UNIT 1

FUNDAMENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

AND COMPUTER NETWORKS
DATA COMMUNICATION

▪ Data can be any text, image, audio, video, and

multimedia files.

▪ Communication is an act of sending or receiving data.

▪ Thus, data communication refers to the

exchange of data between two or more
networked or connected devices.
COMPUTER NETWORK

▪ Computer networking refers to interconnected

computing devices that can exchange data and share
resources with each other.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA COMMUNICATIONS:
1. Delivery:
The system must deliver data to the correct destination.

2. Accuracy:
The system must deliver the data accurately.

3. Timeliness:
The system must deliver data in a timely manner.

4. Jitter:
Variation in packet arrival time.
PROCESS OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND ITS
COMPONENTS

1. Message 2. Sender 3. Receiver 4. Medium 5. Protocol

PROCESS OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND
ITS COMPONENTS

❑ Message- The message is the information

(data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures,
audio, and video.

❑ Sender- The sender is the device that sends the

data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone, video camera.

❑ Receiver- The receiver is the device that

receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone, television,& so on.
PROCESS OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND ITS
COMPONENTS
❑ Transmission medium- The transmission
medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver.
⚫ Examples of transmission media include twisted-
pair, coaxial, fiber-optic, and radio waves.

❑ Protocol- A protocol is a set of rules that govern

data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French
cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.
 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
❑ Protocol is a set of rules that govern all aspect of data
communication between computers on a network.

❑ These rules include guidelines to regulate: access method,

allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of
data transfer.

❑ A protocol defines what, how, when it communicated.

❑ Protocols are to computers, what language is to humans.

Since this article is in English, to understand it you must
be able to read English. Similarly, for two devices on a
network to successfully communicate, they must both
understand the same protocols.
 ELEMENTS OF A PROTOCOL

1. Syntax :The structure or format of the data.

Eg. A simple protocol;

[Link]
 Semantic defines interpretation of data that is being sent

For example => last 2 bits of receiver address containing 00=> S

and R are on same N/W
ELEMENTS OF A PROTOCOL

[Link]
 This refers to the agreement between the sender

and receiver about data transmission rates and

duration.
For example. If a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but
the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the
transmission will overload the receiver and data
will be largely lost.
Solution :sender must send 1Mbps data and wait
for ack before next 1Mbps of data.
 STANDARDS

? Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto

(meaning "by fact" or "by convention") and de jure (meaning
"by law" or "by regulation").

? De-facto. Standards that have not been approved by an

organized body but have been adopted as standards through
widespread use are de facto standards. De facto standards are
often established originally by manufacturers who seek to
define the functionality of a new product or technology.

? De-jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an

officially recognized body are de-jure standards.
STANDARDS & STANDARDS ORGANIZATION

❑ Standards are developed by cooperation among

standards creation committees, forums, and
government regulatory agencies.

❑ Standards Creation Committees

1. International Standards Organization (ISO)
2. International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
4. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE)
5. Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
6. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
A) INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ORGANIZATION (ISO)

❑ A multinational body whose membership is drawn

mainly from the standards creation committees of
various governments throughout the world
❑ Dedicated to worldwide agreement on international
standards in a variety of fields.
❑ Currently includes 82 memberships industrialized
nations.
❑ Aims to facilitate the international exchange of goods
and services by providing models for compatibility,
improved quality, increased productivity and decreased
prices.
 B) INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS
UNION (ITU)

❑ Also known as International Telecommunications Union-

Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T)

❑ An international standards organization related to the

United Nations that develops standards for
telecommunications.

❑ Two popular standards developed by ITU-T are:

i) V.32 series – transmission over phone lines
ii)X.25 series – transmission over public digital
networks, email and directory services.
 C) AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS
INSTITUTE (ANSI)
? A non-profit corporation not affiliated with US
government.

? ANSI members include professional societies, industry

associations, governmental and regulatory bodies, and
consumer groups.

? Discussing the internetwork planning and engineering,

ISDN services, signaling, and architecture and optical
hierarchy.
D) INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS (IEEE)

? The largest national professional group involved in

developing standards for computing, communication,
electrical engineering, and electronics.

? Aims to advance theory, creativity and product quality in

the fields of electrical engineering, electronics and radio.

? It sponsored an important standard for local area

networks called Project 802 (eg. 802.3, 802.4 and 802.5
standards.)
E)ELECTRONIC INDUSTRIES ASSOCIATION
(EIA)
◼ An association of electronics manufacturers in the US.
◼ Provide activities include public awareness education
and lobbying efforts in addition to standards
development.
◼ Responsible for developing the EIA-232-D standards
which is a connection between computer and modem
◼ and Responsible for developing the EIA-530
standards which is a balanced serial interface
standard that generally uses a 25-pin connector
BANDWIDTH
? Bandwidth is also called as data transfer rate.

? Moving data from one point to another, in a given time period

(usually a second), is called bandwidth.

? Bandwidth is indicated by bits (of data) per second (bps).

 BANDWIDTH OF SIGNAL

? Bandwidth is defined as the portion of electromagnetic

spectrum occupied by a signal.

? Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower

frequency limits of signal.

? Example:
? Voice signal ranges from 20Hz to 20KHz,
⚫ BW=f2-f1=20000-20=19980Hz
CHANNEL BANDWIDTH
? Bandwidth of a channel is defined as maximum frequency it
can allow to pass through it without attenuation and
distortion.

? Digital Bandwidth: the maximum bit rate that a medium can

propagate through it.
? For digital devices, An Internet connection via cable
modem may provide 25 Mbps of bandwidth.
BIT RATE
? The number of bits per second that can be
transmitted along a digital network.
? The speed of the data is expressed in bits per second
(bits/s or bps).
? For example, kilobits per second (Kbps), Megabits
per second (Mbps), Gigabits per second (Gbps), etc.
 BAUD RATE
? Baud rate refers to the number of signal or symbol changes
that occur per second.
? Binary has two symbols, one for each bit 0 or 1, that represent
voltage levels.
? In this case, the baud or symbol rate is the same as the bit
rate.
? However, it’s possible to have more than two symbols per
transmission interval, whereby each symbol represents
multiple bits.
BIT RATE & BAUD RATE

? bit: a unit of information

? baud: a unit of signalling speed.
? Bit rate:b
Number of bits transmitted per second.
? Baud Rate:s
Number of symbols transmitted per second.
? General formula:
b=s*n
Where n is number of bits per symbol.
? An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal
element. If 1000 signal elements are transmitted
per second, find the bit rate.
? Solution:
r=4
S = 1000
N = S x r = 4000 bps
 MODES OF COMMUNICATION

 Communication between two devices ie sender and receiver can

be of three types:
 Simplex
 Half-Duplex
 Full-Duplex
SIMPLEX
? In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional.
? Only one of the devices on a link can transmit, the
other can only receive.
? e.g. keyboards, monitors, etc.
HALF-DUPLEX

 In this mode, each station can both transmit and receive,

but not at the same time.
 When one device is sending, the other can only receive,
and vice-versa.
 e.g. walkie-talkies, CB(citizens band) etc.
FULL DUPLEX
? In full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and
receive simultaneously.
? One common example of full duplex is the Telephone
network.
? When two people are communicating by a telephone
line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
DIRECTION OF DATA FLOW
?

? Simplex

? Half-duplex

? Full-duplex
ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNAL

Signal: Information converted to electrical form

which is suitable for transmission.
 ANALOG SIGNALS

? An analog signal are continuous and passes through or

includes an infinite number of continuous values along its path.
? Analog signal is a continuous in nature.
? Sine wave is fundamental form of periodic analog signal.
? These kind of signals works with physical values and natural
phenomena such as earthquake, room temperature etc.
ADVANTAGES OF ANALOG SIGNALS

 Easier in processing
 Best suited for audio and video transmission.
 It has a low cost and is portable.
 Uses less bandwidth than digital sounds
 It is the natural form of a sound.
 DISADVANTAGES OF ANALOG SIGNALS
? Analog tends to have a lower quality signal than digital.
? The cables are sensitive to external influences.
? The cost of the Analog wire is high.
? Quality is easily lost
 DIGITAL SIGNAL
? A digital signal can have only a limited number of defined
values.
? Although each value can be any number, it is as simple as 1 and
0.
? All binary signals are digital, but all digital signals are not
necessarily binary.
 ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL SIGNAL

? The accuracy of the digital signal is better than that of the

analog signal.
? Digital signals can be processed and transmitted better
compared to analog signal.
? Digital signals are versatile, so it is widely used.
? Digital signals are more secure.
? They allow the signals transmitted over a lengthy distance.
? By using these signals, we can translate the messages, audio,
video into device language.
DISADVANTAGE OF DIGITAL SIGNALS
? A/D and D/A demands mixed-signal hardware
? Processor speed is limited
? It requires greater bandwidth
? Systems and processing is more complex.
PERIODIC AND NON-PERIODIC SIGNALS

Periodic Signals -
? A signal is periodic signal if it completes a pattern

within measurable time frame.

Non Periodic Signals -

? A signal that does not repeats its pattern over a period

is called aperiodic signal or non periodic.

 ANALOG TRANSMISSION

? Analog transmission: is a means of transmitting analog signals

without regard to their content; the signals may represent analog
data or digital data.

? The analog signal will become weaker (attenuate) after a certain

distance.

? To achieve longer distances, the analog transmission system

includes amplifiers that boost the energy in the signal.

? Unfortunately, the amplifier also boosts the noise components.

DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
? Digital transmission: is a means of transmitting digital
signals without regard to their content; the signals may
represent analog data or digital data.

? Can only propagated a limited distance before

distorts the signal

? A repeater retrives the signal; recovers a data

?
 1) DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERSSION
? It is a process of changing one of the charachteristics of
an analog signals based on the information in digital
data.

? The digital to analog conversion is done by modem.

Modem stands for modulator and demodulator.

? Modulator converts digital signal into analog signals

and Demodulator converts analog signal back to the
digital signal.
1) DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERSSION
1) DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERSSION
? There are three kinds of digital-to-analog
conversions:

1) Amplitude Shift Keying(ASK)

2) Frequency Shift Keying(FSK)
3) Phase Shift Keying(PSK)
1) AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING(ASK)
? In this conversion technique, the amplitude of analog
carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.
? When binary data represents digit 1, the amplitude is
held; otherwise it is set to 0.
2) FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING
? In this conversion technique, the frequency of the
analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.

? This technique uses two frequencies, f1 and f2. One of

them, for example f1, is chosen to represent binary
digit 1 and the other one is used to represent binary
digit 0.
3) PHASE SHIFT KEYING
? In this conversion scheme, the phase of the original
carrier signal is altered to reflect the binary data.
? When a new binary symbol is encountered, the phase
of the signal is altered.
 2) DIGITAL TO DIGITAL CONVERSION
? A signal distorted from the original digital signals it
traverse over the medium.
? Beyond certain distance the signal become
unrecognizable from the original one.
? Therefore hardware equipment called repeater is used to
regenerate the digital signal as shown in the figure.
3) ANALOG TO ANALOG CONVERSION

? Analog-to-analog conversion, or modulation, is

the representation of analog information by an
analog signal.
? It is a process by which a characteristic of carrier
wave is varied according to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal.
? Analog to Analog conversion can be done in three
ways:
1. Amplitude Modulation
2. Frequency Modulation
3. Phase Modulation
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION(AM)
? The modulation in which the amplitude of the carrier wave is
varied according to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal keeping phase and frequency as constant.
AMPLITUDE MODULATION(AM)
FREQUENCY MODULATION(FM)
? The modulation in which the frequency of the carrier wave
is varied according to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal keeping phase and amplitude as
constant.
FREQUENCY MODULATION(FM)
 PHASE MODULATION(PM)
? The modulation in which the phase of the carrier wave is
varied according to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal keeping amplitude and frequency as
constant.
? Practically it is similar to the FM.
PHASE MODULATION(PM)
4) ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION
? It is a process of changing one of the characteristics of an
Digital signals based on the information in Analog data.

? The technique to change an analog signal to digital data is

called pulse code modulation (PCM). A PCM encoder has
the following three processes:

1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Encoding
 4) ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION
A) SAMPLING

? Sampling that represent the signal's amplitude at specific

points in time. The sample rate (or sampling rate) is the
number of samples taken per second
4) ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION
B) QUANTIZATION
? The quantization is done between the maximum
amplitude value and the minimum amplitude
value.
4) ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION
C) ENCODING
? In encoding, each approximated value is then
converted into binary format.
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER NETWORK
? Computer Network :
A computer network is a group of computer systems and
other computing hardware devices that are linked together
through communication channels to facilitate
communication and resource-sharing among a wide range of
users.
? APPLICATIONS :

[Link] 2. Video conferencing

3. Marketing 4. School
5. Radio 6. Television
7. E-mail 8. Companies
ADVANTAGES / BENIFITS OF COMPUTER NETWORK

 Sharing of Information
 Resource sharing
 Peripherals:printer,scanner, speakers,etc.
 Storage
 Application sharing
 User Communication
 Facilitating Centralized Management
 Managing S/w
 Maintaing N/w
 Backing up data
ADVANTAGES / BENEFITS OF COMPUTER NETWORK

 1. File sharing: Computer network is that it allows file

sharing and remote file access. A person sitting at one
workstation that is connected to a network can easily see files
present on another workstation, provided he/she is
authorized to do so.

 2. Resource Sharing: A computer network provides a

cheaper alternative by the provision of resource sharing. All
the computers can be interconnected using a network and
just one modem & printer can efficiently provide the services
to all users.
ADVANTAGES / BENEFITS OF COMPUTER
NETWORK

 3. Flexible Handling: log on from anywhere and access

his/her files. This offers flexibility to the user

 4. Centralized Management- management of resources in the

organization, centrally through client server architecture.

 5. Backing up data: Creating backup files and restoring them

becomes much easier.

 6. E-mail Services
DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORK

1. Security concerns: One of the major drawback of

computer network is the security issues that are involved.

2. Virus and malware: Viruses can spread on a network

easily because of the interconnectivity of workstations.

3. Lack of robustness: If the main file server of a

computer network breaks down, the entire system becomes
useless.

4. Needs an efficient handler: The technical skills and

knowledge required to operate and administer a computer
network.
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORK
Networks are classified depending on the geography &
their components role and Transmission Technology

1. Classification of network by their geography:

⚫ LAN - Local Area Network
⚫ MAN - Metropolitan Area Network

⚫ WAN - Wide Area Network

⚫ CAN - Campus Area Network

⚫ PAN - Personal Area Network

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
? A computer network inside a building and operated
under single administrative system is generally
termed as Local Area Network (LAN).

? Usually, LAN covers an organization offices, schools,

colleges or universities.

? LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources

between end users. The resources such as printers,
file servers, scanners, and internet are easily
sharable among computers.
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
Advantages:
? The reliability of network is high because the failure

of the computer in the network does not affect the

functioning for other computers.
? Addition of new computer to network is easy.

? High rate of data transmission is possible.

? Loss expensive to install.

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
? Disadvantages:

1. Limited computers connected

2. Used for small area
3. Network need to be maintain by skilled person
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)

? A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a large

computer network that spans a metropolitan area.

? A MAN typically covers an area up to 10 kms (city).

? For an organization, the common use of a MAN is to

extend their LAN connectivity between
buildings/offices that are within the same city or
urban area (hence the name Metropolitan Area
Network).
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)
 WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
? A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large
geographical area such as states or countries.

? A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.

? A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it

spans over a large geographical area through a telephone line,
fibre optic cable or satellite links.

? The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.

? A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business,
government, and education.
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
PERSONAL AREA NETWORK (PAN)
? A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which
is very personal to a user.
? This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red
enabled devices.
? PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters.
? PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse,
Bluetooth enabled headphones, wireless printers, and TV
remotes.
? The communication network established for the purpose of
connecting computer devices of personal use is known as
the PAN
PERSONAL AREA NETWORK (PAN)
CAMPUS AREA NETWORK (CAN)
? CAN is a Campus Area Network is used to connect
buildings across campuses of colleges or
Universities.
? A CAN is actually a type of LAN.
? It is larger than a LAN but smaller than MAN.
? CAN is a network that connects two or more LANs
but that is limited to a specific and contiguous
geographical area such as a college campus,
industrial complex or military base
LAN VS MAN VS WAN
? Network Archichtecture
Peer-to-Peer
TYPES OF NNetwork:
ETWORK BASED ON
? Peer networks are defined by lack of
COMPONENT ROLE
central control over network.

? There are no fixed division into client &

server. In this individual who forms a
loose group can communicate with other in
the group as shown in fig.

? Each computer is responsible for accessing

& maintaining its own security &
resources.

? In Peer-to- Peer network every computer

can function both as client & server.
Peer-to-Peer
TYPES OF NNetwork:
ETWORK BASED ON
? Advantages:
COMPONENT ROLE
⚫ No extra investment in server hardware &
software is required.
⚫ Easy setup.

⚫ No network administrator required.

? Disadvantages:
⚫ Additional load due to sharing of resources.
⚫ Lack of central organization, which can
make data hard to find.
⚫ Weak security
Client -Server network (Server-based
TYPES OF NETWORK BASED ON
network):
?CServer
OMPONENT ROLE are defined by
based networks
presence of servers on a network that
provides security & administration of
network.
? Server-based network divide

processing between client & servers.

? Client request service such as file

printing & servers deliver them.

? Servers are more powerful than client

computers.
 TYPES OF NETWORK BASED ON
COMPONENT
Client ROLE (Server-based
-Server network
network):
? Advantages:

⚫ Strong central security

⚫ Ability to share expensive equipment’s
such as printer.
⚫ Ability of server to pull available
hardware & software.
⚫ Easy manageability of large user.

? Disadvantages:
⚫ Expensive dedicated hardware.
⚫ Expensive network operating system
software & client license.
⚫ A dedicated network administrator.