Handout 1 – Lecture Objectives and Formulae for “Basic Well Control 2”
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, YOU should be able to;
1. Describe the well control implications of using differential float equipment in casings.
2. Explain why running casing in to a horizontal hole section may initiate a kick.
3. Explain why a well may kick as cement sets and suggest two ways of reducing the chances of such
a kick.
4. Give three reasons why a Driller’s Method kill will often be the preferred method of killing a kick
that is taken while running casing.
5. Describe what is meant by a Volumetric well control method and suggest when it might be
applicable in casing and cementing operations.
Formulae
Pchoke = Pa + Pw
Where: Pchoke = pressure to maintain on the choke, psi.
Pw = working pressure increment, psi.
Pa = initial shut in annular pressure.
Pw × ( annular capacity )
∆V1 =
ρ1
Where: ∆V1 = volume increment to bleed off, bbls.
ρ1 = mud gradient, psi/ft.
Useful references for after the lecture
Nelson, Eric B. 1990. Well Cementing. Schlumberger Educational Services.
Basic Well Control 2 Page 1 Last updated 10 February, 2005
Handout 2 – Notes for the training event “Basic Well Control 2”
Automatic and differential float equipment both allow mud to enter the casing while running.
Automatic valves simply stay open until they are closed – in this diagram, once circulation starts the
valve converts to a proper float. With differential fill equipment, one valve will allow the casing to fill
to 90%, with two valves (shoe and collar) the casing will fill to 81% (0.9 x 0.9).
Automatic fill up valve
Now the problem with these types of valves is that if a gas influx enters the casing, there is no way to
stop it. By the time a kick is detected, gas will be flowing in to the casing, migrating upwards and
pushing out mud. Flow from inside the casing will make it impossible to make up a crossover and
kelly cock. The casing cannot be shut in and closing the BOP will simply force even more influx into
the casing!
If gas enters the casing, it may be impossible to make up a shut in valve.
In a horizontal well, it’s possible for gas to accumulate in the horizontal section from the previous trip.
While tripping in and running casing in to the horizontal section, special care must be taken to monitor
the well for any signs of flow. Pipe run in will displace the gas bubble out to a place where it can start
to migrate upwards, causing a kick.
If in doubt, as long as no hole problems exist, stop and circulate bottoms up and circulate over the
choke for the final stages of the circulation.
Gas migration through cement slurry
Cement slurry goes through various stages as it sets. It’s important to understand these phases in order
to realise why a previously static well can kick when heavier cement slurry replaces mud in the hole.
Cement slurry is initially fully fluid, that is, it transmits all hydrostatic and hydraulic pressures.
Chemical reactions take place involving hydration, dissolution and precipitation of the various
components. As solids are formed from crystal growth and precipitation, a structure is built up which
results in a solid but porous structure. The gelled cement now does not transmit full hydrostatic
pressure as the fluid within the pores is close to mixwater gradient.
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As the reactions continue, a volume reduction is seen because the density of the final material is
greater than that of the initial reactants. This volume reduction leads to an increase in porosity and a
reduction in the pore pressure fluid within the cement pores. It is this reduction in pore pressure which
can cause gas to enter the setting cement from a permeable gas zone.
Finally the cement sets hard. It becomes a solid, porous but impermeable. If sufficient gas has flowed
in to the cement then channels formed by the gas can allow communication between the formation and
the column of mud in the annulus.
There are many different techniques which may be used to avoid gas entry, depending on the
circumstances. We mention three principal reasons here which are all commonly used to prevent gas
migration.
Right Angle Set cement – so called because the graph of viscosity vs time shows a low viscosity for a
long time followed by a very rapid build up of viscosity. While the viscosity is low, the cement can be
placed and full hydrostatic pressure is transmitted. When the viscosity rapidly increases, there is little
time when the conditions are right for gas to enter. The graph shows temperature build up to 308°F
which then stays steady until the set, at which time the exothermic reaction temporarily increases the
temperature.
Right Angle Set Cement Slurry – Setting Graph
Latex additives – these additives coalesce when exposd to gas to form an impermeable barrier within
the setting cement. Gas may initially enter the slurry but makes little progress before the barrier
forms. These additives also provide excellent fluid loss control and improve rheology due to their
lubricating properties.
Minimize free water and water loss – high levels of free water or high water loss promote gas
migration. The recommended maximum levels are 50 mL/30 minutes and 0.25% respectively to
minimize gas migration.
Kill methods running casing
The lecture “Basic Well Control 1” discussed the reasons for a well kicking and also described two
common methods of killing the well – “Balanced” and “Drillers” method. The Balanced method is
preferred when an exposed permeable formation has a higher pore fluid pressure than mud hydrostatic.
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If an influx is swabbed in to the well, or occurs due to total losses, it is not necessary to increase the
mud density to control the kicking formation – it is only necessary to remove the influx and fill the
well with the original mud density.
When running casing, the most likely kicking mechanism is from gas swabbed in from the last trip out
or perhaps from total losses induced by running casing too fast. In either case, the Balanced method is
not necessary or appropriate.
One of the main advantages of a balanced kill is that it reduces pressures on the open hole during the
kill, as long as heavy kill mud enters the annulus while some gas still remains in the open hole
annulus. With a string of casing, the casing volume is much greater than the open hole annulus
volume and so this advantage is lost. It would be better to start a Drillers method quickly and remove
the gas influx rather than waiting first to weight up the mud. This is especially valid if the gas
migrates up very quickly as it’s easier to control while circulating.
To construct a Balanced kill graph, first the initial circulating pressure must be known. To establish
this would require breaking circulation and watching for the stabilised pressure while holding Pchoke
constant. Then the well has to be shut in again, calculations made and mud weighted up before
starting to circulate again. By the time this had been done, the influx would probably be out of the
annulus if circulation was continued for a Drillers method kill.
Volumetric kick control
Once cement is pumped and the plug bumped, circulation is not possible without perforating the
casing. If the well kicks (as a result of inadequate slurry design) then the situation must be controlled
to avoid breaking down the formation.
Volumetric control is not a means of killing the well. It allows a gas influx to be brought to the
surface while maintaining a bottom hole pressure a little greater than formation pressure.
The time taken to remove the influx depends on how fast the gas rises up the annulus. This in turn
depends on mud rheology, well deviation, depth of the gas zone, annular capacity, type of mud in use
and how well dispersed the gas is in the mud.
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Migrating Gas Bubble in a Well
This graph shows the ideal situation just after closing in the well with a gas influx on bottom and again
when the gas reaches the surface. Note the following features;
1. The bottom hole pressure is kept constant.
2. The pressure at the bottom of the gas bubble equals the bottom hole pressure – mud hydrostatic
below the gas, as the gas moves up the hole. (The bottom of the bubble follows the mud pressure
line up the well).
3. Annular pressure will increase as the gas rises, to allow for gas expansion. As the gas expands it
pushes more mud out of the annulus. This reduces the hydrostatic head of mud available and if
BHP is to remain the same, the choke pressure must increase. Pchoke is maximum when the top of
the gas reaches the surface.
4. The diagram and calculations assume a single bubble of gas. In reality, gas will be dispersed along
the mud column. This will lead to lower than calculated surface pressures.
Volumetric procedure
The procedure for a volumetric kill is fairly simple – in principle! The problem is more one of
awareness – volumetric control is often not covered in the standard well control certification courses.
After flow is detected, the BOP is closed and the annular pressure is read every minute and plotted. It
should rise quickly then steady off as it stabilises.
If the annular pressure is monitored after that, it should slowly rise due to gas migration (if the influx
is indeed gas). It is possible to estimate the speed of gas migration from this pressure rise but that is
outside the scope of this lecture.
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The next step is to select a working pressure increment, Pw. This should be a small increment of
pressure which can be read off from the annular pressure gauge. It should not be so large that it allows
MAASP to be approached in the early stages.
The gas rises and the well stays closed in. When Pchoke reaches Pa + Pw, both the bottom hole pressure
and the choke pressure have risen by Pw.
Now Pchoke is held constant as the gas continues to migrate. This requires mud to be slowly bled off as
the gas expands. As the hydrostatic pressure in the annulus reduces (less mud) and the surface
pressure stays the same, the BHP reduces.
The amount of mud to bleed off is that amount which gives a hydrostatic pressure equal to Pw. This is
termed ∆V1 (Delta V one). Once that has happened, BHP is back to the original BHP but the surface
pressure now equals Pa + Pw. And so the process is repeated – Pchoke increases by Pw by holding it
closed, then hold Pchoke constant again while bleeding off ∆V1.
This graph shows the pressure on
bottom and at the choke during the
procedure. From the shut in pressure,
the surface and bottom hole pressures
both increase as the gas migrates
upwards without expansion.
Once Pchoke reaches Pa + Pw, the choke
(annular) pressure is held constant by
bleeding off mud as the gas migrates -
allowing the gas bubble to expand.
Once the volume ∆V1 is bled off, the
bottom hole pressure is back to the
original pressure and the procedure is
repeated.
This process is repeated until the gas bubble reaches the surface. At that point the annulus pressure
will no longer increase since the gas bubble has expanded to its fullest extent. Bleeding pressure off
after the gas bubble reaches the surface will only cause the bottom hole pressure to fall, allowing
another kick to occur. Either mud must be pumped into the well increasing the total system pressure,
or the well must remain shut in until another course of action is initiated. If mud is pumped into the
well, after the mud has fallen through the gas, gas may be bled off decreasing the surface pressure to
the pressure when the mud was pumped in less the added hydrostatic pressure the mud has added to
the full column of fluid in the annulus.
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Volumetric calculations
The calculations are fairly simple. Having decided the working pressure increment, ∆V1 is easily
calculated. From first principles, work out the height in the annulus for Pw (= Pw ÷ ρ1) and multiply
this by the annular capacity in bbls/ft.
Example
A 121/4” vertical hole has a 95/8” casing run to 10,000’. After bumping the plug it is noticed that the
annulus is flowing. The well is shut in, Pa = 150 psi. MAASP is 950 psi. Mud gradient is 0.65 psi/ft.
Calculate Pchoke, Pchoke1 and ∆V1 if Pw = 100 psi. Ann cap = 0.056 bbl/ft.
Pchoke = 150 + 100 = 250 psi
Pchoke1 = 250 + 100 = 350 psi
100 × 0.056
∆V1 = = 8.6 bbls
0.65
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