🎓 Discourse Analysis — Complete Exam

Guide

WEEK 1: Introduction to Discourse

What is Discourse?

Simple Definition: Discourse is language in use — any stretch of spoken or written language
that is longer than a single sentence and occurs in a real context.

From Schiffrin (pg. 1-3):

Discourse analysis is "the analysis of language in use" — it cannot be restricted to describing

linguistic forms independent of the purposes they serve.

From Brown & Yule (Ch. 1):

"The analysis of discourse is, necessarily, the analysis of language in use. As such, it cannot be
restricted to the description of linguistic forms independent of the purposes or functions which
these forms are designed to serve in human affairs."

Easy Way to Remember:

 Grammar studies sentences in isolation

 Discourse analysis 8studies language in context, in use, for a purpose

Key Terms in Discourse

Term Definition Example

Any passage, spoken or written, that forms a A conversation, a newspaper article,
Text
unified whole a tweet
A courtroom, a classroom, a dinner
Context The situation in which language is used
table
Utterance A unit of spoken language "Pass the salt."
Sentence A grammatical unit Subject + Verb + Object
Discourse Language in use, beyond the sentence level A full conversation, a speech
The linguistic environment around a
Co-text Words before and after a pronoun
word/sentence
WEEK 2: Forms and Functions of Discourse
Two Main Functions of Language (Brown & Yule, Ch. 1)

1. Transactional Function

 Language used to convey information/content

 The message matters more than the relationship
 Example: A doctor telling a nurse how to give medicine
 Example: Weather forecast, news report, instruction manual

2. Interactional Function

 Language used to establish and maintain social relationships

 The relationship matters more than the information
 Example: Small talk ("Nice weather today!")
 Example: Greetings, compliments, chatting

Exam Tip: Brown & Yule say: "A great deal of ordinary everyday conversation appears to
consist of one individual commenting on something which is present to both him and his
listener." This is interactional language.

Discourse Markers

Definition: Words or phrases that organize discourse — they signal relationships between parts
of a conversation or text.

From Schiffrin: Discourse markers are words like oh, well, and, but, or, so, because, now, then,
I mean, y'know — they help organize conversational interaction.

Examples with Functions:

Marker Function Example

well Response marker, hesitation "Well, I think..."
oh Information management "Oh, I didn't know that!"
but Contrast "I wanted to go, but it rained."
so Result/consequence "It rained, so we stayed home."
because Cause "We stayed home because it rained."
now Topic shift "Now, let me explain..."
I mean Clarification "I mean, it was really difficult."
y'know Seeking agreement "It was hard, y'know?"
Spoken vs. Written Language (Brown & Yule)

Spoken Language Written Language

Uses and, but, then to connect Uses complex connectors (however, moreover, consequently)
Incomplete sentences Complete, structured sentences
More interactive markers More information-dense
Planning happens live Can be revised
Fillers: well, um, er No fillers

WEEK 3: Discourse Analysis, Text and Texture

What is a Text?

From Halliday & Hasan (in Document 5):

"The word text is used in linguistics to refer to any passage, spoken or written, of whatever
length, that does form a unified whole."

From Beaugrande & Dressler (Document 5):

"A text is the physical manifestation (written or oral) of a message sent by an issuer to one or
more recipients so that it can be subjected to interpretation and then understood."

Texture

Definition: What makes a text a TEXT — not just a random collection of sentences. Texture
comes from cohesion + coherence.

Simple Example:

 "The cat sat. It was hungry." ✅ = Has texture (it refers to the cat)
 "The cat sat. Democracy is important." ❌ = No texture (no connection)

The 7 Standards of Textuality (Beaugrande & Dressler)

Exam favourite — memorize these!

# Standard Definition Example

1 Cohesion How sentences are grammatically connected Pronouns, conjunctions
2 Coherence How sentences make logical sense together Topic consistency
3 Intentionality The producer intends to communicate A speaker has a purpose
# Standard Definition Example
4 Acceptability The receiver accepts it as meaningful Reader understands it as a text
5 Informativity It contains information worth knowing New vs. given information
6 Situationality It fits its context of use A prayer in a church
7 Intertextuality It relates to other texts A news article referencing a law

WEEK 4: Cohesion and Coherence

Cohesion

Definition (Halliday & Hasan): Cohesion is how linguistic items are connected in a text so it
holds together.

Simple Rule: If you need to look at another part of the text to understand a word, that's
cohesion!

Types of Cohesive Devices

A. Grammatical Cohesion

1. Reference Using pronouns or other words to refer to something mentioned elsewhere.

 Anaphoric = refers BACK: "John came in. He sat down." (He = John)
 Cataphoric = refers FORWARD: "He was brilliant, that John." (He = John, mentioned
after)
 Exophoric = refers OUTSIDE the text: "Look at that!" (pointing at something)

2. Substitution Replacing a word/phrase with a shorter form.

"I want coffee. Do you want some?" (some substitutes coffee)

3. Ellipsis Leaving something out because it's understood.

"Can you swim?" "Yes, I can." (swim is omitted)

4. Conjunction Using connecting words to show logical relationships.

Type Words Example

Additive and, also, furthermore "She sings and dances."
Adversative but, however, yet "He tried, but failed."
Causal so, because, therefore "It rained, so we stayed."
 Type Words Example
Temporal then, after, finally "Then she left."

B. Lexical Cohesion

1. Reiteration

 Repetition: Using the same word again

"The dog barked. The dog was angry."

 Synonym: Using a word with similar meaning

"The car broke down. The vehicle needed repair."

 Superordinate: Using a general word for a specific one

"I bought a rose. The flower was beautiful."

 General word: Using a very general noun

"I saw an accident. The whole thing was terrible."

2. Collocation Words that naturally go together.

"doctor" → hospital, patient, medicine, nurse

Coherence

Definition: Coherence is about meaning — whether the text makes logical sense as a whole.

Coherence is NOT just about grammar. It's about whether the ideas connect logically.

Example of cohesive but NOT coherent:

"The cat sat on the mat. It was a beautiful morning. Democracy was founded in Greece."
(Grammatically connected with it but doesn't make sense together = not coherent)

Example of coherent without obvious cohesion:

A: "Can you go to Edinburgh tomorrow?" B: "The pilots are on strike." (No grammatical link,
but we understand B means NO — coherent!)
Theme and Rheme (Brown & Yule, Ch. 4)

Theme = The starting point of a sentence — what the sentence is ABOUT (usually the subject)

Rheme = Everything ELSE — the new information being said about the theme

Sentence Theme Rheme

John kissed Mary John kissed Mary
Mary was kissed by John Mary was kissed by John
Yesterday, John came home Yesterday John came home

Key Point (Brown & Yule): Speakers choose what to put first (theme) based on what they think
the hearer already knows. Known information comes first (theme); new information comes last
(rheme).

WEEK 5: Pragmatics and Discourse Context

Reference (Brown & Yule, Ch. 2)

Traditional view: Words refer to things in the world.

Discourse analyst's view: It is the SPEAKER who refers using expressions.

"It is the speaker who refers (by using some appropriate expression): he invests the expression
with reference by the act of referring." — Lyons (quoted in Brown & Yule)

Types:

 Successful reference: The hearer identifies WHO or WHAT the speaker means
 Identifying reference: Using descriptions to pick out a referent

Presupposition (Brown & Yule, Ch. 2)

Definition: Information the speaker assumes the hearer already knows — taken for granted
background knowledge.

Example: "My uncle's coming home from Canada."

 Presupposition: The speaker HAS an uncle (taken for granted)

  Assertion: The uncle is coming home (new information)

Pragmatic Presupposition (Brown & Yule use this):

"Defined in terms of assumptions the speaker makes about what the hearer is likely to accept
without challenge."

Exam Example:

"Have you stopped beating your wife?"

 Presupposes: You were beating your wife!

Implicature (Grice's Theory — Brown & Yule)

Definition: What a speaker implies (but doesn't directly say) in conversation.

Grice's Cooperative Principle:

"Make your conversational contribution such as is required... by the accepted purpose of the talk
exchange."

Grice's Four Maxims:

Maxim Rule Example of Flouting

Say enough, not Saying only "He's a hard worker" when asked if someone is good
Quantity
too much at the job (implying NOT smart)
Be truthful, don't
Quality Sarcasm: "Oh great, another Monday!"
lie
Relation Be relevant A: "I'm out of petrol." B: "There's a garage around the corner."
Be clear, brief,
Manner Being deliberately vague
orderly

Famous Example (Brown & Yule):

A: "I am out of petrol." B: "There is a garage round the corner." Implicature: The garage is
open and sells petrol. (B didn't say this, but it's implied!)

Inference (Brown & Yule)

Definition: The process hearers use to arrive at meaning that is not directly stated.
Example: "The baby cried. The mommy picked it up."

 We infer the mommy is the baby's mother

 We infer they are in the same place
 We infer one event followed the other

Types of Inference:

1. Logical inference: If A then B (formal deduction)

2. Pragmatic inference: Based on real-world knowledge and context
3. Bridging assumption: Connecting two sentences using world knowledge

Example of Bridging Assumption: "Mary got some picnic supplies out of the car. The beer was
warm." → We must infer that beer = part of picnic supplies

WEEK 6: Co-text and the Expanding Context

Co-text (Brown & Yule)

Definition: The linguistic environment surrounding a word or sentence — what comes before
and after in the text.

"Following Halliday, we shall call their co-text... [the] words which occur in discourse are
constrained by what...their co-text."

Simple Example:

"She decided to sell the cow and buy a shop with the money." The word shop is understood
because of the co-text (selling, money, buying).

Why co-text matters: The same word can mean different things in different co-texts:

 "treatment" (in medical co-text = medical care)

 "treatment" (in personal co-text = how someone was treated)

The Expanding Context (Brown & Yule, pp. 46-58)

Context includes multiple layers:

1. Physical context: Where and when the conversation happens

2. Epistemic context: Background knowledge both speakers share
3. Social context: Social relationships and roles
 4. Psychological context: Attitudes, feelings, intentions

Hymes' Features of Context (SPEAKING mnemonic):

Feature Meaning
Setting Time and place
Participants Who is speaking/listening
Ends Purposes and goals
Act sequence Order of speech acts
Key Tone (formal/informal)
Instrumentality Channel (spoken/written)
Norms Rules of interaction
Genre Type of speech event

The Two Principles of Interpretation (Brown & Yule)

1. Principle of Local Interpretation:

Don't construct a context larger than necessary. Assume the smallest possible interpretation.

Example: "The baby cried. The mommy picked it up." → We assume they're in the SAME
place, at the SAME time. We don't imagine the mommy is in another country!

2. Principle of Analogy:

Interpret new discourse based on your experience of similar past discourse. Things remain the
same unless indicated otherwise.

WEEK 7: Context in Discourse Analysis

Classification of Context

1. Situational Context The physical and social circumstances of communication.

 Who is speaking to whom?

 Where and when?
 What is the purpose?

2. Linguistic Context (Co-text) The language that surrounds the text being analyzed.

 Words, sentences, paragraphs before and after

3. Cultural Context Shared knowledge, values, and beliefs of a community.

 Understanding "hitting a sixer" requires cricket culture knowledge

4. Social Context Power relationships, roles, institutions.

 Boss speaking to employee vs. friend to friend

5. Cognitive Context Mental representations and background knowledge in the speaker's mind.

 What the speaker/hearer already knows

6. Psychological Context Emotional states, attitudes, intentions.

 A speaker's anger or excitement shapes how they speak

Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) Models

Fairclough's Three-Dimensional Model (Document 4)

This is the most important CDA model for your exam!

┌─────────────────┐
│ SOCIAL PRACTICE │
│ (Explanation) │
│ ┌───────────┐ │
│ │DISCURSIVE │ │
│ │ PRACTICE │ │
│ │(Interpret)│ │
│ │ ┌───────┐ │ │
│ │ │ TEXT │ │ │
│ │ │(Descr)│ │ │
│ │ └───────┘ │ │
│ └───────────┘ │
└─────────────────┘

Dimension 1: TEXT (Description) Analyzing the language itself:

 Vocabulary choices
 Grammar
 Cohesion
 Sentence structure

Dimension 2: DISCURSIVE PRACTICE (Interpretation) How texts are produced,

distributed, and consumed:
  Production: How was the text created? Who wrote it and why?
 Distribution: How is it spread? Through which media?
 Consumption: How do readers interpret it?

Dimension 3: SOCIAL PRACTICE (Explanation) The broader social and cultural context:

 Power relations
 Ideology
 Hegemony
 Social institutions

Quick Example:

Analyzing a political advertisement:

 TEXT: What words are used? (strong, powerful, change)

 DISCURSIVE PRACTICE: Who made it? (political party); Who sees it? (voters)
 SOCIAL PRACTICE: What ideology does it promote? What power does it
maintain?

Van Dijk's Model (Cognitive Approach)

Key Idea: Discourse is connected to cognition (mental processes) and society.

Three-Part Framework:

1. Discourse — the text itself (structures, grammar)

2. Cognition — mental representations (how we process and understand)
3. Society — social structures, power, inequality

Key Concept — Mental Models: Van Dijk argues that when we read/hear discourse, we create
mental models — personal representations of the situation.

Key Concept — Ideological Squares:

 Emphasize OUR positive things

 Emphasize THEIR negative things
 Downplay OUR negative things
 Downplay THEIR positive things

Example:

A politician says: "We have brought stability. Our opponents have only created chaos." →
Positive self-presentation + Negative other-presentation
Ruth Wodak's Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA)

Key Idea: You cannot understand discourse WITHOUT understanding its historical context.

Three Dimensions:

1. Topics — What is the discourse about?

2. Strategies — What rhetorical strategies are used? (construction, justification,
transformation)
3. Linguistic means — What specific language features are used?

Key Concepts:

 Recontextualization: Taking language from one context and using it in another

 Intertextuality: Texts refer to and build on other texts
 Interdiscursivity: Different discourse types mixing together

Textuality Markers (Key for Exam)

Markers that signal textuality:

1. Cohesive devices (pronouns, conjunctions, repetition)

2. Topic continuity (staying on the same subject)
3. Thematic progression (theme → rheme pattern)
4. Discourse markers (well, so, but, however)
5. Intonation and pausing (in spoken discourse)

Quick Exam Answer Templates

Template 1: Define + Example

"[Term] refers to [definition from source]. For example, [concrete example]. According to
[scholar], [key point]."

Template 2: Compare Two Concepts

"While [Concept A] deals with [X], [Concept B] concerns [Y]. For instance, cohesion is about
grammatical connections (e.g., pronoun reference), whereas coherence is about logical meaning
connections."
Template 3: Apply a Model

"Applying Fairclough's three-dimensional model: at the textual level, we observe [X]. At the
discursive practice level, [Y]. At the social practice level, [Z]."

Most Important Exam Points — Summary Table

Concept One-Line Definition Key Scholar
Discourse Language in use, beyond the sentence Brown & Yule
Cohesion Grammatical connections between sentences Halliday & Hasan
Coherence Logical meaning connections Halliday & Hasan
Reference Speaker picks out an entity using an expression Brown & Yule
Presupposition Background assumption taken for granted Grice/Brown & Yule
Implicature What is implied but not directly said Grice
Inference Reader's process of filling in unstated meaning Brown & Yule
Co-text Surrounding linguistic environment Halliday
Context Situational setting of communication Hymes
Textuality What makes a text a text (7 standards) Beaugrande & Dressler
Theme/Rheme Starting point / new information Halliday
Discourse markers Words organizing discourse (oh, well, but) Schiffrin
Fairclough's model Text + Discursive Practice + Social Practice Fairclough
Van Dijk's model Discourse + Cognition + Society Van Dijk
Wodak's model Historical approach to discourse Wodak

Good luck on your exam tomorrow! 🌟 Focus especially on: cohesion/coherence types, Grice's
maxims with examples, Fairclough's 3D model, and the 7 standards of textuality — these are the
most likely exam questions!