V■ are defined: V■ = V■ = V' (at the node).

The feedback factor is:

β = V■/V' − R■/(R■ + R■)

where V■/V' = Z■/(Z■ + Z■)

Compute Z■ + Z■:

Z■ + Z■ = R + 1/jωC + R/(1+jωRC)

= [R(1+jωRC) + 1/jωC + R] / (1+jωRC)

The ratio Z■/(Z■+Z■) is purely real (zero phase) when:

Im[Z■/(Z■+Z■)] = 0

This occurs when ωRC = 1 ⇒ ω■ = 1/RC ⇒ f■ = 1/(2πRC)

At ω = ω■: Z■ = (1−j)R and Z■ = (1−j)R/2 (equal phase angles)

V■/V' = Z■/(Z■+Z■) = [(1−j)R/2] / [(1−j)R + (1−j)R/2]

= (1/2) / (3/2) = 1/3

Derivation: Gain Condition

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OSCILLATORS Electronic Devices — Millman & Halkias

For the bridge feedback network (with S = 1 + R■/R■ ≥ 3):

β = V■/V' − R■/(R■+R■) = 1/3 − 1/S (at ω = ω■)

= (S−3)/(3S)

Loop gain: −βA_v = 1 (Barkhausen condition)

Since A_v is positive (non-inverting Op-Amp), we need −β to be positive,

i.e., S > 3 ⇒ R■/R■ > 2 ⇒ R■ > 2R■.

At the null condition S = 3 (bridge balance): R■ = 2R■.

Then β = (3−3)/(3×3) = 0 (balanced bridge, zero feedback).

For oscillation, S is set slightly above 3 so β ≠ 0:

−βA_v = 1 ⇒ A_v = S (e.g. S = 3.1 gives A_v = 3.1)

This means R■/R■ = S − 1 ≈ 2 (nominally R■ = 2R■).

At any frequency other than f■, V■ is not in phase with V', so the

Barkhausen phase condition fails ⇒ oscillation only at f■.

Key Formulas — Wien Bridge Oscillator

f■ = 1 / (2πRC) | A_v ≥ 3 | R■ = 2R■

β = 1/3 at f■. Gain condition: A_v = 1 + R■/R■ ≥ 3

Amplitude Stabilization
A critical practical problem: if A_v drifts above 3, amplitude grows; if it falls below 3, oscillations die. The Wien
Bridge oscillator solves this with a self-correcting mechanism using a sensistor or thermistor.

Sensistor (Positive Temperature Coefficient in R■):

1. Amplitude increases → RMS current through sensistor increases → temperature rises → R■ increases

2. β = 1/3 − R■/(R■+R■) → β decreases → loop gain βA_v decreases back toward unity.

3. Conversely, if amplitude drops, R■ falls → β rises → loop gain increases.

Thermistor (Negative Temperature Coefficient, placed in R■):

Similar self-regulation but in the opposite direction. As amplitude grows, R■ falls, reducing A_v = 1 + R■/R■
back toward 3.

Key: Thermal lag of the sensistor/thermistor means it responds only to the RMS average over many cycles, not
within a single cycle — so it acts as a perfectly linear resistor at any fixed amplitude. This makes the
stabilization smooth and distortion-free.

Frequency Tuning
• Continuous tuning: both capacitors C varied simultaneously (ganged air capacitors).
• Range switching: both resistors R switched to new values simultaneously.
• This keeps the gain condition A_v = 3 unchanged while shifting f■ = 1/(2πRC).

5. Comparison: RC Phase Shift vs Wien Bridge

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Parameter RC Phase Shift Wien Bridge

Oscillation Frequency f■ = 1/(2π√6·RC) f■ = 1/(2πRC)

Active Element FET or BJT (Class A) Op-Amp (non-inverting)

Gain Requirement |A| ≥ 29 (FET) h_fe ≥ 44.5 (BJT) A_v ≥ 3 (R■ = 2R■)

Phase — Amplifier 180° (inverting) 0° (non-inverting)

Phase — Network 180° (three RC sections) 0° at f■ (bridge balanced)

Frequency Range Few Hz to ~hundreds kHz (audio) Audio to low RF

Frequency Tuning All three C varied simultaneously Two ganged C; switch two R for range

Amplitude Stabilization Inherent nonlinearity (Class A bias) Sensistor or thermistor in bridge

Distortion Low (Class A operation) Very low (bridge stabilization)

Complexity Simple circuit Requires Op-Amp and bridge elements

6. Formula Summary

Barkhausen Criterion RC Phase Shift (FET) RC Phase Shift (BJT) Wien Bridge

−βA = 1 f■ = 1/(2πRC√(6+4k))
f■ = 1/(2π√6·RC) f■ = 1/(2πRC)

|βA| = 1 and ∠(−βA) = h_fe ≥ 4k+23+29/k Min

|A| ≥ 29 A_v ≥ 3, R■ = 2R■
0° h_fe=44.5 (k=2.7)

7. Quick Revision Notes

Why only sinusoids?

In a linear reactive network, only sinusoids preserve their waveshape as they travel around the loop. Any other
waveform distorts.

Why does |βA| = 1 exactly never work?

Component drift with temperature/aging makes it impossible to maintain exactly unity gain. Always design with |βA|
slightly > 1.

What limits oscillation amplitude?

Transistor nonlinearity (clipping, saturation). In Wien Bridge, sensistor/thermistor provides soft amplitude limiting
before hard clipping.

Why is the RC oscillator phase 180° + 180° = 360°?

The FET inverting amplifier gives 180°, and the three-section RC ladder is designed to give exactly 180° at f■.
Total = 360° = 0°.

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Why does Wien Bridge need A_v ≥ 3?

At f■, the bridge gives β = 1/3. Barkhausen requires |βA| = 1, so A_v = 1/β = 3 exactly (set slightly above 3 in
practice).

Why gang both capacitors in Wien Bridge?

f■ = 1/(2πRC) depends on both R and C. Varying only one changes f■ but also unbalances the bridge phase, so
both C must track together.

Minimum h_fe for BJT phase-shift oscillator?

h_fe ≥ 44.5 (at optimum k = R_c/R = 2.7). This accounts for BJT loading effect on the feedback network.

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