SET IN PROBLEM SOLVING

1. Concept of Cognition
Meaning of Cognition
Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge,
understanding information, and interpreting the environment. It includes all the
psychological processes through which individuals perceive, process, store, and use
information.
Cognition helps individuals understand the world around them and respond
appropriately to different situations. It involves a variety of mental activities such as
perception, attention, memory, thinking, language, reasoning, and problem-solving.

Scholarly Definitions of Cognition

According to Ulric Neisser,
“Cognition refers to all processes by which sensory input is transformed, reduced,
elaborated, stored, recovered, and used.”
According to Robert J. Sternberg,
Cognition refers to the mental processes through which people acquire knowledge
and solve problems.
According to Margaret W. Matlin,
Cognition is the set of mental processes that allow individuals to acquire
knowledge and understand information.
Thus, cognition is the broad framework of mental functioning, within which processes
like thinking, memory, perception, and learning operate.

2. Thinking: Concept
Thinking is considered a higher mental process within cognition. It involves the mental
manipulation of ideas, images, symbols, and concepts in order to solve problems,
make decisions, or understand situations.
In psychological literature, thinking has been defined mainly in two ways:
1. Thinking as a problem-solving activity.
2. Thinking as a mechanism of internal representation of the external world.
According to Henry E. Garrett (1968),
“Thinking is a behaviour which is often implicit and hidden and in which symbols
(images, ideas, and concepts) are ordinarily employed.”
According to B. Von Haller Gilmer (1970),
“Thinking is a problem-solving process in which we use ideas or symbols in place
of overt activity.”
Thus, thinking is a goal-directed behaviour. It occurs in a particular context and helps
individuals deal with tasks and problems in everyday life. Activities such as choosing
clothes, planning daily work, or solving mathematical problems involve thinking.

3. Types of Thinking
Thinking can be classified into several forms based on the nature of mental activity
involved.

1. Perceptual or Concrete Thinking

Perceptual or concrete thinking is the simplest form of thinking. It is based on the direct
perception of concrete objects or events.
In this type of thinking, individuals rely on actual sensory experiences rather than abstract
ideas.
Example:
If a person is asked to write a few sentences about their favourite book, the thinking
involved is mainly perceptual or concrete thinking.

2. Conceptual or Abstract Thinking

Conceptual or abstract thinking is more advanced than perceptual thinking. It involves
the use of concepts, symbols, language, and ideas to understand situations and solve
problems.
This type of thinking allows individuals to deal with abstract ideas that are not directly
observable.
Example:
Solving mathematical problems or discussing philosophical ideas involves conceptual
thinking.

3. Reflective Thinking
Reflective thinking refers to careful and deliberate thinking based on previous
experiences and knowledge. In this process, individuals analyze situations, evaluate
possible solutions, and then make decisions.
It often involves insight and thoughtful consideration of problems.

4. Creative Thinking
Creative thinking involves the generation of new, original, and novel ideas or
solutions. It requires imagination and the ability to rearrange existing information in
new ways.
Creative thinking plays an important role in innovation, invention, and artistic
expression.

5. Critical Thinking
Critical thinking refers to the ability to analyze information logically, evaluate
arguments, and make reasoned judgments.
In this type of thinking, individuals carefully examine assumptions, evidence, and
conclusions before making decisions.

Creative Thinking
Meaning and Concept
Creative thinking refers to the ability to generate new, original, and useful ideas by
combining existing knowledge in novel ways. It involves looking at problems from
different perspectives and finding innovative solutions rather than relying on routine or
traditional methods.
Creative thinking is an important higher cognitive process that allows individuals to
produce original ideas, discover new relationships, and create new products or
solutions. It plays a crucial role in fields such as science, art, literature, technology,
and everyday problem solving.
Unlike routine thinking, creative thinking requires imagination, flexibility, and
originality.

Scholarly Definitions
According to J. P. Guilford,
creative thinking involves divergent thinking, which refers to the ability to produce many
possible solutions to a single problem.
According to Robert J. Sternberg,
creativity is the ability to produce work that is both novel (original) and
appropriate (useful).
According to E. Paul Torrance,
creative thinking is the process of sensing problems, forming ideas or hypotheses,
testing them, and communicating the results.

Nature of Creative Thinking

Creative thinking has several distinctive characteristics:
1. Originality – producing new and unique ideas.
2. Flexibility – ability to approach problems from different perspectives.
 3. Fluency – generating many ideas in a short time.
4. Imagination – ability to visualize possibilities beyond reality.
5. Problem sensitivity – recognizing problems that others may overlook.

Elements or Components of Creative Thinking

Researchers such as E. Paul Torrance identified several components of creativity.
1. Fluency
Fluency refers to the ability to produce a large number of ideas or solutions to a
problem.
2. Flexibility
Flexibility refers to the ability to shift thinking and consider different categories of
ideas.
3. Originality
Originality refers to the ability to produce unusual or unique ideas that differ from
common responses.
4. Elaboration
Elaboration refers to the ability to expand or develop an idea by adding details and
improvements.

Process of Creative Thinking

Creative thinking often develops through several stages:
1. Preparation
The individual collects information and studies the problem carefully.
2. Incubation
During this stage, the mind subconsciously processes the problem even when the
person is not actively thinking about it.
3. Illumination
This stage involves the sudden appearance of a new idea or insight, often called the
“Aha moment.”
4. Verification
In this stage, the individual evaluates and tests the idea to determine whether it is
practical and useful.

Importance of Creative Thinking

Creative thinking is important because it:
 helps in solving complex problems
 promotes innovation and invention
 encourages flexibility and open-mindedness
 contributes to scientific discoveries and artistic achievements
 improves decision making and adaptability in everyday life.

Problem Solving: Concept

Meaning of Problem Solving
In psychology, problem solving refers to the mental process through which an
individual overcomes obstacles or barriers in order to achieve a desired goal. A
problem arises when there is a gap between the present situation and the desired
goal, and the person does not immediately know how to bridge that gap.
Thus, a problem can be understood as a barrier or hindrance that prevents an
individual from reaching a goal. The process of finding ways to remove this barrier is
known as problem solving.
According to Robert J. Sternberg,
problem solving involves identifying a problem, generating possible solutions, and
selecting the most appropriate solution to achieve a goal.

Illustration of Problem Solving: The Two-String Problem

One of the classic demonstrations of problem solving is the Two-String Problem introduced
by Norman R. F. Maier in 1931.
In this experiment, a person stands in a room where two strings are hanging from the
ceiling. The goal is to tie the two strings together, but the strings are too far apart to
hold both at the same time. The person is given some objects such as:
 paintbrushes
 a can of paint
 a heavy canvas tarpaulin.
To solve the problem, the individual must think creatively. One solution is to tie a
paintbrush to one string and set it swinging like a pendulum, then hold the other
string and catch the swinging one when it comes close. This allows the two strings to be tied
together.
This problem illustrates how creative thinking and insight are often required in problem
solving.

Steps in the Problem-Solving Process

A typical problem-solving process involves several stages. According to Robert J.
Sternberg, the process generally follows seven steps.

1. Problem Identification
This is the first step in the problem-solving process.
A problem can be solved only when it is recognized as a problem. At this stage, the
individual becomes aware that there is a gap between the current situation and the
desired goal.

2. Problem Definition
After identifying the problem, the next step is to define it clearly.
In this stage, the nature, meaning, and scope of the problem are examined. A clear
understanding of the problem helps in developing appropriate solutions.

3. Strategy Formulation
In this stage, the individual generates possible ways to solve the problem.
Different strategies or methods are considered to overcome the obstacle and reach the goal.

4. Organization of Information
At this stage, the person collects and organizes relevant information related to the
problem and possible solutions.
According to Robert J. Sternberg, this stage involves understanding how the different
pieces of information in the problem fit together.

5. Allocation of Resources
Once a strategy is selected, the next step is to decide how to allocate available
resources such as:
 time
 effort
 money
 materials.
Proper allocation of resources helps in implementing the chosen strategy effectively.

6. Monitoring
Monitoring involves continuously checking the progress while solving the problem.
At this stage, the individual evaluates whether the chosen strategy is working effectively and
may modify the approach if necessary.

7. Evaluation
Evaluation is the final stage of the problem-solving process.
In this stage, the individual assesses whether the problem has been successfully
solved. If the solution is not satisfactory, the person may return to earlier stages and
attempt alternative strategies.

Barriers to Problem Solving

Meaning
Although problem solving is an important cognitive process for achieving goals, sometimes
individuals fail to solve problems effectively due to certain psychological obstacles.
These obstacles are known as barriers to problem solving. Such barriers interfere with a
person’s ability to think clearly, generate solutions, and reach appropriate decisions.
Psychologists have identified several factors that hinder the problem-solving process.

1. Mental Set (Perceptual Set)

Meaning
Mental set refers to the tendency to rely on previously successful strategies when
solving new problems. Because a particular method worked in the past, individuals
become biased toward using the same strategy repeatedly, even when it may not be
appropriate for the new situation.
This tendency is also called the set effect.
Example
A classic illustration is the nine-dot problem, where individuals try to connect nine dots
with straight lines. Many people fail because they assume they must stay within the
boundaries of the square formed by the dots. Their mental set prevents them from
thinking beyond the usual pattern.
Mental set therefore limits flexibility and creativity in thinking.

2. Functional Fixedness
Meaning
Functional fixedness refers to the tendency to perceive objects only in terms of their
usual or typical functions, which makes it difficult to think of alternative uses for them.
The concept was first described by Karl Duncker.
Example
In the two-string problem introduced by Norman R. F. Maier, people often fail to use the
paintbrush as a weight to swing the string because they think of it only as a tool for
painting. This demonstrates functional fixedness.
Functional fixedness prevents individuals from using objects creatively to solve
problems.

3. Using Incomplete Representation

Meaning
Sometimes a problem cannot be solved because the initial information about the
problem is interpreted incorrectly or incompletely.
If a person forms a wrong mental representation of the problem, the solutions
generated will also be incorrect.
Thus, misunderstanding the problem leads to ineffective problem solving.

4. Lack of Expertise or Intellect

Meaning
Problem solving often requires adequate knowledge, skills, and intellectual ability.
If an individual does not possess sufficient expertise or cognitive ability, solving the
problem becomes difficult.
Example
If a first-grade student is asked to solve a complex algebra problem, the student will
not be able to solve it because he or she lacks the necessary knowledge and intellectual
ability.
Therefore, expertise plays an important role in effective problem solving.
5. Lack of Motivation
Meaning
Even if a person has the ability and knowledge to solve a problem, lack of motivation
or interest can prevent effective problem solving.
Motivation encourages individuals to persist, try different strategies, and continue
efforts even after failure.
Without motivation, people may give up easily before finding a solution.

6. Emotional Block
Meaning
Emotional states such as fear, anxiety, stress, or frustration can interfere with clear
thinking and reduce the ability to solve problems effectively.
Strong emotions may disturb concentration, reduce confidence, and impair decision-
making.
Example
A student suffering from stage fear may find it difficult to solve a mathematical problem on
the classroom board, even though the student knows the answer. Anxiety affects the
student’s performance.

Decision Making: Choosing Among Alternatives

Concept and Meaning of Decision Making
In everyday life, individuals constantly face situations where they must choose one option
from several possible alternatives. For example, deciding what clothes to wear,
which book to read, which career to pursue, or how to spend time all involve decision
making.
In psychology, decision making is considered a cognitive process in which a person
evaluates different alternatives and selects the most appropriate option.
According to Fred C. Lunenburg, decision making involves identifying a problem,
generating alternatives, evaluating those alternatives, selecting the best option,
and assessing the outcome.
Thus, decision making can be viewed as a special type of problem-solving
behaviour. In this process, the possible solutions are already known, and the task is to
choose the best alternative among them.

Characteristics of Decision Making

Some important characteristics of decision making include:
1. It is a cognitive process involving thinking and evaluation.
2. It involves choosing among alternatives.
3. It is goal-directed, aiming to achieve the best outcome.
4. It involves judgment and evaluation of advantages and disadvantages.
5. It results in action, since the selected option must be implemented.

Decision-Making Process
Psychologists have proposed that decision making follows a systematic sequence of
steps. According to Fred C. Lunenburg (2010), the decision-making process involves six
stages.

1. Identifying the Problem

Decision making begins with recognizing that a problem or situation exists which
requires a choice.
In this stage, the individual becomes aware that a decision must be made to resolve a
particular issue.
Example:
A person may ask: “What should I wear to my friend’s marriage ceremony?”

2. Generating Alternatives
Once the problem is identified, the next step is to generate possible alternatives or
options.
At this stage, individuals list all possible choices available to them.
Example:
Possible options could include:
 Saree
 Salwar-suit
 Lehenga

3. Evaluating Alternatives
In this stage, each alternative is carefully evaluated by considering its advantages and
disadvantages.
The decision maker compares alternatives on the basis of factors such as:
 suitability
 cost
 convenience
 benefits
 possible consequences.
Example:
If the weather is cold and the person is not feeling well, salwar-suit may provide better
comfort and protection than a saree or lehenga.

4. Choosing an Alternative
After evaluating all options, the individual selects the most appropriate alternative.
This step involves making the final choice that seems most suitable for achieving the
desired goal.
Example:
The person decides to wear a salwar-suit.

5. Implementing the Decision

In this stage, the selected alternative is put into action.
The individual acts upon the decision and carries out the chosen option.
Example:
The person irons the salwar-suit and gets dressed for the function.

6. Evaluating Decision Effectiveness

This is the final stage of the decision-making process.
The individual evaluates whether the decision was effective and satisfactory. If
necessary, the decision may be modified or adjusted.
Example:
After getting ready, the person may check in the mirror and decide whether the outfit looks
appropriate or whether something needs to be changed (such as sandals or accessories).