Unit 2

Double entry system and source documents

Learning outcomes ....................................................................................................................2

Key concepts .............................................................................................................................2
Acronyms...................................................................................................................................2
2. Introduction .......................................................................................................................3
2.1 The double-entry system ...................................................................................................4
2.2 Summary of types of accounts and impact of transactions................................................6
2.3 Descriptions of individual accounts ...................................................................................7
2.4 The basic accounting equation..........................................................................................9
2.4.1 Right-hand side and left-hand-side of BAE .............................................................9
2.4.2 How to apply the basic accounting equation.........................................................10
2.4.3 4-STEPS to determine the result of a transaction .................................................11
2.4.4 Examples illustrating the application of the double-entry system .........................14
2.5 Recordkeeping ................................................................................................................22
2.5.1 What is the accounting cycle? ..............................................................................22
2.5.2 Completion of source documents .........................................................................24
(a) Internal source documents ...........................................................................24
(b) External source documents (also referred to as supporting documents) ......25
2.5.3 Recording of source documents ...........................................................................26
2.6 Overview of the recording of transactions .......................................................................40
2.7 Completion of books of first entry ....................................................................................40
2.8 Self-assessment exercises..............................................................................................41
2.9 Terminology and definitions – cheat sheet ......................................................................44

The key to success in accounting is practice, practice and more practice.

The following concept cards are available for this learning unit:

CONCEPT o Effect of transactions on specific types of accounts

CARDS
o The accounting cycle (x2)
o Overview of the recording of transactions
Learning outcomes

After working through this learning unit, you should be able to:
• define cash transactions
• define source documents
• explain the difference between internal source documents and external business
documents
• explain the applicable source documents involved in different cash transactions
• complete different business documents

Key concepts

• Double-entry system
• Accounting equation
• Assets
• Liabilities
• Owners’ equity
• Recordkeeping
• Accounting cycle
• Cash transactions
• Source documents
• Internal source documents
• External source documents
• Purchase order
• Sales order
• Delivery note
• Goods received note
• Cash slips
• Cash register rolls
• cash invoices
• receipts
• delivery note
• Petty cash voucher
• credit card slip
• deposit slip
• internet banking: Notice of payment (EFT)

Acronyms
BAE Basic accounting equation
LPA Legal Practice Act 28 of 2014
LPC Rules Legal Practice Council Rules
2. Introduction

The financial records of an entity only deal with transactions that are measured in monetary
terms. The duality of the financial accounting system better known as the double-entry system
is a method whereby the transactions are recorded systematically to show the giving and
receiving of value.

The accounting cycle details the formal accounting process. The steps discussed in this
learning unit are as follows (indicated by yellow shading):

Transactions — The accounting process starts once a transaction has taken place.

Source documents — Source documents provide the evidence for a transaction having taken
place

Books of prime entry — The source document is prepared and the information is entered
into the books of prime entry

Ledger accounts — The entries from the books of prime entry are posted to the
general ledger, creditors’ ledger, and debtors’ ledger.

Trial balance — The trial balance is drawn up from the accounts in the
general ledger

Financial statements — The financial statements are drawn up from the trial
balance

Please remember the following points at all times:

RECAP • Total debits in the transaction must equal the total credits in that
transaction!
• For every debit, there must be a credit!
• Debits are on the left, credits are on the right!
• The equation must balance!
2.1 The double-entry system

The double-entry system implies that there are two sides or aspects to every business
transaction and this translates to –
LBL
See Lessons
For every debit there must be a corresponding credit [Link]

See the following example:

• If you buy a pair of soccer boots for R250.
– You receive the pair of boots (Side 1)
– The store gives you the boots (Side 2)

• If you pay R250 to the shop assistant.

– The shop assistant receives the cash (Side 1)
– You give the cash to the shop assistant (Side 2)

LBL
When an entity receives cash – the bank account is debited See Lessons

When an entity pays cash – the bank account is credited Bank account

This means that every transaction of the entity will result in an amount being recorded in at least
TWO accounts. Luca Pacioli introduced the rules of the Double-Entry System in 1494. The
double-entry principle provides a logical method of recording transactions. In using the double-
entry system the monetary (money value) of each transaction must be entered on the debit side
of one ledger account as well as on the credit side of another ledger account. The entry in one
ledger account refers to the corresponding entry in the other ledger account.

As the entries in the two ledger accounts have been entered on opposite sides, the use of the
double-entry system allows for cross references. Each transaction is entered in two separate
accounts on opposite sides, and it is therefore possible to check and control the arithmetical
and accounting accuracy of the work. If each transaction is recorded so that the debit and credit
entries are equal, the same sum of all the debits to the account must equal the sum of all the
credits. This can be explained by way of the accounting equation.

The rules will be applied as follows:

– All asset and expense accounts must be increased on the left (debit) side of the account
and decreased on the right (credit) side of the account.

Dr ASSETS & EXPENSES Cr

+ (increase) - (decrease)
– All liability and income accounts must be increased on the right (credit) side of the account
and decreased on the left (debit) side of the account.

Dr LIABILITIES & INCOME Cr

- (decrease) + (increase)

In short, a ledger is a book/record containing a set of individual accounts in which transactions

of the same kind are grouped together.

An account looks like a T-form with the left side called the debit side and the right side called
the credit side. An example follows:

Debit (abbreviated to Dr) Account name Credit (abbreviated to Cr)

The debit side of the account is The credit side of the account is
the side that shows gains in value the side that shows value given

In this learning unit, we will be discussing the general ledger, which contains all the assets,
liabilities, owners’ equity, income and expense accounts of the business.

As part of your preparation for this learning unit you must know the following categories of items
in the general ledger and what they are –

LBLL What is an asset? Assets are resources owned by the business,

See Lessons
which have economic value and a business uses to Assets
generate income.

LBLL What is a liability? Liabilities are creditors’ interest or interests of

See Lessons
parties other than the owner(s). Liabilities are Liabilities
therefore the debts of the business.

LBLL What is an expense? An expense is a cost related to the day-to-day See Lessons
running of a business. An expense is a debit. Expenses

LBLL What is income? Income is the revenue a business receives from

See Lessons
selling services and goods to clients or customers Income
and returns on investments.

LBLL What is equity? Equity is the interest which the owner has in the
See Lessons
business and which the entity therefore owes to Equity
him.
2.1 Summary of types of accounts and impact of transactions
The following table summarises the effect of the transactions on the specific types of accounts:

- Costs and
Assets = Liabilities + Owner's Equity + Income - Drawings
Expenses
Normal balance Debit Credit Credit Credit Debit Debit
Increase to account Debit Credit Credit Credit Debit Debit
balance Left Column of Acc Right Column of Acc Right Column of Acc Right Column of Acc Left Column of Acc Left Column of Acc
Decrease to Credit Debit Debit Debit Credit Credit
account balance Right column of Acc Left Column of Acc Left Column of Acc Left Column of Acc Right Column of Acc Right Column of Acc
Account example NON-CURRENT NON-CURRENT OWNER'S EQUITY INCOME EXPENSES DRAWINGS
ASSETS LIABILITIES Capital Commission received Advertising Drawings
Land and buildings Long-term loan Fees Audit fees
Equipment Mortgage bond Interest received Credit losses
Furniture Office rent received Insurance
Vehicles CURRENT Sales Interest paid
Computer equipment LIABILITIES Services rendered Fuel
Investments Short-term loan Office rent paid
Law library Bank overdraft Rental paid
CURRENT ASSETS (Negative) Repairs and
Inventory Accounts payable maintenance
Accounts receivable (Creditors) Salaries and wages
(Debtors/Clients) Trust creditors Stationery
Bank account Telephone
(Positive) Water and electricity
Cash on hand
Acc = Account

6
2.3 Descriptions of individual accounts

Accounts form the basis of the accounting system. The following are descriptions of generally
used accounts in the books of legal practitioners:

(a) ASSETS – Non-current assets

Property The account for the recording of the transactions relating to land and
buildings (property) purchased for the business.
Equipment or The account for the recording of the transactions relating to equipment
computer equipment or computer equipment purchased for the business.
Furniture The account for the recording of the transactions relating to furniture
purchased for the business.
Motor vehicles The account for the recording of the transactions relating to motor
vehicles purchased for the business.
Law library An account for the recording of the transactions relating to the
accumulation of legal books.
Investment (longer Long-term investments are assets that a business intends to hold for
than 12 months) more than a year. It is not the intention of the business to realise the
investment within the next 12 months from the financial year-end.

(b) ASSETS – Current assets

Accounts receivable Accounts receivable are amounts due to the business from
customers/clients that have received goods or services on credit. The
amounts arise from providing services or products to clients and they
have not yet paid the business.
Accrued income Accrued income is income that has not been received in the
accounting period when the underlying obligation was fulfilled. Since
the obligation was fulfilled, the business is entitled to the
corresponding income and therefore the income is recognised and a
liability is created for the amount owing. (See Learning unit 5)
Bank account A bank account is a financial account held between a bank i.e. ABSA
and the customer i.e. SA Attorneys. This account records the cash
transactions (cash inflows and outflows) between the bank and the
customer. If the bank owes money to the business, it is referred to as
a favourable balance. If the business owes the bank money, it is
referred to as an unfavourable balance.
Deposit This account is used to record deposits e.g. a deposit paid to the
municipality for the connection of water and electricity.

7
 Inventory The account for the recording of the transactions relating to inventory
purchased by the business for resale or for the manufacturing of a
product.
Investments (short- Short-term investments are assets that a business does not intend to
term) hold for more than a year. The intention is to realise the investment
within a period of less than 12 months from the financial year-end.
Petty cash The petty cash account is the account used for the recording of small
cash payments that are impractical to pay by EFTs.
Prepaid expenses A prepaid expense is an expenditure paid for in one accounting
period, but for which the underlying asset will not be consumed until
a future period. When the asset is eventually consumed, it is charged
to expense. (See Learning unit 4)
Trust clients account The trust clients account are the accounts for recording the money
owed by the clients to an attorney’s practice (i.e. debtors of the
attorney’s practice). The trust clients accounts arise from credit
transactions.
VAT control account The account for the recording of the transactions relating to VAT. VAT
is payable to SARS. Both output VAT (Credit side) and input VAT
(Debit side) are recorded in the VAT control account. This account
may be an asset from time to time as the business can be entitled to
a refund from SARS.

(c) LIABILITIES – Non-current liabilities

Long-term loans A loan is an amount of money that has been loaned from a bank or
financing institution and has to be repaid to the lender. The term long-
term refers to loans that are repaid in specific instalments over a
longer period of time (i.e. a term of 5 – 10 years). Long-term loans may
have a fixed interest rate, or a floating interest rate (based upon the
reserve bank prime rate).
Mortgage loan A mortgage loan is a long-term loan for the financing of the purchase
of a property or building. The property or building serves as security
for the mortgage loan.

(d) LIABILITIES – Current liabilities

Accounts payable Accounts payable is money owed by a business to its suppliers. The
(business) amounts arise from people who have supplied the business with
goods and services, but the supplier has yet to be paid.

8
 Accrued expenses An accrued expense is an expenditure for which the underlying asset
was consumed but was not yet paid. The business therefore incurred
the expense and should recognise the expense together with the
liability to pay the expense. The liability is called an accrued
expense. (See Learning unit 4)
Bank overdraft A bank account where the business owes the bank money. It is
(Negative) referred to as an unfavourable balance.
Income received in Income received in advance is income received in one accounting
advance period, but for which the underlying obligation will only be fulfilled in
the next accounting period. When the obligation is eventually fulfilled,
it is recognised as income. (See Learning unit 4)
Short-term loan A loan is an amount of money that has been loaned from a bank or
financing institution and has to be repaid to the lender. Loans are
repaid in instalments and interest is charged on the outstanding
amount. Short-term loans refers to loans that are generally repaid
within a few months or a year.
Trust creditors The money that is in a trust account at any point in time belongs to the
clients of the legal practice and the clients are referred to as trust
creditors of the legal practice.
VAT control account The account for the recording of the transactions relating to VAT. VAT
is payable to SARS. Both output VAT (Credit side) and input VAT
(Debit side) are recorded in the VAT control account.

2.4 The basic accounting equation

The financial position of an entity is indicated by this equation. By using the equation, any
unknown elements of the statement of financial position can be calculated. In the accounting
records, all the figures must “balance”. This is what makes the recording process so effective.
All transactions must balance in the form of an equation. This equation is termed the basic
accounting equation (BAE).

2.4.1 Right-hand side and left-hand-side of BAE

When preparing an equation, the right-hand side will always equal the left-hand side. The
assets are on the left-hand side and the equity and liabilities are on the right-hand side. The
transactions can affect the BAE in four different ways.

➢ An increase on the left-hand side and an equal increase on the right-hand side –

Left-hand side = Right-hand side

Assets Equity + Liabilities

+100 000 +100 000

9
➢ A decrease on the left-hand side and an equal decrease on the right-hand side –

Left-hand side = Right-hand side

Assets Equity + Liabilities

–100 000 –100 000

➢ An increase and an equal decrease on the left-hand side –

Left-hand side = Right-hand side

Assets Equity + Liabilities

+100 000
–100 000

➢ An increase and an equal decrease on the right-hand side

Left-hand side = Right-hand side

Assets Equity + Liabilities

+100 000
–100 000

2.4.2 How to apply the basic accounting equation

The equation is as follows:

OWNERS’ EQUITY = ASSETS – LIABILITIES;

OR
ASSETS = OWNERS’ EQUITY + LIABILITIES

RECAP
Memorising the simple accounting equation will help you learn the debit
and credit rules for entering amounts into the accounting records.

As you can see, assets equal the sum of liabilities and owner's equity. This makes sense when
you think about it because liabilities and equity are essentially just sources of funding for
companies to purchase assets. The expanded accounting equation is as follows:

ASSETS = LIABILITIES + CAPITAL + REVENUE – EXPENSES – DRAWINGS

10
The following is the expanded accounting equation in the format of a diagram:

LBL
The owner’s drawings represent cash taken out of the business See Lessons
Drawings
by way of a salary or goods taken for own use.

2.4.3 4-STEPS to determine the result of a transaction

All transactions measurable in monetary value will have an effect on the financial results of the
entity. With the recording of every transaction, there will be a change in the financial position
of the entity and since the basic accounting equation (BAE) reflects the financial position of the
entity, each recorded transaction will affect the BAE.

Notes

11
The following table represents a logical method of recognising a transaction.

STEPS
Step 1 Identify the accounts affected by the transaction.
What is the account? (i.e. Equipment)

Step 2 Will the transaction cause an increase or decrease in the account?

(i.e. Account is increasing as equipment was purchased)

Step 3 Classify the account.

What is the type of account? (i.e. Asset, Expense etc.)

Step 4 Step 2 PLUS Step 3 equals effect on Step 1

EXAMPLE 2.1

S Africa deposited R100 000, as capital into the business bank account of SA Attorneys.
Recognise the transaction in the accounting records of the business using the 4-step method.

EXPLANATION 2.1

Transaction Deposit of R100 000 Deposit of R100 000

Step 1 Bank Capital
Step 2 The transaction will increase the The transaction will increase the
“bank account” “capital account”
Step 3 Asset Equity
Step 4 Debit the asset, Bank, to increase it. Credit the equity, Capital, to increase it.

Prepare the BAE incorporating the information from the above table:

Assets = Equity + Liabilities LBLL

+100 000 +100 000 —

bank account dr capital account cr —
Notes See Lessons
Explanation
The BAE is an accounting equation that must balance after each transaction. 2.1
S Africa deposited R100 000, as capital into the business bank account of SA
Attorneys. To increase the bank account (an asset) debit the account. The
opposite entry is a credit to the Capital account. The equity account is credited
to increase the owner’s equity in the business.
12
EXAMPLE 2.2

SA Attorneys purchased computer equipment and paid R85 000 for the equipment. Recognise
the transaction in the accounting records of SA Attorneys using the 4-step method.

EXPLANATION 2.2

Transaction Payment of R85 000 Payment of R85 000

Step 1 Computer equipment Bank
Step 2 The transaction will increase the The transaction will decrease the
“computer equipment account” “bank account”
Step 3 Asset Asset
Step 4 Debit the asset, computer Credit the asset, Bank to increase it.
equipment, to increase it.

Prepare the BAE incorporating the information from the above table:

Assets = Equity + Liabilities LBLL

+85 000 — —
Computer equipment dr
-85 000 — —
Bank account cr See
Lessons
Notes Explanation
2.2
The BAE is an equation that must balance after each transaction. SA Attorneys
purchased computer equipment and paid R85 000 for the equipment. To
increase the computer equipment account (an asset), debit the account. The
opposite entry is a credit to the Bank account. The Bank account is an asset and
an asset account is decreased by crediting the account.

Notes

13
2.4.4 Examples illustrating the application of the double-entry system

The following examples illustrate the double-entry system:

EXAMPLE 2.3

Assume a business buys equipment for R2 000 by EFT. How would the bookkeeper record
this transaction?

EXPLANATION 2.3

In this case the business has paid money to purchase equipment. The double entry will be
made as follows:

Dr Bank account Cr
- R2 000

Dr Equipment Cr
+ R2 000

STEPS – The bookkeeper must show that cash of R2 000 has left the business.
– Since cash is an asset, the principles pertaining to assets will be used.
– The cash balances have decreased, and assets decrease on the credit side.
 the bank account is credited.
– In return for the cash payment, the business has received equipment.
– Equipment is an asset and therefore assets have increased.
– Assets increase on the debit side of the account the equipment account
is debited.

The rules of double-entry state that all debits should equal all credits. In this case, we have
debited the equipment account and credited the bank account. The double-entry rule has been
applied successfully.

EXAMPLE 2.4

Assume a business receives a loan of R10 000 from the bank. How would the bookkeeper
record this transaction?

14
 EXPLANATION 2.4

In this case, the business has received a loan from the bank. The double entry will be made
as follows:

Dr Bank account Cr
+ R10 000

Dr Bank loan Cr
+ R10 000

STEPS
– The bookkeeper must show that cash of R10 000 has flowed into the
business.
– Since cash is an asset, the principles pertaining to assets will be used.
– The cash balances have increased and assets increase on the debit side.
 the bank account is debited.
– At the same time, the business has incurred a debt (a liability).
– The bank loan is a liability, and the rule that applies to liabilities states
that liabilities increase on the credit side.
– Loan debts increase on the credit side of the account the bank loan
account is credited.

The rules of double entry state that all debits should equal all credits. In this case, we have
debited the bank account and credited the loan account. The double entry rule has been
applied successfully.

EXAMPLE 2.5

Assume a business pays the telephone account of R550. How would the bookkeeper record
this transaction?

EXPLANATION 2.5

In this case, the business has paid money. The double-entry will be made as follows:

Dr Bank account Cr
- R550
Dr Telephone expenses Cr
+ R550

15
 STEPS – The bookkeeper must show that cash of R550 has flowed out of the
business. The business has spent money on an item that cannot be changed
back into cash.
– Since cash is an asset, the principles pertaining to assets will be used.
– Cash has decreased (credit bank) and an expense has been incurred
(telephone expense).
– Expenses have increased and the telephone account should be debited.
Remember: expenses increase on the debit side.

Once again, an account has been debited and another account credited. The rules of double
entry state that all debits should equal all credits. In this case, the expense account (telephone)
has been debited and the bank account credited. The double entry rule has been applied
successfully.

EXAMPLE 2.6

Assume a business receives R3 500 cash for services rendered. How would the bookkeeper
record this transaction?

EXPLANATION 2.6

In this case, the business has received money. The double-entry will be made as follows:

Dr Bank account Cr
+ R3 500

Dr Services rendered Cr
+ R3 500

STEPS – The bookkeeper must show that cash of R3 500 has flowed into the
business.
– Since cash is an asset, the principles pertaining to assets will be used.
– The balance of the bank account will therefore increase and assets
increase on the debit side.
 the bank account is debited.
– The money was received for services rendered.
– This means that the services rendered account will be credited.
– This is an income account, and all income accounts increase on the credit
side.

16
Once again, we have debited one account and credited another. The rules of double-entry
state that all debits should equal all credits. In this case, the expense account (telephone) has
been debited and the bank account credited. The double entry rule has been applied
successfully.

EXAMPLE 2.7

SA Products opened its doors on 1 April 2020. The entity uses the periodic inventory system
and is not registered as a VAT vendor (inventory systems will be discussed in more detail in
learning unit 3). The following transactions took place during the first month of business:

Date Transactions
2 The owner, Mr South made a capital contribution to the business, being R5 000 cash
and equipment with a fair market value of R2 000.
5 Purchased trading inventory per cheque, R1 000.
9 Sold inventory for cash, R2 500.
12 Purchase trading inventory on credit, R600.
19 Paid monthly insurance of R1 000.
23 Sold inventory on credit, R7 000.
27 Purchased equipment per electronic funds transfer (EFT), R3 000.
29 Paid wages per cash, R800.
30 Paid the water and electricity account, R1 100.

REQUIRED:
Indicate the effect of the transactions under the accounting equation.

EXPLANATION 2.7

DAY ASSETS = OWNERS’ EQUITY + LIABILITIES

R R R
2 + 2 000 Equipment + 2 000 Capital 0
+ 5 000 Bank + 5 000 Capital
5 - 1 000 Bank - 1 000 Purchases # 0
9 + 2 500 Bank + 2 500 Sales * 0
#
12 0 - 600 Purchases + 600 Accounts payable
19 - 1 000 Bank - 1 000 Insurance # 0
23 + 7 000 Accounts receivable + 7 000 Sales * 0
27 - 3 000 Bank 0 0
+ 3 000 Equipment
29 - 800 Bank - 800 Wages # 0
#
30 - 1 100 Bank - 1 100 Water and electricity 0
# *
Expenses Income ^ Periodic inventory system see Learning unit 3.2.2

17
 EXAMPLE 2.8

SA Traders entered into the following transactions during July 2020. The entity uses the
periodic inventory system and is not registered as a VAT vendor.

Date Transactions
1 Sold inventory on credit to A South – R1 300.
3 Bought stationery for cash – R1 000.
4 Purchased office furniture and paid by business credit card from Africa Bank –
R20 000.
6 B Africa owed SA Traders R1 780 and paid R1 700 in full settlement of his account.
8 Credit card sales of R15 000.
11 A delivery vehicle was purchased on credit from Natal Motors for R75 000. A deposit
of R35 000 was paid immediately and the outstanding balance is still due to Natal
Motors.
13 Paid printing costs by electronic funds transfer (EFT) – R1 200.
15 Paid the insurance account by EFT – R1 345.
22 Received an invoice from SA Traders for the purchase of packing material – R1 450.
25 Paid R6 350 by EFT for a computer purchased for the owner’s son.
26 Paid the business telephone account – R1 005.

REQUIRED:
Indicate the effect of the transactions under the accounting equation.

EXPLANATION 2.8

DAY ASSETS = OWNERS’ EQUITY + LIABILITIES

R R R
1 + 1 300 Accounts receivable + 1 300 Sales * 0
3 - 1 000 Bank - 1 000 Stationery # 0
4 + 20 000 Office furniture + 20 000 Accounts payable
#
6 + 1 700 Bank - 80 Discount allowed
- 1 780 Accounts receivable
8 + 15 000 Accounts receivable + 15 000 Sales *
11 - 35 000 Bank + 40 000 Loan liability
+ 75 000 Motor vehicle
13 - 1 200 Bank - 1 200 Printing # 0
15 - 1 345 Bank - 1 345 Insurance # 0

18
 ASSETS OWNERS’ EQUITY LIABILITIES
DAY = +
R R R

22 - 1 450 Packing materials # + 1 450 Accounts payable

25 - 6 350 Bank - 6 350 Drawings 0

26 - 1 005 Bank - 1 005 Telephone # 0

#
Expenses
*
Income

EXAMPLE 2.9

List each of the following ledger accounts under one of the categories in the table below.
“Furniture” is inserted as an example.

ASSETS EQUITY LIABILITIES

Non- Current Capital Income Expenditure Non-current Current
current assets liabilities liabilities
assets
Furniture

Ledger accounts to be classified:

(a) land and buildings
(b) mortgage
(c) petty cash
(d) postage
(e) interest income
(f) vehicles
(g) salaries
(h) debtors (Accounts receivable)
(i) creditors (Accounts payable)
(j) bank overdraft
(k) fees earned
(l) electricity deposit
(m) subscriptions

19
 EXPLANATION 2.9

ASSETS EQUITY LIABILITIES

Non-current Current Capital Income Expenditure Non-current Current
assets assets liabilities liabilities
(a) land and (c) petty (e) interest (d) postage (b) mortgage (i) creditors
buildings cash income (g) salaries (j) bank
(f) vehicles (h) debtors (k) fees (m) subscriptions overdraft
(l) electricity earned
deposit *

* Electricity deposit is an amount paid by the entity to serve as security for the payment of the electricity account.
The amount will be paid back to the entity if they sell the land and buildings and will no longer make use of the
electricity; therefore, it is not an expense but a current asset.

EXAMPLE 2.10

A South Poll is a partner in SA Attorneys. SA Attorneys commenced operations on 1 May

2020. The following transactions took place during the first month:

May 1 Cash deposited in the bank as opening capital, R25 000.

2 A South made his private computer equipment available to the business, R9 000.
3 Additional equipment purchased and paid for by EFT, R12 000.
4 Fees were charged for work done on account for North Suppliers, R4 200.
6 Vehicle purchased on credit from Zulu Limited, R22 400.
10 SA Attorneys received R2 000 in cash for fees earned from West Finance.
17 North Suppliers paid R2 200 on their account.
28 Wages paid, R4 000.
30 Paid R9 000 to Zulu Limited in part settlement of the business’s account.

REQUIRED:
Use the accounting equation in the format below to analyse the above-mentioned
transactions.

Date Assets = Equity + Liabilities Effect on accounts

NB: (1) Show the effect of each transaction on the accounting equation with a plus sign (+)
for an increase and a minus sign (–) for a decrease.

20
 EXPLANATION 2.10

Date Assets = Equity + Liabilities Effect on accounts

01/05 + 25 000 + 25 000 Cash received will increase the bank,

therefore assets increased. The cash was
received
02/05 + 9 000 + 9 000 Equipment received from partner. Assets,
equipment increases and capital, equity
increases.
03/05 + 12 000 Cash used to purchase equipment. Assets,
- 12 000 equipment increased and an asset, bank
decreased.
04/05 + 4 200 + 4 200 Services rendered on account. Assets,
debtors increased and income (fees)
therefore equity increased.
06/05 + 22 400 + 22 400 Vehicle purchased on credit. Assets,
vehicles increased and liabilities, long-term
loan increased.
10/05 + 2 000 + 2 000 Cash received will increase the bank,
therefore assets increased. The cash was
for installation fees, an income, therefore
equity increased.
17/05 + 2 200 Payment received from debtor. Assets,
- 2 200 bank increased and an asset, debtors
decreased
28/05 - 4 000 - 4 000 Paid wages. Cash paid will decrease bank,
therefore assets decrease. Wages
(expenses) increases, therefore equity
decreases.
30/05 - 9 000 - 9 000 Cash used to pay creditor. Assets, bank
decreased and liability, creditor decreased.
49 600 36 200 13 400

Assets (R49 600) = Equity (R36 200) + Liabilities (R13 400)

21
2.5 Recordkeeping

Rule 54.6 of the Legal Practice Council Rules (LPC Rules) requires that all legal practitioners
that conduct a trust account practice MUST comply with PART XII of the Rules and keep
accounting records. The accounting records will contain the day to day transactions of all
monies received, held or paid by a legal practitioner on his own account (his business) or for,
or on behalf of any person (the trust).

An accountant, employed by a legal practice, should be aware that there are different stages
in the process of recordkeeping. There needs to be a set of detailed records in which all the
necessary information pertaining to every transaction should be recorded. These detailed
records are known as the subsidiary journals. There is also a need for a set of accounts with
summarised balances which is known as ledgers. At the end of a financial period, statements
of performance and position need to be compiled.

LBL
The financial statements are a set of accounts (summarised) See Lessons
Financial
showing the financial results of the legal practice. statements

2.5.1 What is the accounting cycle?

The accounting cycle (See summary on p23) is a set of steps that are repeated in the same
order every period. The starting point of the cycle is the recording of the business transactions
and leading up to the preparation of financial statements. The key steps in the accounting cycle
include recording journal entries, posting to the general ledger, preparing the trial balances,
making adjusting entries, and creating financial statements. An accountant should be aware
at all times, at which stage of the accounting cycle the recording process is. The sole purpose
of recording transactions and keeping track of expenses and revenues is to convert the data
into meaning financial information by presenting it in the form of financial statements. Financial
statements are composed of the following components:

– statement of financial position (balance sheet)

– statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income (income statement)
– statement of owner’s equity, and
– statement of cash flows.

Notes

22
The accounting cycle is summarised as follows:

The accounting cycle

Step 1: Transaction
CASH CREDIT
OR
Step 2: Source document (duplicate or original)

Receipts Payments
Deposit slip EFT (Electronic funds Invoice
Receipt transfer - internet banking) Credit note
Till slip Petty cash voucher
Bank statement

Step 3: Subsidiary journals (books of first entry)

CRJ SJ
CPJ SRJ
PCJ PJ
PRJ

Post all journals to the general ledger and subsidiary ledgers

Step 4: General ledger Subsidiary ledgers

Apply accounting equation rules Apply accounting equation rules
and

Dr Cr Details Debit Credit Balance

Post to trial Use to create Do not post to trial balance. Use balances to
balance financial statements create debtors and creditor statements

Step 5: Trial balance

Debits = Credits
Step 6: Financial statements

Statement of profit or Statement of changes in equity Statement of financial

loss and other position
comprehensive income
Income – expenses Capital – drawings + profit – loss Assets = equity + liabilities

23
2.5.2 Completion of source documents

Source documents are the forms prepared by a business that document all the financial
transactions of the business i.e. buying goods or providing a service. The business forms
include purchase orders, receipts, invoices etc. For every transaction, a source document
needs to be completed e.g. when the firm receives cash, a receipt is issued and when services
are rendered on credit (customer pays later), an invoice or debit note is issued. There are two
types of source documents, namely:

(a) Internal source documents

Internal source documents are those documents prepared by the entity itself to record
transactions with external clients. Source documents are usually drawn up in duplicate. The
original will be given to the other party to the transaction and the duplicate will remain with
the entity to enable the entity to record the transaction in their accounting records.

Examples of internal source documents are:

• cash register rolls
• duplicate cash sales invoices
• duplicate receipts
• petty cash vouchers
• duplicate bank deposit slips

An internal source document, cheques, has been excluded from the list above. Cheque
counterfoils (cheque stubs in the cheque book) used to be an internal source document but
this format of payment will no longer be available as cheques are being phased out by the
banks from 31 December 2020. A cheque is a signed, written instruction given by the payer to
their bank to pay money from their account to the payee.

The following is an example of a cheque:

The current formats of payments that will be discussed for this module are:
Electronic payments ► internet banking
► credit card payments,
► cash send transactions, and
► Snapscan or Zapper payments (Uses QR codes)

Other payments ► cash payments and

► debit cards
24
 QUICK
NOTE
A QR code is a machine-readable code consisting of an array of black and
white squares, typically used for storing URLs or other information for
reading by the camera on a smartphone.

The source document for an internet payment is an electronic funds transfer (EFT) notice of
payment and for a credit card payment a signed credit card slip. A credit card is a payment
card issued to a user (cardholder) to enable the user to pay a supplier for goods and services.
The card is issued to the user based on the agreement to pay back to the card issuer (i.e. the
bank) the amount paid plus other agreed charges (service fee and interest).

A debit card is a payment card (issued by a bank for the making payments from the bank
account of the cardholder), which allows the cardholder to transfer money electronically from
their bank account to the bank account of the supplier when making a purchase. A debit card
eliminates the need to carry cash to make purchases. The source document for a debit card
payment is a signed debit card slip.

The cash send transactions are a popular method of drawing money for the petty cash imprest
system. The source document for a cash send transaction is the document printed by the ATM
(Automatic Teller Machine).

Snapscan is a smartphone application, and it is a contactless mobile payment solution, which

makes it easy and safe to pay and receive payments in a store, online, and at home. There is
no need for a card, cash, or an EFT. Snapscan makes use of QR codes for processing the
payments. Zapper works on the same basis as Snapscan.

(b) External source documents (also referred to as supporting documents)

External source documents are the documents prepared by the other party to the transaction
and received by the business as proof that the transaction did take place. The business will
receive the original source document and the entry into the accounting records is recorded
from this original source document received. Examples of external source documents are:
► original cash purchases invoices
► original receipts
► credit card slips
► debit card slips
► cash slips
If a customer or debtor of the business makes a payment by credit card, the credit card receipt
will only be settled overnight and therefore will not reflect in the bank statement until the
following day.

25
2.5.3 Recording of source documents

Example 2.11 illustrates the situation when SA Business is the seller (i.e. retailer). Example
2.12 illustrates the situation when SA Business is the buyer (i.e. customer) of goods.

The diagram below shows the flow of goods between manufacturers, retailers and customers:

Manufacturer Retailer Customer

Consider the following transactions entered into by a business called SA Business. The
transactions are discussed as follows:

► Example of the source document that generates the transaction;

► The effect of the transaction on the accounting equation;
► The general ledger accounts affected by the transaction; and
► An explanation of the aforementioned.

SA Business (Seller) to SA Business (Buyer)

Customer from Supplier

EXPLANATION 2.11 EXPLANATION 2.12

(a) Purchase order 🗸Received from customer 🗸Sent to supplier
(b) Delivery note 🗸Sent to customer with 🗸Received from supplier
delivery of goods with delivery of goods
(c) Goods received note 🗸Made out by customer 🗸Made out by SA
Business
(d) Invoice 🗸Sent to customer 🗸Received from supplier
(e) Statement of account 🗸Sent to customer 🗸Received from supplier
(f) Remittance advice 🗸Received from customer 🗸Sent to supplier
(g) Electronic funds transfer 🗸EFT payment made to 🗸EFT payment made to
customer supplier
(h) Receipt 🗸Sent to customer 🗸Receipt received from
supplier

26
 EXAMPLE 2.11

The discussion is based on the following diagram, which illustrates the movement of the
accounting source documents (these source documents form part of the syllabus):

(a) Purchase order

(b) Delivery note

(c) Goods received note

SELLER
BUYER

(d) Invoice

(e) Statement from supplier

(f) Remittance advice

(g) Electronic funds transfer (EFT)

(h) Receipt

The following information was included in the purchase order and will be used as part of the
illustration:

Price per Total

Item unit price
code Description Quantity R R
IBM1334 Toolbox 2 2 600 5 200
IBM2043 Electrician tool kit 1 4 000 4 000
IBM6033 Screwdriver sets 4 200 800
10 000
Ignore VAT VAT @ 15% 0
Total price 10 000

EXPLANATION 2.11

(a) Purchase order

SA Business (seller/retailer) received a purchase order (a) from their customer, S Africa (buyer)
and the requested goods were pulled from inventory. SA Business is the seller of the goods.

27
(i) What is a purchase order?

QUICK
NOTE
Purchase order (a) ― A buyer-generated source document used to place an
order with a vendor or supplier. When accepted by the seller, it becomes a
legally binding contract between the buyer and the seller. Purchase orders
are used when a buyer wants to purchase supplies or inventory on account.

(ii) Example of a purchase order (source document):

(iii) The effect of the transaction reflected in the source document:

Assets = Equity + Liabilities

— — —
— — —
Notes
A transaction has yet to take place. Once the delivery note has been signed by the customer
the invoice can be generated.

28
(b) Delivery note

A delivery note was processed, and the goods left the premises for delivery to S Africa.

(i) What is a delivery note?

QUICK Delivery note (b) ― A document that accompanies a shipment of goods that
NOTE
lists the description and quantity of the goods delivered. A copy of the delivery
note, signed by the buyer is returned to the seller as a proof of delivery.

(ii) Example of a delivery note (source document):

(iii) The effect of the transaction reflected in the source document:

Assets = Equity + Liabilities

— — —
— — —
Notes
A transaction has yet to take place. Once the delivery note has been signed by the customer
the invoice can be generated.

29
(c) Goods received note

In this instance, it is the accounting system of the customer, which will generate the goods
received note. This source document does not affect the accounting records of SA Business.

(i) What is a goods received note?

QUICK
NOTE Goods received note – A document prepared by the buyer at the point of
receipt, recording the receipt of goods. The goods received note (GRN) and
the purchase order are compared before the buyer makes payment.

(ii) Example of a goods received note (source document):

(iii) The effect of the transaction reflected in the source document:

Assets = Equity + Liabilities

— — —
— — —
Notes
A transaction has yet to take place. The goods received note is issued by the customer but
does not affect the accounting records of SA Business.

30
(d) Invoice
The goods are delivered and SA Business issues an invoice to S Africa. The invoice specifies
what the customer/buyer (S Africa) must pay the seller (SA Business).

(i) What is an invoice?

QUICK
NOTE Invoice – A document issued by a seller to the buyer that indicates the
quantities and costs of the products or services provider by the seller

(ii) Example of an invoice (source document):

Acoustics Tax Invoice

25 Trade Centre
Centurion, Gauteng, 0157
012 667 6465
Acoust@[Link]
VAT Reg. No. 12345678

Bill To: Invoice Number 2001321

Client Name Date
Client Address
Terms
City, State Postal code]
Due Date
VAT Reg. No.
Amount
Description Quantity Unit price
R
IBM1334 Toolbox 2 2 600 5 200
IBM2043 Electrician tool kit 1 4 000 4 000
IBM6033 Screwdriver sets 4 200 800
10 000
VAT @ 15% 0
Total price 10 000

(iii) The effect of the transaction reflected in the source document:

Assets = Equity + Liabilities LBLL

+10 000 +10 000 —

Accounts receivable (dr) Sales (cr) —

Notes See Lessons

Source
Once the customer has received the goods, the sale has been concluded and document
invoice
an invoice is issued to the customer. The accounts receivable account
increases and is therefore debited. The opposite entry is the increase in the
sales account and this account must be credited (double-entry system).

31
(e) Statement from a supplier

(i) What is a statement?

QUICK
NOTE Statement – An accounting statement is summary of accounting activities/
transactions incurred over a period of time (i.e. a month).

(ii) Example of a statement (source document):

(iii) The effect of the transaction reflected in the source document:

Assets = Equity + Liabilities

— — —
— — —
Notes
There is no entry in the accounting records. The statement is sent to the customer and is a
summary of all the transactions for the month. The transaction has already been recorded
when the invoice was issued (see section (d) above).

32
(f) Remittance advice

(i) What is a remittance advice and an electronic funds transfer?

QUICK
Remittance advice – Is a statement detailing a payment made by the customer
NOTE
and the customer sends remittance advice to the supplier. This informs the
supplier of the payment of an invoice (or group of invoices).

Electronic funds transfer (EFT) ― An EFT is a payment transaction that

takes place over an online network, either among accounts at the same bank
or to different accounts at separate financial institutions.

(ii) Example of a remittance advice (source document):

Notes

33
(iii) Example of an EFT proof of payment (source document):

(iii) The effect of the transaction reflected in the source document:

Assets = Equity + Liabilities

— — —
— — —
Notes
The customer has sent through a remittance advice of an EFT payment that has been made
to SA Business. SA Business will issue a receipt (Refer (g) below)

34
(g) Receipt

(i) What is a receipt?

QUICK
NOTE
Receipt ― A source document which is written acknowledgement that the
seller has received payment (goods or money) from the buyer.

(ii) Example of a cash receipt (source document):

(iii) The effect of the transaction reflected in the source document:

Assets = Equity + Liabilities LBLL

+10 000 — —
-10 000 See Lessons
Bank (dr) — — Source
document
Accounts receivable (cr) remittance
advice
Notes
The remittance advice is sent to the seller as proof that the payment of the
account has been made. The seller issues a receipt. The original receipt is sent
to the buyer and the duplicate receipt is used to enter the payment into the CRJ.
The accounts receivable account decreases and is therefore credited and the
bank account increases and is therefore debited.

This transaction has been completed.

35
 EXAMPLE 2.12

Consider the following transactions entered into by a business called SA Business.

SA Business is now the buyer of the goods. The discussion of the transactions will consider
the source documents that generate the transaction, the effect of the transaction on the
accounting equation and the explanation will be based on the following diagram, which
illustrates the movement of accounting source documents (these source documents form part
of the syllabus):

(i) Purchase order

(j) Delivery note

(k) Goods received note

SELLER
BUYER

(l) Invoice

(m) Statement

(n) Remittance advice

(internet payment)

(o) Receipt

EXPLANATION 2.12

SA Business sends a purchase order through to South Suppliers for the purchase of the
following goods:

Price per Total

Item unit price
code Description Quantity R R
IBM1334 Toolbox 2 2 600 5 200
IBM2043 Electrician tool kit 1 4 000 4 000
IBM6033 Screwdriver 4 200 800
10 000
Ignore VAT VAT @ 15% 0
Total price including VAT 10 000

36
(i) Purchase order

The effect of the transaction reflected in the source document:

Assets = Equity + Liabilities

— — —
— — —
Notes
A transaction has yet to take place. Once the delivery note has been signed by the customer
the invoice can be generated.

(j) Delivery note

The goods arrive at the premises of SA Business with a delivery note from South Suppliers.
The goods are checked to the delivery note of South Suppliers and signed as proof that the
goods have been received. SA Business issues a goods received note.

The effect of the transaction reflected in the source document:

Assets = Equity + Liabilities

— — —
— — —
Notes
A transaction has yet to take place. Once the delivery note has been signed by the customer
the invoice can be generated.

(k) Goods received note

SA Business has received the goods and issues a goods received note (GRN).

The effect of the transaction reflected in the source document:

Assets = Equity + Liabilities

— — —
— — —
Notes
A transaction has yet to take place. Once the delivery note has been signed by the customer
the invoice can be generated.

37
(l) Invoice

Once the invoice is received, the amount owed of R10 000 is recorded.

The effect of the transaction reflected in the source document:

Assets = Equity + Liabilities

+R10 000 — +R10 000
Inventory — Accounts payable
Notes
SA Business has received the goods and an invoice from the supplier. The inventory account
increases and is therefore debited. The opposite entry is the increase in the accounts
payable account (South Suppliers) and this account must be credited (double-entry system).

(m) Statement

SA Business has received the goods and the invoice. The amount owing of R10 000 has been
recorded and SA Business receives a statement from South Suppliers for the invoices due for
payment up until the end of the month.

The effect of the transaction reflected in the source document:

Assets = Equity + Liabilities

— — —
— — —
Notes
The transaction has been recorded. The statement from the supplier does not generate
another transaction.

(n) Remittance advice (Proof of payment)

SA Business has received the goods and the invoice. The amount owing of R10 000 has been
recorded. SA Business makes an internet payment of R10 000 to South Suppliers.

The effect of the transaction reflected in the source document:

Assets = Equity + Liabilities

- R10 000 — - R10 000
Bank — Accounts payable

38
 Notes
SA Business makes an internet payment and sends through proof of payment to South
Suppliers (Either EFT notification, SMS or a fax). The bank account, an asset is decreased
and therefore credited. The opposite entry is a debit to accounts payable as the liability has
decreased.

(o) Receipt

SA Business has received the goods and the invoice. The amount owing of R10 000 has been
recorded. SA Business makes an internet payment of R10 000 to South Suppliers. South
Suppliers acknowledges receipt of the payment by issuing a receipt.

The effect of the transaction reflected in the source document:

Assets = Equity + Liabilities

— — —
— — —
Notes
The receipt from the supplier (South Suppliers) does not generate another transaction.

This transaction has been completed.

Notes

39
2.6 Overview of the recording of transactions

Transaction types

Equity and
Asset Asset and equity Asset and liabilities
liabilities
– Purchasing an asset for – Contribution of – Purchasing an – Expenses on
cash capital asset for credit credit
– Receipt of payment from – Drawings by owner – Payment made to a
a debtor – Cash income creditor
– Investing of cash – Credit income – Entering into a loan
– Transfer from investment – Cash expenses agreement
to bank account

Dr Asset Cr Dr Asset Cr Dr Asset Cr Dr Expense Cr

Increase Decrease Increase Decrease Increase Decrease Increase Decrease

Dr Equity Cr Dr Liabilities Cr
Decrease Increase Decrease Increase

Dr Income Cr
Decrease Increase

Dr Expense Cr
Increase Decrease

Account types

2.7 Completion of books of first entry

(See Learning unit 4)
The accountant employed by a law practice will be aware that there are different stages in the
process of recordkeeping. The different stages form part of the accounting cycle.

As part of the accounting cycle there will be:

• a set of detailed records in which all the necessary information pertaining to every business
transaction is recorded.
• These detailed records are known as the subsidiary journals.
• There is also a need for a set of accounts with summarised balances, which is known as
ledgers.
• At the end of a financial period, statements of performance and position need to be
compiled. The statements that are known as financial statements are the most summarised
records of the firm.
40
A journal entry is like a set of instructions compiled after the transaction is analysed. The
carrying out of these instructions is known as posting.

A posting is recording the information contained in the journal in the ledger accounts. The
journal entries do not change when the posting is done; the journal entry is the instruction for
debiting or crediting a general ledger account. The account that is debited or credited in the
journal entry will be debited or credited in the general ledger.

LBL An accountant should, at all times be aware of which stage of the

See Lessons
accounting cycle the recording process is. (Grey shading in Accounting
cycle
attached document)

2.8 Self-assessment exercises

Question Answer
What is a transaction?

How do you know a

business transaction has
taken place?

What does bookkeeping

entail?

What is the double–entry

system?

List the steps in the financial

accounting cycle.

41
What is an account?

How do you decide which

accounts to set up?

What is accounts
receivable?

What is accounts payable?

What is an expense?

What is income?

What is the accounting

requirement?

What is the double-entry

procedure?

What is the commonly used

abbreviation for a debit?
What is the commonly used
abbreviation for a credit?

42
What is a journal entry?

Explain the nature of

(i) assets
(ii) equity
(iii) liabilities

What category of account is

accounts payable?

What element is accounts

payable?

What is a current asset?

What is a current liability?

What do you call the

collection of all accounts
and transactions for a
business?

What is posting?

43
2.9 Terminology and definitions – cheat sheet

What is an asset? What is a liability? What is an expense?

Assets are resources owned Liabilities are creditors’ An expense is a cost related
by the business, which have interest or interests of parties to the day-to-day running of a
economic value and a other than the owner(s). business. An expense is a
business uses to generate Liabilities are therefore the debit.
income. debts of the business.
What is income? What is equity? Property
(Non-current asset)
Debit balance
Income is the revenue a Equity is the interest which The account for the recording
business receives from selling the owner has in the of the transactions relating to
services and goods to clients business and which the land and buildings (property)
or customers and returns on entity therefore owes to him. purchased for the business.
investments.
Equipment or computer Furniture Motor vehicles
equipment (Non-current (Non-current asset) (Non-current asset)
asset) Debit balance Debit balance Debit balance
The account for the recording The account for the The account for the recording
of the transactions relating to recording of the transactions of the transactions relating to
equipment or computer relating to furniture motor vehicles purchased for
equipment purchased for the purchased for the business. the business.
business.
Law library Bank account Accounts receivable
(Non-current asset) (Current asset) (Current asset)
Debit balance Debit balance Debit balance
An account for the recording A bank account is a financial Accounts receivable are
of the transactions relating to account maintained by a amounts due to the business
the accumulation of legal bank i.e. ABSA, wherein from customers/ clients that
books. financial transactions (cash have received goods or
inflows and outflows) services on credit. The
between the bank and the amounts arise from providing
business are recorded. If the services or products to
bank owes the business clients and they have not yet
money, it is referred to a paid the business.
favourable balance. If the
business owes the bank
money, it is referred to as an
unfavourable balance.

44
 Inventory Trust clients account Petty cash
(Current asset) Debit (Current asset) Debit (Current asset) Debit
balance balance balance
The account for the recording The trust clients account are The petty cash account is
of the transactions relating to the accounts for recording the account used for the
inventory purchased by the the money owed by the recording of small cash
business for resale or for the clients to an attorney’s payments that are
manufacturing of a product. practice (i.e. debtors of the impractical to pay by EFTs.
attorney’s practice). The
trust clients accounts arise
from credit transactions.
Long-term loans Short-term loan Accounts payable (business)
(Non-current liability) Credit (Current liability) Credit (Current liability) Credit
balance balance balance
A loan is an amount of A loan is an amount of Accounts payable is money
money that has been loaned money that has been owed by a business to its
from a bank or financing loaned from a bank or suppliers. The amounts
institution and has to be financing institution and has arise from people who have
repaid to the lender. The to be repaid to the lender. supplied the business with
term long-term refers to Loans are repaid in goods and services but the
loans that are repaid in instalments and interest is supplier has yet to be paid.
specific instalments over a charged on the outstanding
longer period of time (i.e. a amount. Short-term loans
term of 5 – 10 years). Long- refers to loans that are
term loans may have a fixed generally repaid within a
interest rate, or a floating few months or a year.
interest rate (based upon the
reserve bank prime rate).
Trust creditors Bank overdraft (Negative) VAT control account
(Current liability) Credit (Current liability) Credit (Current liability) Credit
balance balance balance
The money that is in a trust A bank account where the The account for the
account at any point in time business owes the bank recording of the transactions
belongs to the clients of the money. It is referred to as relating to VAT. VAT is
legal practice and the clients an unfavourable balance. payable to SARS. Both
are referred to as trust output VAT (Credit side)
creditors of the legal practice. and input VAT (Debit side)
are recorded in the VAT
control account.

45