Diploma in Education

Sociology of Education

Module DEP209
Published by: The Zimbabwe Open University

P.O. Box MP1119

Mount Pleasant

Harare, ZIMBABWE

The Zimbabwe Open University is a distance teaching and

open learning institution.

Year: 2010

Layout : S. Mushore

Cover Design: T. Ndhlovu

Typeset in Times New Roman, 12 point on auto leading

© Zimbabwe Open University. All rights reserved. No part of this

publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying , recording or otherwise, without the prior permission
of the Zimbabwe Open University.
Authors: D. Mawere
[Link] (Sociology) (UZ)
[Link] (History and Sociology) (UZ)
Certificate in Education (UZ)

Content reviewer: M.T. Mukabeta

Master of Education (Leeds)
Bachelor of Education (Honours) (Bristol)
PGCE in Open and Distance Learning (Open
University UK)

Editor: B. Mutambanengwe
Master of Education (MEAPPS) (ZOU)
Bachelor of Education (Home Economics) (UZ)
Secondary Teachers’ Certificate (GTC)
 To the student
The demand for skills and knowledge be an all-round performer in the field of
and the requirement to adjust and your own choice. Our course teams
change with changing technolog y, comprise academics, technologists and
places on us a need to learn administrators of varied backgrounds,
continually throughout life. As all training, skills, experiences and personal
people need an education of one form interests. The combination of all these
or another, it has been found that qualities inevitably facilitates the
conventional education institutions production of learning materials that
cannot cope with the demand for teach successfully any student, anywhere
education of this magnitude. It has, and far removed from the tutor in space
however, been discovered that distance and time. We emphasize that our
education and open learning, now also learning materials should enable you to
exploiting e-learning technology, itself solve both work-related problems and
an offshoot of e-commerce, has other life challenges.
become the most effective way of
transmitting these appropriate skills To avoid stereotyping and professional
and knowledge required for national narrowness, our teams of learning
and international development. materials producers come from
different universities in and outside
Since attainment of independence in Zimbabwe, and from Commerce and
1980, the Zimbabwe Government has Industry. This openness enables ZOU
spearheaded the development of to produce materials that have a long
distance education and open learning shelf life and are sufficiently
at tertiary level, resulting in the comprehensive to cater for the needs
establishment of the Zimbabwe Open of all of you, our learners in different
University (ZOU) on 1 March, 1999. walks of life. You, the learner, have a
large number of optional courses to
ZOU is the first, leading, and currently choose from so that the knowledge and
the only university in Zimbabwe skills developed suit the career path
entirely dedicated to teaching by that you choose. Thus, we strive to
distance education and open learning. tailor-make the learning materials so
We are determined to maintain our that they can suit your personal and
leading position by both satisfying our professional needs. In developing the
clients and maintaining high ZOU learning materials, we are guided
academic standards. To achieve the by the desire to provide you, the learner,
leading position, we have adopted the with all the knowledge and skill that
course team approach to producing will make you a better performer all
the varied learning materials that will round, be this at certificate, diploma,
holistically shape you, the learner to undergraduate
or postgraduate level. We aim for products that of information, anywhere in the world through
will settle comfortably in the global village and internet and to communicate, converse, discuss
competing successfully with anyone. Our target and collaborate synchronously and
is, therefore, to satisfy your quest for knowledge asynchronously, with peers and tutors whom
and skills through distance education and open you may never meet in life. It is our intention
learning to bring the computer, email, internet chat-
rooms, whiteboards and other modern methods
Any course or programme launched by ZOU of delivering learning to all the doorsteps of our
is conceived from the cross-pollination of ideas learners, wherever they may be. For all these
from consumers of the product, chief among developments and for the latest information on
whom are you, the students and your what is taking place at ZOU, visit the ZOU
employers. We consult you and listen to your website at [Link]
critical analysis of the concepts and how they
are presented. We also consult other academics Having worked as best we can to prepare your
from universities the world over and other learning path, hopefully like John the Baptist
international bodies whose reputation in prepared for the coming of Jesus Christ, it is
distance education and open learning is of a my hope as your Vice Chancellor that all of
very high calibre. We carry out pilot studies you, will experience unimpeded success in your
of the course outlines, the content and the educational endeavours. We, on our part, shall
programme component. We are only too glad continually strive to improve the learning
to subject our learning materials to academic materials through evaluation, transformation
and professional criticism with the hope of of delivery methodologies, adjustments and
improving them all the time. We are sometimes complete overhauls of both the
determined to continue improving by materials and organizational structures and
changing the learning materials to suit the culture that are central to providing you with
idiosyncratic needs of our learners, their the high quality education that you deserve.
employers, research, economic circumstances, Note that your needs, the learner ‘s needs,
technological development, changing times occupy a central position within ZOU’s core
and geographic location, in order to maintain activities.
our leading position. We aim at giving you an
education that will work for you at any time Best wishes and success in your studies.
anywhere and in varying circumstances and
that your performance should be second to
none.

As a progressive university that is forward

looking and determined to be a successful part
of the twenty-first century, ZOU has started _____________________
to introduce e-learning materials that will Dr. Primrose Kurasha
enable you, our students, to access any source Vice Chancellor
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At
The Zimbabwe Open University
A s you embark on your studies with the
Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) by open
and distance learning, we need to advise you so
remain with more questions than answers. You
need someone to help you in such matters.
that you can make the best use of the learning
This is where the six hour tutorial comes in.
materials, your time and the tutors who are based
For it to work, you need to know that:
at your regional office.
• There is insufficient time for the
tutor to lecture you
The most important point that you need to note
• Any ideas that you discuss in the
is that in distance education and open learning,
tutorial, originate from your
there are no lectures like those found in
experience as you work on the
conventional universities. Instead, you have
materials. All the issues raised above
learning packages that may comprise written
are a good source of topics (as they
modules, tapes, CDs, DVDs and other referral
pertain to your learning) for
materials for extra reading. All these including
discussion during the tutorial
radio, television, telephone, fax and email can be
• The answers come from you while
used to deliver learning to you. As such, at the
the tutor’s task is to confirm, spur
ZOU, we do not expect the tutor to lecture
further discussion, clarify, explain,
you when you meet him/her. We believe that
give additional information, guide
that task is accomplished by the learning package
the discussion and help you put
that you receive at registration. What then is
together full answers for each
the purpose of the six hour tutorial for each
question that you bring
course on offer?
• You must prepare for the tutorial
by bringing all the questions and
At the ZOU, as at any other distance and open
answers that you have found out on
learning university, you the student are at the
the topics to the discussion
centre of learning. After you receive the learning
• For the tutor to help you
package, you study the tutorial letter and other
effectively, give him/her the topics
guiding documents before using the learning
beforehand so that in cases where
materials. During the study, it is obvious that
information has to be gathered,
you will come across concepts/ideas that may
there is sufficient time to do so. If
not be that easy to understand or that are not
the questions can get to the tutor
so clearly explained. You may also come across
at least two weeks before the
issues that you do not agree with, that actually
tutorial, that will create enough time
conflict with the practice that you are familiar
for thorough preparation.
with. In your discussion groups, your friends
can bring ideas that are totally different from
In the tutorial, you are expected and required
yours and arguments may begin. You may also
to take part all the time through contributing
find that an idea is not clearly explained and you
in every way possible. You can give your views,
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

even if they are wrong, (many students may hold the six hour tutorial. As stated, it should be
the same wrong views and the discussion will rare because the information needed for the
help correct the errors), they still help you learn course is found in the learning package together
the correct thing as much as the correct ideas. with the sources to which you are referred.
You also need to be open-minded, frank, Fully-fledged lectures can, therefore, be
inquisitive and should leave no stone unturned misleading as the tutor may dwell on matters
as you analyze ideas and seek clarification on any irrelevant to the ZOU course.
issues. It has been found that those who take
part in tutorials actively, do better in assignments Distance education, by its nature, keeps the
and examinations because their ideas are tutor and student separate. By introducing
streamlined. Taking part properly means that the six hour tutorial, ZOU hopes to help you
you prepare for the tutorial beforehand by come in touch with the physical being, who
putting together relevant questions and their marks your assignments, assesses them, guides
possible answers and those areas that cause you you on preparing for writing examinations and
confusion. assignments and who runs your general
academic affairs. This helps you to settle down
Only in cases where the information being in your course having been advised on how to
discussed is not found in the learning package go about your learning. Personal human contact
can the tutor provide extra learning materials, is, therefore, upheld by the ZOU.
but this should not be the dominant feature of

The six hour tutorials should be so structured that the

tasks for each session are very clear. Work for each
session, as much as possible, follows the structure given
below.

Session I (Two Hours)

Session I should be held at the beginning of the semester. The
main aim of this session is to guide you, the student, on how you
are going to approach the course. During the session, you will be
given the overview of the course, how to tackle the assignments,
how to organize the logistics of the course and formation of
study groups that you will belong to. It is also during this
session that you will be advised on how to use your learning
materials effectively.
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

Session II (Two Hours)

This session comes in the middle of the semester to respond to
the challenges, queries, experiences, uncertainties, and ideas that
you are facing as you go through the course. In this session,
difficult areas in the module are explained through the combined
effort of the students and the tutor. It should also give direction
and feedback where you have not done well in the first assignment
as well as reinforce those areas where performance in the first
assignment is good.

Session III (Two Hours)

The final session, Session III, comes towards the end of the
semester. In this session, you polish up any areas that you still
need clarification on. Your tutor gives you feedback on the
assignments so that you can use the experience for preparation
for the end of semester examination.

Note that in all the three sessions, you identify the areas
that your tutor should give help. You also take a very
important part in finding answers to the problems posed.
You are the most important part of the solutions to your
learning challenges.

Conclusion for this course, but also to prepare yourself to

contribute in the best way possible so that you
can maximally benefit from it. We also urge
In conclusion, we should be very clear that six you to avoid forcing the tutor to lecture you.
hours is too little for lectures and it is not
necessary, in view of the provision of fully self- BEST WISHES IN YOUR STUDIES.
contained learning materials in the package, to
turn the little time into lectures. We, therefore, ZOU
urge you not only to attend the six hour tutorials
Contents

Overview _________________________________________________ 1

Unit One: Introduction to the Sociology of Education

1 . 1 _______ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 3

1 . 2 _______ Unit Objectives ___________________________________________________ 4
1 . 3 _______ Definition of Sociology ____________________________________________ 4
__________ 1.3.1 McGee’s (1975) views Sociology ________________________________ 4
__________ 1.3.2 Meighan ‘s view Sociology (1983) ______________________________ 4
__________ 1.3.3 Cotgrove (1980) views ________________________________________ 4
__________ 1.3.4 Ezewu’s (1983) Marxist definition of Sociology ____________________ 5
__________ 1.3.5 Observations from the four definitions ___________________________ 5
__________ Activity 1.1 ______________________________________________________ 5
1 . 4 _______ Definition of Sociology of Education _________________________________ 6
__________ 1.4.1 Sociology of Education is a sub-discipline of Sociology _____________ 6
__________ 1.4.2 Ottaway’s definition of Sociology of Education (1953) ______________ 6
__________ 1.4.3 Observations from the above definitions of Sociology ________________
__________ of Education are that: ______________________________________________ 6
1 . 5 _______ Purpose of Sociology of Education __________________________________ 6
__________ Activity 1.2 ______________________________________________________ 8
1 . 6 _______ Emergence of Sociology of Education ________________________________ 8
__________ 1.6.1 Origins of Sociology _________________________________________ 8
1 . 7 _______ Origins of Sociology of Education ___________________________________ 9
__________ 1.7.1 Structural Functionalism's _____________________________________ 9
__________ 1.7.2 Conflict Theory _____________________________________________ 1 1
__________ Activity 1.3 _____________________________________________________ 1 2
__________ 1.7.3 Interpretive Theory __________________________________________ 1 2
__________ Activity 1.4 _____________________________________________________ 1 2
1 . 8 _______ The Nature of Sociological Inquiry _________________________________ 1 2
__________ Activity 1.5 _____________________________________________________ 1 4
1 . 9 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 1 4
1 . 1 0 ______ References ______________________________________________________ 1 6

Unit Two: Perspectives in Sociology of Education

2 . 1 _______ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 1 7

2.2 _______ Unit Objectives __________________________________________________ 1 8
 2.3 _______ Definition of Key Terms __________________________________________ 18
__________ 2.3.1 Perspective _________________________________________________ 18
__________ 2.3.2 Sociological perspective ______________________________________ 18
2.4 _______ The Structural Functionalist Perspective and Education _________________ 18
__________ 2.4.1 Meaning of the structural functionalist perspective _________________ 18
__________ 2.4.2 Emile Durkheim and Education _______________________________ 19
__________ Activity 2.1 _____________________________________________________ 21
__________ 2.4.3 Talcott Parsons and Education _________________________________ 21
__________ 2.4.4 Criticism of the Functionalist Perspective _______________________ 22
__________ Activity 2.2 _____________________________________________________ 22
2.5 _______ The Marxist (Conflict) Perspective and Education ______________________ 23
__________ 2.5.1 The basic elements of the Marxist (Conflict) perspective ____________ 23
__________ 2.5.2 Karl Marx’s Theory and Education _____________________________ 23
__________ 2.5.3 Louis Althusser and Education _________________________________ 25
__________ 2.5.4 Bowles and Gintis on the Correspondence Principle and Education ___ 26
__________ Activity 2.3 _____________________________________________________ 27
2.6 _______ The Feminist Perspective and Education _____________________________ 27
__________ 2.6.1. Liberal Feminism and Education ______________________________ 28
__________ 2.6.2 Marxist Feminism and Education ______________________________ 28
__________ 2.6.3 Radical Feminism and Education ______________________________ 29
__________ 2.6.4 Criticism of Radical Feminism ________________________________ 30
__________ 2.6.5 Socialist Feminism and Education ______________________________ 30
__________ Activity 2.4 _____________________________________________________ 32
2.7 _______ The Interactionist Perspective and Education __________________________ 32
__________ 2.7.1 Interaction _________________________________________________ 32
__________ 2.7.2 Theories within the Interactionist Perspective _____________________ 32
__________ 2.7.3 Characteristics of the Interactionist Perspective ___________________ 34
__________ 2.7.4 Classroom Applications of the Interactionist Perspective ___________ 35
__________ 2.7.5 Critique of the Perspective ____________________________________ 36
__________ Activity 2.5 _____________________________________________________ 36
2.8 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 36
2.9 _______ References ______________________________________________________ 38

Unit Three: Principles in Sociology of Education

3 . 1 _______ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 39

3.2 _______ Unit Objectives __________________________________________________ 40
3.3 _______ Culture, Socialization and Education ________________________________ 40
__________ 3.3.1 Culture and Education _______________________________________ 40
__________ Activity 3.1 _____________________________________________________ 43
__________ 3.3.2 Socialization and Education ___________________________________ 43
__________ Activity 3.2 _____________________________________________________ 45
__________ Activity 3.3 _____________________________________________________ 46
__________ Activity 3.4 _____________________________________________________ 48
__________ Activity 3.5 _____________________________________________________ 49
3.4 _______ The Principle of Stratification _______________________________________ 50
__________ 3.4.1 What is Stratification? ________________________________________ 50
__________ Activity 3.6 _____________________________________________________ 51
__________ 3.4.2 Systems of Stratification ______________________________________ 51
__________ 3.4.3 Theories on Stratification _____________________________________ 52
__________ Activity 3.7 _____________________________________________________ 55
__________ Activity 3.8 _____________________________________________________ 56
3.5 _______ Social Control, Deviance and Education ______________________________ 56
 __________ 3.5.1 Social Control ______________________________________________ 56
__________ 3.5.2 Deviance __________________________________________________ 57
__________ 3.5.3 Deviant Behaviour __________________________________________ 57
__________ Activity 3.9 _____________________________________________________ 58
__________ 3.5.4 Theories of Deviance ________________________________________ 58
__________ Activity 3.10 ____________________________________________________ 60
__________ Activity 3.11 ____________________________________________________ 61
__________ 3.5.5 Deviant behaviour in schools __________________________________ 62
__________ Activity 3.12 ____________________________________________________ 62
3.6 _______ Social Change and Education _______________________________________ 62
__________ 3.6.1 The meaning of social change _________________________________ 62
__________ 3.6.2 Theoretical perspectives on social change ________________________ 63
__________ Activity 3.13 ____________________________________________________ 66
3.7 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 66
3.8 _______ References ______________________________________________________ 67

Unit Four: School and Society

4 . 1 _______ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 69

4.2 _______ Unit Objectives __________________________________________________ 70
4.3 _______ Key Concepts ___________________________________________________ 70
__________ 4.3.1 System ____________________________________________________ 70
__________ 4.3.2 Social System ______________________________________________ 70
4.3 _______ Social System of the School ________________________________________ 70
__________ 4.3.1 Goals of the school system ____________________________________ 72
__________ Activity 4.1 _____________________________________________________ 73
__________ 4.3.2 School Functions (The Purpose of the School) _____________________ 73
__________ Activity 4.2 _____________________________________________________ 74
__________ 4.3.3 The school as an organisation __________________________________ 74
__________ Activity 4.3 _____________________________________________________ 75
4.4 _______ Interaction in the Classroom _______________________________________ 75
__________ Activity 4.4 _____________________________________________________ 77
4.5 _______ Schools as Centres of Conflict ______________________________________ 77
4.6 _______ Summary Observations of the School as a Social System ________________ 78
__________ Activity 4.5 _____________________________________________________ 78
4.7 _______ The Role of the Teacher ___________________________________________ 78
__________ 4.7.1 Meaning of the Term ‘Role’ ___________________________________ 78
__________ Activity 4.6 _____________________________________________________ 80
__________ 4.7.2 The role of the teacher in the school ____________________________ 81
__________ Activity 4.7 _____________________________________________________ 82
__________ 4.7.3 The role of the teacher in the community ________________________ 82
__________ Activity 4.8 _____________________________________________________ 83
4.8 _______ The Role of the Community in the School ____________________________ 83
__________ Activity 4.9 _____________________________________________________ 84
4.9 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 84

4 .10 ______ References ______________________________________________________ 8 5

Unit Five: Contemporary Social Problems in Education

5 . 1 _______ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 8 7

5.2 _______ Unit Objectives __________________________________________________ 8 8
5.3 _______ Poverty and Education ____________________________________________ 8 8
__________ 5.3.1 What is poverty _____________________________________________ 8 8
__________ 5.3.2 Explanation of poverty and the poor ____________________________ 8 9
__________ Activity 5.1 _____________________________________________________ 9 0
__________ 5.3.3 Poverty and education in Zimbabwe ____________________________ 9 0
__________ Activity 5.2 _____________________________________________________ 9 2
5.4 _______ Gender and Education ____________________________________________ 9 2
__________ 5.4.1 Explanations of gender _______________________________________ 9 2
__________ 5.4.2 Interventions aimed at resolving gender related _____________________
__________ inequalities in education ___________________________________________ 9 3
__________ 5.4.3 Removal of gender stereotyping in school textbooks _______________ 9 4
__________ Activity 5.3 _____________________________________________________ 9 7
5.5 _______ Child Abuse and Education ________________________________________ 9 7
__________ 5.5.1 Definition of child abuse ______________________________________ 9 7
__________ 5.5.2 Types of child abuse _________________________________________ 9 8
__________ 5.5.3 Causes of child abuse _______________________________________ 1 0 0
__________ 5.5.4 Results of child abuse _______________________________________ 1 0 1
__________ 5.5.5 Remedy to child abuse ______________________________________ 1 0 1
__________ Activity 5.4 ____________________________________________________ 1 0 2
5.6 _______ Disability and Education _________________________________________ 1 0 2
__________ 5.6.1 Introduction _______________________________________________ 1 0 2
__________ 5.6.2 Disability defined __________________________________________ 1 0 2
__________ 5.6.3 The social construction of disability ____________________________ 1 0 3
__________ 5.6.4 Albinism as a disability ______________________________________ 1 0 3
__________ 5.6.5 Education and Albinos ______________________________________ 1 0 4
__________ Activity 5.5 ____________________________________________________ 1 0 5
5.7 _______ Summary _____________________________________________________ 1 0 5
5.8 _______ References _____________________________________________________ 1 0 6
Module Overview

Welcome to the Sociology of Education Module. The Module consists of

five units exploring critical issues pertaining to the sociological foundations of
education. The units give a foundation for your professional development
and growth as a teacher. The Module provides a link between theory and
practice. It also provides a base for understanding the children that you
teach.

The aims of the Module to the aspiring classroom practitioners are to help
them: develop an appreciation of the role, importance and function of
Sociology of Education acquire skills of reflective and critical thinking which
should enable them recognise and meet the different learning backgrounds,
needs and situations of pupils and describe and explain education from a
sociological perspective

By the end of the Module aspiring classroom practitioners should be able to:
 trace the origins of Sociology of Education
 define key concepts in Sociology of Education
 show how the various sociological perspectives can be used as tools
of analysing situations obtaining in schools
Sociology of Education Module DEP209

 apply sociological principles to the practice and development of teaching

and learning in schools
 examine how contemporary problems are socially constructed, impact
on school learning and suggest intervention strategies and
 describe, explain and analyse education from a sociological perspective
The aims and objectives of the Module are to be realised through coverage of
the content in five units. Unit One sets the scene of the whole module by
providing you with a conceptual framework through clarifying concepts such
as Sociology and Sociology of Education. The origins of Sociology and
Sociology of Education are also traced in this Unit. Thoughts on the nature of
sociological inquiry are also given in order to socialise you into the discipline’s
thinking framework.

Unit Two introduces you to the perspectives that are used as tools of analysing
sociological issues. The perspectives are Structural functionalism, Marxism
(conflict), Femininism and Interactionism. You will discover that none of these
sociological perspectives, on its own, can give a sufficient and comprehensive
explanation to a sociological phenomenon. You are expected to apply these
perspectives to what goes on in education in general and schools in particular.

In Unit Three we discuss in detail some of the principles of Sociology of

Education. The discussion focuses on culture and socialisation, social
stratification, social control and deviance and social change. This is done to
enable you to relate each of the principles to what goes on in school in general
and the classroom situation in particular. By and large these principles help
you to describe and explain education and schooling from a sociological
perspective.

In Unit Four we focus on the roles and functions of the school, the teacher
and the community. The intention here is to discuss the relationship between
the school and the community and show how teachers execute their duties in
the two respective organisations.

In Unit Five we examine how contemporary social problems are constructed,

their effect on society and consequently on the school system. The social
problems examined include poverty, gender, child abuse and disability. Your
awareness of these social problems is meant to enable you to be in a position
to suggest interventions that may go some way in solving them.

We wish you well in this highly rewarding learning experience.

2 Zimbabwe Open University

 Unit One

Introduction to the Sociology of

Education

1.1 Introduction

I n this Unit we introduce you to one of the theoretical frameworks in education

areas called Sociology of Education. In order for you to understand the
pupils you teach, there is need to know where these students come from
(home/family). However before you are introduced to skills of investigating,
there is need to be clear about the key terms in Sociology as well as the
developments that took place in order for Sociology of Education to be taught
as a discipline.
Sociology of Education Module DEP209

1.2 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 define the concepts Sociology and Sociology of Education

 discuss the meaning and purpose of Sociology of Education
 trace the origins of Sociology of Education
 examine the nature of sociological inquiry

1.3 Definition of Sociology

The word ‘Sociology’ was first used by a French philosopher, Auguste Comte
in 1843. The term means different things to various people. However in general,
the concept refers to the scientific study of human social life. In order for you
to come up with your own definition of the concept ‘Sociology’, there is need
to examine the following definitions given by reputable authorities.

1.3.1 McGee’s (1975) views Sociology

McGee views Sociology as a social science which is primarily concerned
with the study of human groups, including their effects on individual behaviour.
The human groups that can be studied by sociologists include the army, the
police, prison services, Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions (ZCTU), the
family, the church and the hospital among others.

1.3.2 Meighan‘s view Sociology (1983)

Meighan examines both structural aspects of human society and every type of
social relationships which exist within these structures. The structural aspects
being referred to include the family, the school, the civil service and the church,
among others. Emile Durkheim (the French Sociologist) views these social
structures or institutions of society as being organised to carry out various
activities required to satisfy human needs.

1.3.3 Cotgrove (1980) views

According to Cotgrove, the major task of Sociology is that of understanding
the everyday meanings of actions. He goes further to say that Sociology has
the task of studying the interactions between individuals in social institutions in

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Unit 1 Introduction to the Sociology of Education

terms of how they behave to each other. The third task is that, explaining of
behaviour takes account of the meanings that individuals attach to external
stimuli. An example that could be given here is a situation where you, as a
student, get a 20% score in an assignment. That score is open to a number of
interpretations. You could view it as inability. If you view it that way, it may
lead you to give up or resign to continued failure thereafter. You could view
the mark as a result of the tutor not looking at you favourably. You could also
interpret it as your failure to prepare or apply yourself fully to the task.

Fundamentally, it is not effectively possible for an outsider to comprehensively

understand the nature of interaction within a particular social context. Neither
can an outsider understand the nature and scope of behaviour exhibited to
one another by participants nor meanings attached to behaviour actions.

1.3.4 Ezewu’s (1983) Marxist definition of Sociology

Ezewu’s Marxist definition of Sociology comes from within a historical context
as the study of changes in social relationships or of social interaction, based
on tension, contradictions and conflicts between incompatible social groups
within the material world.

The Marxist definition of Sociology above stresses the lack of fit between
different social groups (social classes) and the potential for conflict. In fact,
the conflict by and large is between the rich and the poor.

1.3.5 Observations from the four definitions

Observations from the above definitions reveal that Sociology is a systematic
study (social science) that deals primarily with social groups in relation to:
 their structure and functions
 modes of organization
 contradictions and conflicts within groups
 patterns of interaction between and within the groups

Activity 1.1

?
Work out your working definition of Sociology given the four
definitions that you have been exposed to in this section of the
Unit.

Zimbabwe Open University 5

Sociology of Education Module DEP209

1.4 Definition of Sociology of Education

Sociology of Education is a branch of the discipline of Sociology. The
definitions and explanations of Sociology of Education given below help you
in conceptualising the discipline.

1.4.1 Sociology of Education is a sub-discipline of

Sociology
Sociology of Education is a sub-discipline of Sociology”… which seeks to
explain how an individual becomes a socialized being through formal education”
(Peresuh and Nhundu 1999: 96). In other words, Sociology of Education is a
body of knowledge that is informed by a bigger body of knowledge called
Sociology.

1.4.2 Ottaway’s definition of Sociology of Education (1953)

Ottaway says it is concerned with the curriculum in relation to economic,
political, social and cultural forces of the society in which they function.
Sociology of Education therefore concerns itself with who teaches what, to
whom, by what means, for what reasons and with what results. We should
note that education is provided within society and therefore these curriculum
questions have to be related to the policies ideology, economics, social and
cultural forces of society.

1.4.3 Observations from the above definitions of Sociology

of Education are that:
 Sociology of Education is the application of sociology as a discipline to
the study of education as one of the institutions in society.
 Sociology of Education is the study of the relations between education
and other social institutions.
 In Sociology of Education, there is a macro level (the big picture) within
which education is discussed as it relates to the economy and the
opportunity structure. There is at the same time a micro level (the smaller
picture), where the focus is on the child and the teacher, each shaping
an educational identity in the context of a specific school.

1.5 Purpose of Sociology of Education

Before colonialism in Africa, the various ethnic groups had unique ways of

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Unit 1 Introduction to the Sociology of Education

preparing their children to become adults. The advent of colonialism and the
consequent establishment of school changed the way children were being
socialised (brought up). Trained professionals (teachers) took over the
responsibility of socialising children particularly from the age of six years.
Sociology of Education as a sub-discipline of Sociology attempts to look
closely at the relationship between Education and society, bearing in mind the
culture of a given society (group of people sharing a culture). Sociology of
Education looks at how a group’s way of life (culture) sub-cultural groups,
people’s attitudes and ideology (the way they perceive the world) impact on
the education of a pupil. The training of people for different occupations, and
curriculum (knowledge processing) are also a concern of the discipline of
Sociology of Education (Peresuh and Nhundu, 1999).

Sociology of Education is concerned with how children are taught in schools

(instruction), the origin of instruction and how this instruction impacts on society.
It is also concerned with social, political and economic systems within which
the school operates (the structural view). You should note that the school
does not operate as an island as it interacts with other schools as part of the
nation’s education system, as well as with other institutions throughout the
world (the macro view of sociological analysis).

The social environment of the child is an area of interest to Sociology of

Education. Of particular interest is whether the child’s performance in class is
decided by the family’s attitude towards education or is a result of material
possessions of the family as well as other factors such as race, gender, ethnicity
and disability. These issues will be analyzed in more detail in the units ahead.

The contribution of Sociology of Education is not confined to the school or

formal educational institutions only. It includes the concerns of various ethnic
groups that make up society. For example, there is a Marxist concern that
schools and related institutions have been creating an unequal society along
the lines of race, class, gender, ethnicity and disability. Out of this concern,
issues of social inequality, uneven development, poverty, and child abuse have
emerged as topical Sociology of Education issues. These issues will be looked
at more closely in the units ahead.

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Activity 1.2

? 1. Define Sociology of Education in the way you have

understood the term.
2. Of what use is Sociology of Education to a classroom
teacher? Justify.

1.6 Emergence of Sociology of Education

The emergence of Sociology of Education as a substantive area of investigation
is of fairly recent origin (despite Durkheim’s work at the end of the 19th Century
and Karl Mannham’s contribution in the 1940s). When Halsey, Floud and
Anderson published a collection of readings in the Sociology of Education in
1961, the subject was almost non-existent in the curriculum for intending
teachers. In other words, it was not until the late 1950s and early 1960’s that
the Sociology of Education emerged as a distinct area of inquiry.

1.6.1 Origins of Sociology

As a field of inquiry, Sociology of Education emerges from and mirrors the
theoretical foundations and principles of its mother discipline, Sociology.
Sociology itself is a product of the revolutions that occurred in Western Europe,
which were the intellectual, agricultural and industrial revolutions as well as
the revolutions in politics.

The Intellectual Revolution was a product of the Renaissance. The revolution

brought into play the contract between church oriented education of the middle
ages and the desire to be creative among human beings. Sociology contributed
to the development of human knowledge at this time (Peresuh and Nhundu,
1999).

In the 1780s agricultural and industrial revolutions resulted in the alteration in

the way people lived. These revolutions led to the emergence of cities and
towns, particularly in Britain. There was a shift from staying in clans with kith
and kin, to staying in towns with people working in specialized jobs. Two
classes emerged, that is the employers/industrialists and the workers. These
changes impacted on the way people lived in society and became an issue of
interest to philosophers like Karl Marx, Auguste Comte and Max Weber
who then contributed to the emergence of a discipline called Sociology.

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The third revolution was in politics. France was the leader in this regard. The
1789 French Political Revolution was based on the principle of human rights,
equality, liberty and fraternity (brotherhood). An ideology evolved by the
capitalist class to justify the need for replacing the kings (nobility) as leaders
of nation states as opposed to Kingdoms. Sociology, the science of society,
as coined by Auguste Comte, emerged as a discipline, to explain causes of
inequality in society. However, Sociology of Education as a discipline remained
obscure because there was no agreement about its scope and function at the
age of revolution.

1.7 Origins of Sociology of Education

Three theoretical developments in the history of sociological ideas formed the
basis for a sociological understanding of Sociology of Education as a discipline.
The three theories, structural-functionalist, conflict and interpretive have been
very useful in explaining the principles of social behaviour.

1.7.1 Structural-Functionalism’s (also known as Consensus Theory) origins

can be traced to the works of Auguste Comte, Hebert Spencer, Emile
Durkheim and Talcott Parsons.
 Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
He was a French philosopher who is considered by some sociologists
as a founder of Sociology. In fact the term “Sociology” was coined by
him. He argued for Sociology, as a science of society. He was curious
about the forces that keep human life stable (Mulkey 1993).

 Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

He was a British sociologist interested in those forces that promote
order among individuals, just like Comte. He advocated that human
societies be scientifically studied in the same way that the physiologist
studies the human organism. He goes further to give an organic analogy
– when he says: “The parts of a living organism are interdependent and
contribute to the overall well being of the whole organism. Education,
the economy, religion and politics are analogous to the organs of the
body, which work together to maintain the whole system (Spencer, in
Mulkey, 1993: 53).

In his claims that the social system develops from a simple form to a complex
one, Spencer drew upon Charles Darwin’s insights.

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 Emile Durkheim (1885-1917)

Durkheim was a French sociologist. He viewed society as a system of
shared beliefs and values. He believed that shared rules of living, like
education and religion, exist as social facts in their own right, and direct
the lives of individuals.

“Education is the only means by which society prepares within the

children, the essential conditions of its very existence. Its objective
is to arouse, and to develop in the child a certain number of physical,
intellectual and moral states that are required for participation in
society” (Durkheim, in Mulkey, 1993: 53).

Durkheim goes further to claim that society can survive only if a sufficient
degree of homogeneity (sameness) exists among its members. Education
perpetuates and reinforces this homogeneity by fixing, in the child from
the beginning, the essential similarities that collective life demands.
Durkheim’s functional view of education continued to dominate the main
writings of Sociology of Education until the 1960s, (Haralambos and
Holborn 1990).

 Talcott Parsons (1902-1979)

Talcott Parsons is an American sociologist who built on Durkheim’s
work. He argues that society consists of interdependent parts, each of
which helps to monitor the stability of the whole social system. Just as
the human body tries to maintain homeostasis, society as a whole tries
to maintain a constant balance or equilibrium (Parsons in Mulkey, 1993).

When conflict occurred in society, people began to question Durkheim’s

emphasis on social order. Parsons, in response, argued that as a society
grows, it becomes more complex and many institutions integrate. In
each institution you will find that people specialise in what they are
doing. Examples are the family whose role is reproduction and early
socialization of the child; the school is responsible for the secondary
socialization of the child through numeracy.

Parsons explained classrooms in terms of their functions for the school

in terms of its functions for the education system and the education
system in terms of its function for society.

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1.7.2 Conflict Theory

The origins of the Conflict Theory can be traced to the works of Karl Marx
(1818-1883). Marxist Theory offers an alternative to Functionalism
(Haralambos and Holborn, 1990). Karl Marx was less concerned with
Education than Durkheim. He was a German philosopher who spent most of
his time in England as a political refugee. He studied Hegel’s philosophy,
particularly the idea that people’s knowledge about the world derives from
their ideas about the world, and although these ideas change and develop,
people create their reality. Contrary to Hegel, Marx claimed that it is not the
people’s consciousness that determines their being on the contrary, it is their
social being that determines their consciousness.

For Marx, the relationships at the workplace influence the whole of life so
that people become what they are in labour. The dominant group in society
not only controls the land, labour and capital, but also the ways of thinking. It
legitimises what is right and acceptable and it provides the framework from
which thought emanates. Because one group owns the means of production
whilst others do not, two classes emerged, the rich and the poor. The dialectic
relationship between these two classes results in revolution, the redistribution
of resources and the eventual reshaping of ideas.

The work of Karl Marx, as it applies to analysis of education, was followed

by that of (Dahrendorf 1959, Martin Carnoy 1972 and Samuel Bowles and
Herbert Gintis 1976).

These theorists addressed questions that had not been raised by functionalists.
They believed that inequality of resources in society is the source of conflict
and that schools are ultimately linked to the kinds of economic opportunities
individuals have (Mulkey 1993). These theorists view the system of class
status as being more rigid than egalitarian and schools as being linked closely
to the social structure of inequality.

In this line of thinking, other theorists (frequently called reproduction theorists)

do not view the school as promoting democracy, social mobility and equality.
Instead they view schools as a mechanism that reproduces the values of the
dominant social group (Carnoy, 1972).

As an institution, the school socialises students into the formal language of the
main stream culture (Bernstein, 1975; Bourdieu and Passeron, 1977) and
organises or sorts students into professional versus vocational roles, Schools
for these critical theorists reproduce the culture of the dominant social group
in society.

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Activity 1.3

? Compare and contrast Marx’s and Durkheim’s theories. To

what extent do they help you in understanding what Sociology
of Education is about?

1.7.3 Interpretive Theory

Theorists in this domain study social meanings at the micro (small scale) level.
Symbolic Interactionism is the study of the meanings people construct in their
interactions with one another through time (Blumer, 1969 in Haralambos and
Holborn, 1990). Symbolic Interaction is associated with the work of George
Herbert Mead (1863-1931). To Mead, the individual is both the creator of
the world and also the product of the world. He believed that human beings
act towards things on the basis of the meanings that the things have for them.
These meanings are a product of social interaction in human society.

The above three groups of theorists have made the discipline of Sociology of
Education what it is today. Focus of this discipline ranges from structure and
function of society to conflict and interaction that obtain in both society and
the school. For more details on the theories, read Unit 2 that focuses on the
theories as they relate to what goes on in schools.

Activity 1.4

? Trace the origins of Sociology of Education. Show the importance

of each group of theorists in this regard.

1.8 The Nature of Sociological Inquiry

Sociology’s contribution is in what it observes as well as in its method for
finding out how other people influence us according to Mulkey (1993). In
order for teachers and students to understand how they are affected by society,
there is need to investigate (find out) scientifically since it is a special kind of
knowing. In this section of the Unit we distinguish everyday knowing from
scientific knowing.

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Knowing is part of our daily function. We see that the sun rises from the East
and sets in the West. We get to know this through observation. However,
Mulkey (1993: 26) says the process of everyday knowing limits our awareness
because we: “are inaccurate; over generalise, observe selectively, are illogical,
get personally involved in what we observe and close the door to further
inquiry”.

For us to know, in Sociology of Education therefore, we should know

scientifically. This is possible when there is conscious observation,
representative observation, logical and empirical observation, emotionally
neutral observation and open-ended observation.

The process of noticing things that go on around us is very much unconscious.

We attend to some things and disregard others because we cannot see
everything at once. For example, if you are sitting next to another teacher in
the staff room today, do you think tomorrow you would be able to recall what
the teacher was wearing? You can only remember in a much better way,
however, if you are asked ahead of time to observe deliberately what the
teacher was wearing. The first situation is unconscious observation, whilst the
second scenario is conscious observation.
1. The first step in the research process is curiosity. You ask yourself what
it is that really interests you. Maybe you want to know whether children
who come from poor home backgrounds perform better than those
who come from rich families. Common sense might tell us that they
perform poorly. This then makes you want to carry out research.

2. The second step is to find out what others have found out about the
performance of both groups of pupils. You conduct what is called, a
review of the literature, to find out how others have carried out research
perhaps in the same area in other places.

3. The third step is to derive from theory the idea, the testable and verifiable
hypothesis, about the relationship between children’s home backgrounds
and performance.

4. The fourth step is where scientific observation becomes very deliberate

and conscious. To be sure that their observation is accurate; and so
others can test it, the same topic for investigation in the future; scientists
specify clearly what they attempt to observe and how.

5. The fifth step is to decide on the sample, that is, who will be observed?

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6. The sixth step involves choosing a mode of observation; that is teaching

how to collect the information, for example, through survey, experiment
or field research.

7. The seventh step tests the hypothesis using statistical techniques to

analyse data.

8. The eighth step is to report the results of the analysis that tested whether
children from a poor home background do perform better than those
from a rich background.
The nature of sociological inquiry given above shows that observation is
conscious and systematic.

Activity 1.5

? What is meant by the statement “Sociology is important to us first

because of what it observes, and second because of how it
observes”?

1.9 Summary
We hope that in this Unit we have introduced you to the concepts, Sociology
and Sociology of Education. Sociology has been explained as a science of
society. Sociology of Education has been explained as the application of
Sociology as a discipline to the study of education as one of the institutions of
society. The purposes of Sociology of Education have been pointed out as
looking closely at the relationship between education and society, the training
of people for different occupations, how children are taught in schools, and
the social environment of the child in so far as it impacts on performance of
children.

The origins of Sociology of Education have been traced to the three revolutions
that were experienced in Western Europe culminating in the emergence of
Sociology (a science of society). Sociology of Education owes its formation
to the Structural Functionalist Theory with its emphasis on the structures
obtaining in society and how these impact on education. It also owes its
formation to the Conflict Theory and its analysis of the inequality that obtains
in society and how it affects access to schooling. The Interpretive Theory and

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its micro level analysis of what goes on in the classroom and in schools, gives
Sociology of Education more breadth and scope. The nature of Sociological
inquiry has been discussed as a step-by-step or systematic process that
observes the nature of scientific inquiry. Emphasis in this regard is on conscious
and systematic observation. Unit 2 focuses on sociological perspectives and
their implications for what goes on in education and schools.

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1.10References
Babbie, E. (1988) The Sociological Spirit: Critical Essays in a Critical
Science, Belmont: Wadsworth.
Bernstein, B. (1975) Class Codes and Control. Boston: Routledge & Kegan
Paul.
Boudon, R. (1974) Education, Opportunity and Social Inequality:
Changing Prospects in Western Society. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Bourdieu, P. and Passeron, J. (1977) Reproduction in Education, Society
and Culture, London: Sage.
Bowles, S. and Gintis, H. (1976) Schooling in Capitalist America. New
York: Basic Books.
Carnoy, M. (ed) (1972) Schooling in Corporate Society: The Political
Economy of Education in America. New York: Mckay.
Cotgrove, S. (1980) The Science of Society: An Introduction to Sociology
London: Longman.
Dahrendorf, R. (1959) Class and Conflict in Industrial Society: Stanford,
CA: Standfors University Press.
Ezewu, E. (1983) Sociology of Education. London: Longman.
Haralambos M. and Holborn M. (1990) Sociology: Themes and
Perspectives. London: Collins Educational.
McGee, R. (1975) Points of Departure: Basic Concepts in Sociology.
London: Unwin Hyman Ltd.
Meighan, R. (1985) A Sociology of Educating London: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.
Mulkey, L.M. (1993) Sociology of Education: Theoretical and Empirical
Investigations. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Ottaway, A.K.C. (1953) Education and Society, London: R.K.P.
Peresuh, M. and Nhundu, T. (eds)(1999) Foundations of Education for
Africa. Harare: College Press.

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 Unit Two

Perspectives in Sociology of
Education

2.1 Introduction

I n Unit 1 we defined terms like Sociology and Sociology of Education. We

traced the origins of Sociology leading to the Sociology of Education. In
this Unit we introduce you to the tools that are used in analysing sociological
issues. These are known as perspectives. They are the structural functionalist,
the structure conflict, the feminist, and the interactionist perspectives. You are
expected, at the end of this Unit, to bring out similarities and differences between
and amongst these perspectives. We also expect you to apply these
perspectives to what goes on in education in general and schools in particular.
Sociology of Education Module DEP209

2.2 Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 define a sociological perspective
 describe the four perspectives in Sociology of Education
(that is, the structural functionalist, the conflict, feminist and
interactionist perspectives)
 compare and contrast the four perspectives
 evaluate the contributions of the four perspectives to
education

2.3 Definition of Key Terms

2.3.1 Perspective
 The term ‘perspective’ refers to a body of theories with a similar thrust
or inclination.
 It can also be a direction which a group of theories tend to adopt. Note
that each of the perspectives that form part of this unit has a number of
theories within it.

2.3.2 Sociological perspective

A sociological perspective, therefore, is a point of view that focuses, not on
individuals but their groups or society. It is a unit of analysing what goes on in
education in general and schools in particular.

2.4 The Structural Functionalist Perspective and

Education
2.4.1 Meaning of the structural functionalist perspective
In Unit 1 we made reference to Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer as the
founding fathers of Sociology. In this section of the Unit we discuss the
contributions of Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons to the Sociology of
Education as a discipline.

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The Structural Functionalist Perspective is a structural or macro perspective

in that society is the unit of analysis.

It views society as a system with parts in the same manner as a biological

organism. A biological organism, like a human being, has the digestive,
respiratory and circulatory systems that make the person survive. Society has
organs or institutions like the family, the economy, politics, law, education and
religion, among others, which play their respective parts in order for society
to survive.

Any organ, part or institution of society is functional for the entire system as
each part performs essential functions for society to satisfy basic needs.
Examples include the family whose functions include reproduction of society,
initial socialisation and sexual regulation and satisfaction according to Murdock
in (Haralambos and Holborn, 1990).

The Functionalist Perspective therefore, is a view that focuses on the way

various parts of society have functions, or positive effects, that maintain the
stability of the whole. The focus is on social order and stability.

2.4.2 Emile Durkheim and Education

Emile Durkheim, the French Sociologist, whom we made reference to in Unit
1 when we were tracing the origins of Sociology of Education, is sometimes
referred to as the founding father of Sociology of Education. Durkheim argues
that the main function of education is the transmission of society’s norms and
values. Norms are rules, guidelines, standards or expected patterns of social
action. Norms set limits within which individuals may seek alternative ways to
achieve their goals. Values on the other hand are generalised ends that guide
behaviour towards uniformity in a variety of situations. Examples are: economic
values like increased production; political values like loyalty and patriotism.

Durkheim considered that all societies should have means of passing on their
norms and values to the young. Failure to do so would result in the destruction
of society. The education system is the means through which society transmits
its norms and values to the young. In pre-industrial societies the family played
this role. With the emergence of the modern industrial society, the school was
created by society to carry out this role.

The transmission of norms and values was to be in three main areas, that is
social solidarity, social rules and division of labour. Durkheim, in Haralambos
and Holborn (1990), argues that modern social life will not be possible in the
absence of social solidarity. Social solidarity has to do with the co-operation

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of individuals in a society with each other. It also has to do with working

harmoniously in the modern complex division of labour. It has to do with
conducting oneself for the good of society as a whole.

Durkheim views modern education that takes place in schools, as teaching

those basic rules of co-operation necessary to the continuation of a modern
society. In school, the child should learn to interact with others in terms of a
fixed set of rules, like punctuality and respect for authority. The school is
viewed by Durkheim as a society in miniature, a microcosm of society that
acts as a bridge between the family and the wider society. Therefore, individuals
in school should follow rules of conduct so that it (school) can continue to
function and carry out its responsibilities.

Durkheim in Mulkey (1993: 53) wrote:

“Society can survive if a sufficient degree of homogeneity exists among its

members. Education perpetuates and reinforces this homogeneity by fixing in
the child, from the beginning, the essential similarities that collective life demands”.

Thus the school transmits – general values necessary for homogeneity

(sameness) as well as specific skills which provide necessary diversity for
social cooperation, as people need to work together to produce goods.

Durkheim in Haralambos and Holborn (1990: 230) says “school rules should
be implemented in letter and spirit” Punishment should be encouraged and
that there should be a degree of fit between case committed and punishment
to be administered.

Durkheim goes further to say that it is by respecting school rules that the child
learns to respect rules in general, that he/she develops the habit of self control
and restraint simply because he/she should control and restrain himself/herself.
It is a first initiation into the austerity of duty. Serious life has now begun
(Blackledge and Hunt, 1985). The school, to Durkheim therefore, acts to
carry the child out of the family and into society.

For Durkheim therefore, modern education has two functions.

 The major function is the transmission to the young, of cultural norms
and values. Here are included all manner of beliefs (such as the belief in
the dignity of the human individual; the belief that our society is basically
a democratic one and requirements vis-à-vis conduct in social life).

 The teaching of skills so as to occupy a position in the modern division

of labour.

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Activity 2.1

? Examine the contribution of Durkheim to education in general

and schooling in particular.

2.4.3 Talcott Parsons and Education

Talcott Parsons built on Durkheim’s work. He argues that Education is like a
bridge between the family and the wider society. Education therefore prepares
children for adult roles in society. Parsons goes further to argue that as society
grows more complex, it differentiates and integrates (Mulkey, 1993).

Simple societies contain few institutions and any one of them may have several
functions. The family, for example, is responsible for reproduction and early
socialisation (education). In the family we are judged on particularistic standards
– because we gain ascribed status from the family. This means we are judged
in terms of our status as brother, sister, daughter or son. Membership of the
family therefore is based on kinship relationships and status is by ascription.

Other institutions such as, schools, emerge to take over the functions or
responsibilities that were previously undifferentiated. Parsons explains
classrooms in terms of their functions for the school, the school in terms of its
functions for the educational system, and the latter in terms of its functions for
society (Mulkey, 1993).

According to Parsons (1951), education is the main secondary agent of

socialisation. In modern society people are judged in terms of achieved status
and universalistic standards or values. That is to say, people are judged in
terms of what they achieve. Schools therefore prepare us for this. At school,
our conduct is measured against the universal school rules and our status is
achieved through tests and examinations. Membership of society therefore is
not by choice but by merit.

Parsons (1951) views schools as operating on meritocratic principles. This

means that every pupil is treated the same way and that every pupil has the
same chances to succeed. Those pupils who achieve the most in school do so
on merit. For Parsons, therefore, Ability and Effort equals Merit. Schools
operate on this principle and reward the most able and those who try hardest
are rewarded with examination success. These best achievers in school will
fill the most important jobs in society.

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For Parsons, schools instil the value of achievement by rewarding those who
achieve through examination success. Schools also instil the value of equality
of opportunity by offering everyone an equal chance to succeed. These values
are important in that they ensure that the best people fill the most important
positions and that people of all levels accept their position, as they know
everyone had the opportunity to succeed in school.

Parsons argues that schools also perform the function of role allocation. As
pupils are tested and evaluated in schools, their talents and capacities are
matched to the jobs they are best suited. Schools therefore sift, sort and
discriminate the able from the unable. Therefore, there should be a match
between children’s talents and jobs for which they are situated. The same
standards are applied to all students regardless of characteristics such as
race, sex, family background class or origin (Parsons, in Haralambos and
Holborn 1990). Hernstein, in Bilton et al (1987: 39) puts it clearly when he
says:

“If virtually everyone is smart enough to be a ditch digger and only half the
people are smart enough to be engineers, the society is in effect husbanding
its resources by holding engineers in greater esteem and paying them more”.

2.4.4 Criticism of the Functionalist Perspective

From the ideas of Durkheim and Parsons that have been discussed so far you
should note that:
 The perspective is of great importance but has very little practical use
in schools
 It gives too much importance to values and norms
 It does not pay enough attention to social conflicts that characterise
schools and society.

Activity 2.2

? 1. Are the values and norms transmitted by the school system

really those of society?
2. Do all types of schools in Zimbabwe really operate on
meritocratic principles?
3. Discuss the statement that “Examinations only test pupil’s
ability to remember and regurgitate facts and have very little
to do with ability in any other areas”.

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2.5 The Marxist (Conflict) Perspective and Education

In this section of the unit the ideas of Karl Marx (1818 - 83), Samuel Bowles
and Hebert Gintis (1976) and Louis Althuser (1972) will be discussed in
order to show the relationship between the Marxist Perspective and Education.

As pointed out in Unit 1, the perspective is macro-sociological in the sense

that it assumes that the social structure affects human behaviour. The
perspective became increasingly influential during the 1970s partly due to the
decline of functionalism; its promise to provide answers which functionalism
failed to provide; and in being more in keeping with the tenor and mood of the
times.

Conflict Perspective is a view of society that focuses on social processes of

tension, competition and change. It emphasises power and inequality. An
explanation of this characterization of the perspective is given by Karl Marx
below.

2.5.1 The basic elements of the Marxist (Conflict)

perspective
The four elements were adapted from Dahrendorf (1959).
 Societies are always changing.
 Conflict and dissensus (lack of general agreement) are always present
in society.
 There are elements or parts of every society that contribute to change.
 Coercion is always present in society, that is, in every society some
people have more power than others.
In order to shed more light on the basic elements of the Marxist Perspective
there is need to look at Karl Marx’s ideas about society and education.

2.5.2 Karl Marx’s Theory and Education

 Karl Marx’s view of how we come to know about the world is dialectical
in that he sees us in constant interaction with the material world; we
change that world but in turn are changed by it (Robinson, 1981).

 Truth is revealed by praxis or political action, where our ideas are put
to test in the world.

 Man’s relationship with the means of production is the driving force for
Marx’s theory. Means of production has to do with the control man

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has over his labour, its inputs, outputs and the necessary technologies
needed to complete given tasks.
Marx argues that in a class society, for example, Capitalist Society, a workers’
real condition is one of alienation. The worker is alienated from the product of
his/her labour and from himself or herself. In other words, what the worker
produces is appropriated by the employer. The worker has no control over
what he/she produces. In view of this, Mclellan (1973) in Robinson (1981)
says that the worker only feels at ease when performing the animal functions
of eating, drinking and reproducing.

In other words, for those who own the means of production to make money,
the relations of production must be more or less equal; the worker must be
paid less than the value of the product he or she produces. This is how the
owners of the means of production (employers) make a profit. Marx called
the owners of the means of production bourgeoisie (‘capitalists’ or ‘ruling
class’) and the workers proletariat (‘working class’).

The means of production and the relations of production form what Marx
termed the Economic Infrastructure (the base of society). The economic
relations, to Marx, mean the foundation of society. Economic relations of
society also shape every other part of society. The relationship is a two way
one. The other parts of society serve to legitimate and maintain the economic
infrastructure. These other parts of society are known as the superstructure.
Like a house built on its foundation the superstructure is built on the base.

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Economic Base

(Infrastructure)

Fig. 2.1 Base and Superstructure

From the diagrammatic illustration, education is an important part of the

superstructure. Education is viewed as the superstructure of society which is
subordinate to the base-the economic organisation of society. For Marx,
education in a class/capitalist society therefore, performs two main functions.
Firstly, it reproduces the inequalities and society relations of production of an
industrial/capitalist/class society. Secondly it serves to legitimise these
inequalities under the guise of meritocracy.

Karl Marx saw education as being used by the ruling class in order to continue
the oppression of the proletariat (working class) either by education deprivation
or just enough to make them useful workers.

2.5.3 Louis Althusser and Education

Althusser (1972), in agreement with Marx and further elaborating on Marx’s
views, argues that economic relations structure education so as to reproduce
a technically efficient labour force. He sees education as part of the system of

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the reproduction of labour power. He sees schooling as an “Ideological State

Apparatus” (ISA) as schools work to ensure that those who are to do the
work will do so co-operatively out of a belief that the situation is just and
reasonable. At school children learn to be submissive, to defer and respect
for work and their place within it. Schools therefore work to meet the needs
of the workforce and to ensure that the labour force is technically competent.

Althusser further argues that education provides an ideology that legitimizes

the inequalities of a class/capitalist society. The class society must exercise
control over education. Whilst functionalists, as noted earlier on in this unit,
argue that schools operate meritocratically, however Althusser, argues that
this is merely ideology (false consciousness) that makes people believe that
the education system is fair when really it serves the interests of the ruling
class because they control the education system.

In school we are socialized into believing that school operates on meritocratic

principles, this ideology pacifies us and we do not see that the education
system is really unfair and serves to reproduce the inequalities of society and
the relations of production that benefit the capitalist class (Althusser 1972).
Therefore, the failing of so many pupils in schools is not a failing of the system
but actually what the schooling system is designed to do.

2.5.4 Bowles and Gintis on the Correspondence Principle

and Education
Bowles and Gintis (1976) argue that achievement in school and a pupil’s life
chances are determined to a great extent by their family background – their
class. Schooling takes place in the form it does in order to effectively prepare
pupils for their future role as workers under capitalism. This preparation is
achieved through the ‘Correspondence Principle’.

The Correspondence Principle works on the basis that what happens at school
is a mirror image of what happens at work. Bowles and Gintis (1976) argue
that much of what we learn at school is preparation for our future roles as
workers in Capitalist Society. Capitalist Society needs a docile, obedient and
motivated workforce. The school prepares for this in three ways:
 A subservient workforce: this refers to those who conform to do best
at school. Here compliance and dependability results in success. On
the other hand aggressiveness and independence result in failure. The
emphasis in schools is to teach pupils to learn to obey.
· Acceptance of hierarchy: Teacher says because he/she is above and

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pupils do because they are below. By the same token at the work
place the boss says and the worker does. In school pupils also learn
hierarchical structures. The head, deputy head, senior teacher. At work
the hierarchy is Managing Director, Director, Manager, Foreman.

 Motivation by external reward: Many pupils are not interested in the

subject knowledge they are taught at school – the only reason they
have for going to school is to get examination passes, that is, an external
reward. This prepares pupils for the world of work where they do not
work for the love of the job but for an external reward in the form of a
wage.

 The bottom line of what Bowles and Gintis are saying is that the
socialisation of children, particularly from the lower class in the school,
is preparation for them to fit into the work place culture where they
have to work observing the hierarchy of the work situations.

Activity 2.3

? 1. Discuss the relationship between the economy and

education as given by Karl Marx.
2. Compare and contrast Louis Althusser and Bowles and
Gintis’ arguments about the role of the school in a class
society. How far does this role go in portraying the
relationship between the school and the work place in
Zimbabwe?

2.6 The Feminist Perspective and Education

In this section of the unit we discuss four feminist perspectives. These are
Liberal, Marxist, Socialist and Radical Feminist perspectives. Mannathoko
(1992) views feminism as a theory pivoted round the recognition that women
are oppressed. The theory addresses the prevailing unjust and discriminatory
gender relations. Women tend to be discussed within Sociology as subordinate
to man. Feminist perspectives tend to address this anomaly. Feminism is also
concerned with the analysis of male/female relationships as they relate to social
class and patriarchy. Feminists have criticised all the three traditional dominant
theoretical perspectives (functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic
interactionism) as biased towards male points of view. A discussion of each of
the four perspectives will help here.

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2.6.1. Liberal Feminism and Education

This perspective was located mainly in Europe between mid 19th century and
the early 20th century (Jary and Jary, 1991). The perspective is concerned
with day-to-day questions of legal, political, economic and social equality for
women. Bryson (1992) points out that liberal feminism is based upon the
belief that women, as rational beings, should be free to choose their role in life
and to explore their full potential in competition with men. The strength of
Liberal feminism is in raising women’s awareness, at the same time agitating
for social change. This has been noted in its concern with issues of open
discrimination against women in areas of social life such as work, education
and the mass media. Liberal feminists have therefore argued for legal protection
and social rights for women such as anti-discrimination legislation, equal pay,
the right to education, employment, property and the vote.

Once the issues above have been achieved, liberal feminists feel that equality
with men is guaranteed.

In so far as education is concerned, liberal feminists agree that the education

system is very unfair to females as it limits their access and retention in certain
professional fields. Liberal feminists fight for equal opportunities (Mannathoko
1992). This perspective is also confirmed by Dekker and Lemmer (1993: 6)
who say “In terms of gender and schooling, liberal feminism assumes that
educational reform can help to correct gender biased inequalities in the
economy, the family and the political system”.

2.6.2 Marxist Feminism and Education

Marxist Feminists explain gender inequalities from the viewpoint of Karl
Marx’s analysis of Capitalism. The emphasis in this regard, is on the way
women are generally exploited through domestic labour and childcare. Marxists
call this type of “free service” a ‘use value’ – the value of unpaid female labour
to Capitalism can be expressed in terms of how it helps capitalists to carry-
out economic exploitation, rather than in direct monetary terms and as “reserve
army of labour”.

The crux of the Marxist Feminist position in so far as it is agued is that, in

order to understand the basis of male/female inequality; we have to analyze
the structural (economic) arrangements that are ultimately responsible for
producing this inequality. The critical question therefore is why is it women
rather than men who suffer economic marginalisation?

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As an employee becomes dependent upon an employer for a job, a wage

and therefore survival, a dependent relationship develops and becomes mirrored
by the family group. In this instance the woman becomes dependent upon her
partner for survival. A relationship in the family is characterised by relations of
domination and subordination.

These relationships became routinized over time. The Capitalist sought to

justify and maintain his domination (because it is advantageous to him) and
the male seeks to justify and maintain his domination, because in exchange for
sharing part of his wage he receives domestic services from the woman in
return.

2.6.3 Radical Feminism and Education

For Radical Feminists, two concepts assume central significance in terms of
any analysis of male/female relationships:

Bryson (1992: 181) views radical feminism as “… a theory by and for women
…, it sees the oppression of women as the most fundamental and universal
form of dominating and its main aim is to understand how women should
struggle together to achieve their own liberation…”

“Patriarchy” is the domination of women by men. It is viewed by Adrienne

Rich cited in Einstein (1981) as a system in which men determine what part
women shall or shall not play in which female is subsumed under the male.

“Sex class – because of their biology (specifically, their ability to bear children)
and patriarchal domination, women become dependent on men for their
material survival and protection. All women have a common biology and are
all subject to male oppression. In view of this, they constitute a distinct class
– one that has its own interests and political agenda.

Patriarchy, which originates in the division between men and women within
the family group, is seen by Firestone (1972) as a fundamental characteristic
of male/female relationships in all societies.

Given that females are all dominated by men, radical feminists argue that they
should, of necessity, form a group with the same interests, which are opposed
to those of men.

The male power does not exist in the economic and political spheres only, it is
also exercised in the private sphere, the home. In the context of education,
radical feminists do not merely demand for real opportunities. They go further

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to demand for changes in the curriculum, more so if the curriculum has subjects
whose content is characterized by gender stereotypes. The explicit call from
the radical feminists, therefore, is that if the curriculum, school textbooks and
curriculum materials are gender typed there is need to change them. In other
words there is need to embark on deconstruction of gender stereotypes that
characterize the school curriculum.

2.6.4 Criticism of Radical Feminism

 Radical Feminists fail to understand that the gender relationships which
exist within the family group in capitalist societies, for example, are
created by and are specific to the economic imperative of this economic
system.

 There is no evidence to suggest that women constitute a “sex-class”.

Apart from a common biology, women have no real shared interests –
as a class apart from men. It is difficult to see for example what common
interests are shared by upper class and working class women, aside
from the fact that they are women.

 Patriarchy is not a universal ideology that is somehow ‘free floating’ in

society. It stems from the particular material conditions of people’s lives
in capitalist society.

2.6.5 Socialist Feminism and Education

Socialist feminism has its roots in Marxism. Using a materialist approach,
socialist feminists argue that the oppression of women cannot be looked at as
independent from the exploitative nature of the capitalist mode of production
(Kazembe, 1986).

Socialist feminists believe that the situation of women can only be understood
when one understands the economic situation. Under capitalism women and
children are drawn into the labour market as industrial and agricultural workers.
At the work place women are exploited as they are given low wages. The
women are expected to cope with the demands of the work place as well as
with the domestic work at home. In the home males dominate.

Socialist feminists whilst having a number of things in common with other

perspectives like: support for practical action to improve the position of
women’s lives on an everyday basis (Liberal feminism).

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 Attacking the causes of women’s economic oppression (Marxist

feminism)

 Challenging the patriarchal assumptions that underpin male/female

domestic relations (Radical feminism) is also a distinct perspective in
its own right.

Unlike: (1) Liberal Feminism, Socialist feminists do not see legal and/or
political changes as sufficient in themselves. Women have to be
emancipated as a class, rather than on a piecemeal, and ad hoc basis.

(2) Marxist Feminism – since the revolutionary overthrow of capitalism

does not seem very likely to occur, this ‘solution’ to female exploitation
tends not to be seen as a particularly useful one to pursue.

(3) Radical Feminism – whilst patriarchy is seen to be a significant factor in

female oppression, Socialist Feminists do not see women as a ‘sex
class’, nor do they see all men as the ‘class enemy’. Not all male/
female relationships are characterised by oppression and exploitation,
for example.
Socialist Feminism seeks to combine political analysis with economic and
domestic reform as a means of improving the social position of women. Socialist
feminists argue that various social factors are seen to shape women’s lives
(class, gender, ethnicity and age among others). No single factor is being seen
as the key to unlocking women’s oppression.

Socialists Feminists see patriarchy and capitalism as linked. Socialist feminists

argue that in the hierarchy of patriarchy, all men, whatever their rank in the
patriarchy, are bought off by being able to control at least some women. The
fact that man benefits and capitalism benefits means that the two (men and
capitalism) conspire against women. Women therefore are exploited by
husbands as well as by capitalism.

In the context of education and in a situation where school fees could be hard
to come by, the girl child may not be sent to school in preference for the boy
child. In this way the girl child will have been denied an opportunity to go to
school. This, as a result, perpetuates their disadvantaged position.

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Activity 2.4

? 1.2. Compare and contract the four feminist perspectives.

Which of the four perspectives do you think aptly explains
gender inequality that is experienced in the Zimbabwe school
system? Justify your answer.

2.7 The Interactionist Perspective and Education

Interactionism became a major alternative to Functionalism in the 1970s. In
fact the approach has been used since World War Two. It has its intellectual
roots in the concept of the self as developed by George Herbert Mead.

2.7.1 Interaction
According to Jary and Jary (1991) interaction is the process and manner in
which social actors relate to each other, especially in face-to-face encounters.
In the classroom the teacher, pupils and context interact. The outcome of this
interaction is learning. Interaction can be voluntary, that is, meeting and
associating with people because you want. It can also be involuntary, that is,
meeting and associating with people because you have to.

Interaction therefore, has to do with what goes on between people, how

people make sense of the social world together and how through interaction
with each other, they make society what it is.

Applied to education, the concept of interaction means what goes on everyday

between pupils and teachers in the classroom.

2.7.2 Theories within the Interactionist Perspective

In this section of the unit we examine the main schools of thought within the
Interactionist (Social Action Approach) perspective. These include Action
Theory (Max Weber) Charles Horton Cooley’s Looking Glass Self and
symbolic interactionism by George Herbert Mead.
 Max Weber (1864-1920) and Social Action
Marx Weber (1958) developed the Action Theory. Weber was
concerned with action that clearly involved the intervention of thought
processes (that the resulting meaningful action) between the occurrence
of a stimulus and the ultimate response. He argued that man acts because
he ascribes meanings to his actions.

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He argued that the task of sociological analysis involved the interpretation

of action in terms of its subjective meaning. In order to study society
and man we should study the motivations of man. Weber goes further
to suspect that focus of Sociology should be on individuals and patterns
and regularities of action and not on the collectivity.

Max Weber (1958) argues that social order in society is created and
maintained by individuals through their understanding of what they believe
in. Real basis of social order, he argues, is satisfaction of the individual.
To Max Weber therefore, interactionism permits discussion. It is viewed
therefore as shared experience.

Max Weber is regarded as the father of interpretive Sociology - A

perspective that has come to be known as the micro-perspective as it
views everyday activity and interaction between people as the basis of
analysing society.

 Charles Horton Cooley’s “Looking Glass Self”

Charles Horton Cooley provided an influential description of the effect
of interaction with others upon a person’s self-concept. The looking
glass self, according to Cooley (1902), is the capacity to see ourselves
as we see any other social object. In other words, people act like
mirrors to a person’s imagination. There are three components in the
self-concept formation.

These include:
1. We imagine how we appear to others.
2. We imagine what their judgement of that appearance must be.
3. We develop some self-feeling, such as pride or mortification, as a result
of our imagining others’ judgement.
Cooley had a special interest in the way self-concepts developed in children.
He observed that children from an early age are concerned with their effects
upon others. Children are always trying to exert control over people around
them. With maturity children become more sophisticated. They try harder to
hide their desires for approval of affection. The most important self-feelings
are pride and shame but it is the desire to avoid shame that shapes people’s
behaviour (Cooley in Abrahamson 1990).

Symbolic Interactionism is a body of theory that emphasises the organisation

of everyday social life around events and actions that act as symbols to which
actors orient themselves. Interactionists frequently study this through

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observation or face-to-face interaction and a preferred method for doing this

is ethnography.

Mead (1934) in his discussion of symbolic interactionism (talking with others)

came up with three critical principles that deal with thought process namely:
meaning, language and thought. In his theory, he states that meaning is the
construction of social reality. Human beings act toward people or things on
the basis of the meanings they assign to those people or things.

Language, the second principle of symbolic interactionism, is the source of

meaning. Meaning is negotiated through the use of language. For example,
there is nothing particular about the word dog. However, through symbolic
interactionism, we have learned to associate the word dog with the real life
animal that barks at night to alert us of strange visitors to our homes.

The third and last principle is thought or taking the role of the other. Mead
(1934) argues that it is only through significant symbols, especially language,
that human thinking is possible. When we interpret symbols we do this through
our own thought processes. Interactionists refer to this as “an inner
conversation”. Conversations involve talking and that behaviour also occurs
within the individual, when it does, thinking is taking place (talking to oneself).
In other words, people naturally talk to themselves to sort out meanings of
situations. People often put themselves in another person’s shoes and act as
they would act. When we think about assigning meaning to things we interact
symbolically.

2.7.3 Characteristics of the Interactionist Perspective

Having examined the main schools of thought in the Social Action Approach,
it is necessary to point out the characteristics of this perspective as given by
Haralambos and Holborn (1995).
 Action is meaningful to those involved in the interaction process.
 An understanding of action requires an interpretation of the meanings
which actors give to their activities.
 Meanings are not fixed entities, they are created, developed, modified
and changed within the actual process of interaction.
 Interactionism focuses on small-scale interaction and usually rejects
the notion of a social system.
 It should be noted that in social interaction, people learn the meanings
and the symbols that allow them to exercise their distinctive human
capacity for thought. Signs stand for themselves, while symbols are
social objects used to represent whatever people agree they shall
represent.

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2.7.4 Classroom Applications of the Interactionist

Perspective
From the examination of the main schools of thought within this perspective,
the following applications to education and the classroom can be deduced:
 The interactionist perspective of Education is concerned above all else
with classroom interactions between learners and teachers, not with
broader questions about the functions and (economic) class analysis of
education. The focus then, is on what goes on in classrooms every day
of a pupil’s life and how this influences a pupil’s performance. Therefore,
the attitudes and labelling practices of teachers as well as the possible
effects these might have on pupils’ achievement, become the focus of
investigation for the interactionist perspective.

 Labelling has to do with teacher’s judgements about pupils. The possible

effects of such labels (for example, bright, lazy, works hard, disruptive,
a chatterbox) on the educational achievement of a pupil can have a
major influence on the pupil’s performance. An example is the label
‘works hard’ could persuade a teacher to encourage the pupils so
labelled a great deal. In turn that encouragement, by building the pupil’s
self confidence, could persuade the pupil to work even harder to gain
good examination results. Typing is very important to interactionist theory.
Typing refers to how teachers ‘type’ or categorise pupils as ‘bright’ or
‘troublesome’, ‘good’ or ‘bad’. Hargreaves et al (1975) argue that
teachers make sense of and respond to pupils in terms of these kinds of
‘types’.

The key question is - Why might teachers ‘type’ certain groups of pupils?
Which groups might they be?
 Another application of the perspective, is the study of meaning. What
interactionist sociologists are saying is that for someone to fully
understand how another person views or interprets the world, that
person must listen carefully to what the other person has to say and try
and put themselves in their position.

 The Self-fulfilling Prophecy

Rosenthal and Jacobson quoted in Mulkey (1993) say that teacher’s
expectations affect performance as well as pupils’ self-evaluation. This
is where the expectations we have for ourselves coincide with the
expectations others have for us. When others feel the same way we do
about ourselves we treat this as a confirmation. The concept of self-

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fulfilling prophecy connects with the concept of labelling. A teacher can

label Ruvimbo as bright and co-operative and Kudzai as disruptive.
Once these judgements (labels) have been made, the teacher interacts
with Ruvimbo and Kudzai in totally different ways. The teacher might
pay far more attention to Ruvimbo than Kudzai. This may motivate
Ruvimbo to perform very well in examinations. The labels ‘bright’ and
‘co-operative’ will have become a self-fulfilling prophecy. In the
meantime, Kudzai (because she has been labelled as disrepute) does
poorly. The teacher will not have encouraged her as much as Ruvimbo.

 Keddie (1968) argues that teachers have a concept of an ‘Ideal Pupil’

that is based on the teachers’ middle class values. Teachers judge the
ability of pupils in relation to this ideal pupil and subsequently teach
different levels of knowledge to pupils. There is a relationship between
perceived ability and class that affects how teachers respond to pupils
in terms of these types.

 Howard Becker (1961) interviewed 60 teachers in the United States

of America and found that teachers did have different expectations of
pupil performance based on class.

2.7.5 Critique of the Perspective

The focus of the perspective is the individual actor discussed without reference
to the historical and political context of behaviour. It is the lack of context, the
wider structural setting of action, which is considered to be the major limitation
of interactionism.

Activity 2.5

? 1. Compare and contrast the functionalist and the

interactionist perspectives.
2. Which one do you think helps you more to analyse what
goes on in school classrooms? Justify your answer.

2.8 Summary
In this unit we have shown that the three perspectives, which are, the
Functionalist perspective, the Marxist Conflict Perspective and the Feminist

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Perspective are macro perspectives. Society is the unit of analysis in the three
perspectives. They analyse what goes on in society as a whole as well as
what goes on in the organ of society called education. The Functionalist
Perspective focuses on the structures of society and the functions of these
structures for society. The Marxist Perspective on the other hand focuses on
the conflict that is a result of contradictions of wealth and poverty in the society.
How these contradictions bring out inequality in society and how the school is
used as a tool by those in power to socialise the young to accept the status
quo through introducing them into an ideology of false consciousness. The
Feminist Perspective brings to the fore the inequalities that exist between men
and women and what society could do, through the school, to deconstruct
gender stereotypes brought about mainly by patriarchy. Last but not least the
Interactionist Perspective gives depth and breath as it adopts a micro-
sociological approach in which the small group is the unit of analysis. Everyday
activities being the building blocks of society. It focuses on the interpretation
of actions, giving meaning to these as well as the interaction that goes on
between teachers and pupils with learning being the outcome of the
interactions.

In the next unit focus will be on some sociological principles and how they
impact on education and schooling.

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2.9 References
Althusser, L. (1972) “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses” in Lenin
and Philosophy and Other Essays. New York: Mortly Review Press.
Becker, H. (1961) Boys in White: Student Culture in Medical School.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Bilton, T. et al (1987) (Eds) Introducing Sociology. London: Macmillan.
Bowles, S. and Gintis, H. (1976) Schooling in Capitalist America. London:
Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.
Bryson, V. (1992) Feminist Political Theory. Basing Stoke: The Macmillan
Press Ltd.
Dahrendorf, R. (1959) Class and Conflict in Industrial Society. Stanford
C.A: Standform University Press.
Dekker E.I. and Lemmer, E.M. (Eds) (1993) Critical Issues in Education.
Durban: Butterworth.
Eistein, Z. (1981) The Radical Future of Liberal Feminism. New York:
Longman.
Firestone, S. (1972) The Dialectic of Sex. London: Paladin.
Haralambos M. and Holborn, M. (1990) Sociology: Themes &
Perspectives. (4th edition) London: Collins Educational.
Jary, D. and Jary, J. (1991) Collins Dictionary of Sociology. Glasgow: Harper
Collins Publishers.
Keddie, N. (1968) ‘Classroom Knowledge’ in Young, M.F.D. (1971)
Knowledge and Control. London: Collier-Macmillan.
Mannathoko, C. (1992) “Feminist Theories and the Study of Gender Issues
in Southern Africa”. In Meena, R. (edit), Gender in Southern Africa:
Conceptual and Theoretical Issues. Harare: Sapes Books.
Mead, G. H. (1934) Mind, Self and Society: Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Mulkey, L.M. (1993) Sociology of Education: Theoretical and Empirical
Investigations: New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College.
Robinson, P. (1981) Perspectives on the Sociology of Education: In
Introduction. London: George Allen and Unwin.

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 Unit Three

Principles in Sociology of
Education

3.1 Introduction

I n Unit 2 we introduced you to the four perspectives that are used in Sociology
of Education as tools of analysis. In this unit, we introduce you to some of
the principles of Sociology of Education.

The principles of Sociology of Education include the following:-

 Culture and Socialization

 Stratification

 Social Control and Deviance

 Social Change
Sociology of Education Module DEP209

We feel that these four principles are important to a school teacher’s

understanding of Sociological issues that have to do with teaching and learning.
You are expected at the end of the unit, to relate each of these principles to
what goes on in society and how this impacts on what goes on in school in
general and the classroom situation in particular. By and large, these four
principles, among others, help you to describe and explain education from a
sociological perspective.

3.2 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to: -

 define and explain each of the four principles that form part of
this unit, that is culture and socialization, stratification, social
control and deviance and social change
 relate each of the principles to education with particular
reference to teaching and learning in the schools
 point out the merits and demerits of each of the four principles
 examine the implications of each and every one of the four
principles to education

3.3 Culture, Socialization and Education

In this section of the unit, we define and explain the principle of culture and
socialization. We revisit the sociological perspectives in so far as they analyse
the principle of culture and socialization. We also discuss the implications of
the principle to education.

3.3.1 Culture and Education

 The Concept Culture
The term ‘culture’ comes from the Germany word Kultur which means
civilization. Acultured person in the past was viewed as civilized. Edward
B. Taylor quoted in Ezewu (1990:66) defines culture as “that complex
whole which include knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, laws, customs
and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society”.
On the other hand, Abercrombie et al (1988:59) define culture as “The
symbolic and learned, non-biological aspects of human society, including

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language, custom and convention, by which human behaviour can be

distinguished from that of other pirates”. Ralph Linton in Horton and
Hunt (1980) views culture of a society as the way of life of its members,
the collection of ideas and habits which they learn, share and transmit
from generation to generation. The definitions of culture given above
show that culture is the whole of knowledge, ideas and habits of a
society which are passed on from one generation to another.

Culture can be sub-divided into two, which are, non- material culture
and material culture. Non-material culture is viewed by Vander
Zanden (1990) as abstract creations like values, beliefs, symbols, norms
and institutional arrangements. On the other hand, material culture is
viewed by the same author as physical artefacts/objects like stone axes,
computers, loin clothes, tuxedos, automobiles, paintings, hammocks
and domed stadiums.

Two other terms emanating from culture are sub-culture and counter
culture. Sub-culture is a culture of a sub-group which varies so much
from the culture of other sub-groups in society (McNeil and Townley,
1986). In Zimbabwe, sub-cultural groups include regional, ethnic,
occupational, religious, social class, age and sex groups among others.
Counter culture on the other hand, refers to a situation where the sub-
groups’ values, attitudes and actions are at variance with those of the
larger society (McNeil and Townley, 1986). A delinquent gang
(matsotsi) are an example of a counter culture group.

 Elements (Components) of Culture

These include beliefs, norms, folkways, mores, laws, values, symbols
and language.

Beliefs – are viewed by Ezewu (1990) as propositions that are

accepted as true. In other words, these are vague opinions about the
world and the nature of society. Beliefs could also be viewed as specific
statements that people hold to be true in relation to particular matters.
They vary from one culture/sub-culture to another. Furthermore, they
are not necessarily based on any logical or empirical (research)
considerations. Examples of beliefs that obtain among the Shona include
itching of hand for a gift and ritual killing for riches among others.

Norms – Vander Zanden (1990: 32) defines norms as “social rules

that specify appropriate and inappropriate behaviour in given situations”.

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In other words, norms are rules and regulations by which society guides
the behaviour of its members. Norms therefore, are clear guidelines,
which tell us what we should, or ought to, or must do as well as what
we should not, ought not to or must not do. Deviation from norms is
punished by sanctions. Traffic lights are norms that regulate the
behaviour of drivers of motor vehicles. Cannibalism and incest are not
allowed in African society. Norms are often classified according to the
degree of compulsion, which could be folkways, mores and laws.
Norms are acquired by internalisation and socialisation.

Folkways - are the usual, habitual, customary, normal ways we do

things. For example, we bath, brush our teeth, groom our hair, wear
shoes, wave greetings to friends and sleep in beds.

Mores – are ways of doing things which must be followed. They relate
to ideas of right and wrong for example murder, theft, rape, treason
and child molestation bring strong disapproval and severe punishment
in most societies.

Laws – are rules that are enforced by those in power. Laws are a
result of conscious thought, deliberate planning and formal declaration.

Values - Vander Zanden (1990:33) defines values as “broad ideas

regarding what is desirable, correct and good that most members of
society share”. In other words, how things ought to be. Norms provide
us with the criteria and conceptions by which we evaluate people,
objects and events as to their relative worth, merit, beauty and morality.
Examples of values are achievement and success, work and activity,
efficiency, material comfort, progress, patriotism and democracy,
freedom and cleanliness.

Symbols – Symbols refer to anything that carries a particular meaning

recognized by people sharing a given culture. Symbols include body
language, flags, paintings, badges and uniforms. Reference here is made
to all social symbols.

Language – is a system of symbols enabling members of society to

communicate with one another. It can also be viewed as a socially
constructed system of sound patterns (words and sentences) with
specific and arbitrary meanings. It is the cornerstone of every culture,
the chief vehicle by which people communicate, not only ideas, but

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information, attitudes and emotions to one another. It is the principal

means by which human beings create culture. It is also a major means
of cultural reproduction (a process by which one generation passes
culture to the next) and the perception of the world.

 Implications of Culture on Education

The school is an institution of society through which the culture of society
is transmitted to its members. The culture concept is fundamental to
the content of education as well as the methods used in passing on the
valued knowledge. Durkheim’s view of the curriculum would suggest
that if the socialization function of education is to be successful, then
curriculum content in schools may be justified on the basis of its being
part of the common collective culture.

Teachers are servants of the culture in which they work not just to
transform the culture, but to mirror its dominant values and perpetuate
them. Teachers therefore need to analyse the cultural context of their
pupils’ behaviour in order to make classrooms happy places. Teachers
should also know that culture is dynamic (always changing). It is then
necessary for teachers to think about what is to be discarded (left out)
and what is to be developed.

The school curriculum is a reflection of the society’s culture (Lawton,

1985). For teachers therefore, the culture concept is essential to a
proper view of the curriculum of the schools. In view of this observation,
teachers ought to guard against the ethnocentric (belief that one’s own
ways of doing things are the only right, proper, just and moral ways)
notion that their own sub-cultural orientations have intrinsic superiority
over those of their pupils.

Activity 3.1

? 1. Culture makes man and man makes culture. Discuss.

2. Show the significance of beliefs, norms, values and language
to a schoolteacher.

3.3.2 Socialization and Education

In this section of the unit, the term ‘socialization’ will be defined and explained.
Theoretical perspectives on socialization will be explored. The roles of the

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family, the school, peers and the mass media in the socialization of the school
child will be discussed.

Socialization – Generally, the term ‘socialization’ is a process by which an

infant transforms from being a biological little animal without speech and self-
control into a person or social being with language, beliefs, values and norms
as well as self-control. Hurd (1980: 95) views socialization as “the process of
growing up into a human being, a process which necessitates contact with
other people”. On the other hand, McNeil and Townley (1986:90) say,
“socialization is about how the individual learns to behave in a socially
acceptable way”. Vander Zanden (1990: 62) defines socialization as “a process
of social interaction by which people acquire the knowledge, attitudes, values
and behaviours essential for effective participation in society”.

The three definitions above show us that socialization is not an event but a
learning process that starts at birth and ends with death. In the socialization
process, people learn the patterns of their culture. The process takes place
mainly in childhood but continues throughout life.

Theoretical Perspectives on Socialization

We are going to briefly discuss the Functionalist, the Marxist and the
Interactionist perspectives on socialization.
 Functionalist Perspective
Functionalists see socialization as a process that happens to the
individual. Emphasis is functional rather than interactional. Functionalists
have tended to stress the influence of social structures on forming and
controlling individual behaviour. Talcott Parsons (1959) in particular,
has described individual social action largely in terms of performance
of roles determined by the needs of society. The functioning of society
requires that people perform such roles as industrial worker, clerk,
teacher or company director, among others.

Talcott Parsons in Haralambos and Holborn (1995) points out that the
family socializes the young into the particularistic standards of the home.
However, the school socializes the child into universalistic standards
(cultural practices that enable a child to fit well into society). Parsons
views a school as a major socializing agency developing in individuals
the following:

 Commitment to society’s broad values (especially achievement and

equality of opportunity).

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 Performance of a specific type of role within society.

 Ensuring that people are able to do what they are committed to do.
 Acquiring a range of technical and social skills.

Linking socialization to allocation in the school class Parsons said that:

 All pupils begin school as more or less equal and are treated equally.
 However, sex role differences are established prior to school.
 Some pupils have a higher level of ‘independence’ on entry to school
than others.
 They are given same work and evaluated in the same way.
 Gradually they are differentiated on the axis of achievement which could
be cognitive or moral.
 The relatively high in cognitive achievement will fit better in specific
function, for example, technical roles.
 Those high in moral achievement will tend toward diffuse and more
‘socially’ or ‘humanly’ oriented roles.

Activity 3.2

? Socialization is functional for society. Discuss.

Marxist Perspective

Marxists like Functionalists, tend to see socialism as a process that ‘happens’

to the individual. They stress the function the family plays in passing on the
main ideas and values of a society to the individual. Marxists however, question
whether what children learn is always in their own interest. In a slave family,
for example, a child may be brought up to accept a position as a slave. The
slave child comes to take as normal, a social position of exploitation. Therefore,
a priest who tells the poor and deprived to ‘accept their lot’ is seen as socializing
them to come to terms with exploitation.

What is important to note from the Marxists is that class experience (slave or
working class) at work or in the community can provide sources of
socialization which conflict with the message of conformity from the slave
master or the employer respectively.

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The Interactionist Perspective

It is largely on the matter of rules and norms that interactionists disagree with
Talcott Parsons. Whilst Parsons (1959) makes norms seem somewhat rigid
and constraining (limiting), interactionists consider them to be much more
flexible. Interactionists point out that different people fulfil the same roles very
differently and argue that it is important to understand and interpret precisely
what a given role means to the individual performing it. For example, the role
of the teacher may be fulfilled in many contrasting ways. One teacher may be
strict and traditional. Another teacher may be permissive and progressive.
Their different philosophies and behaviours greatly affect what they actually
achieve as educationists, yet they are performing the same role.

Activity 3.3

? Compare and contrast explanations of socialization as given by

Conflict and Interactionist Perspectives.

The Process of Socialization

As pointed out earlier in this section of the unit, the process of socialization
takes place mainly in childhood, but continues throughout life. Its agencies
include the family, school, peer groups, the mass media and the work place.

The Family

Primary socialization takes place within the family of orientation. This stage is
sometimes referred to as the primary phase. “The socialization process at this
stage is intended and takes place informally as a product of social interaction
between people in extremely close physical and emotional proximity to one
another (Bilton 1988: 12).

The family transmits culture, that is, it teaches children how to walk and use
various tools like knives and forks, when to shake hands, which hand to use,
what and how to eat. Language is acquired as well as religious beliefs. Boys
and girls are dressed differently in European societies, girls in pink, boys in
blue and they are given different toys. They see gender differences in the
home. We should however note that particularistic standards are emphasized

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in the primary phase of socialization (Parsons in Haralambos and Holborn

(1995). Parents’ behaviour is gradually internalized by the child and it forms
the basis of the child’s personality. By the time the child goes to school, the
family will have taught the child how to cope with the inescapable tensions,
frustrations of life, how to postpone anger or immediate desires. The bottom
line is that during the primary socialization process, children learn basic social
skills, appropriate behaviour and obedience to authority. All that which is
learnt in the family is reinforced during the secondary stage of socialization
that is, in the school.

The School

School socializers include the formal and hidden curriculum, textbooks,

teachers, classroom rituals, extra curricular activities among others. Talcott
Parsons claimed that the main purpose (or function) of secondary socialization
is to liberate the individual from a dependence upon the primary attachments
and relationships formed within the family group. The school is the dominant
agency of the secondary stage of socialization. It is the place where specialized
class and linguistic abilities are taught, (Walters and Crook, 1990). Schools
impart knowledge, develop skills and inculcate positive attitudes which are
consistent with their future roles (Anderson, 2001). Children also learn to
behave in a group setting. School exposes children to teachers who exert a
new kind of authority and punitive sanctions to enforce appropriate behaviour.
In the school, children are evaluated on the mastery of both the ‘hidden
curriculum’ and the formal syllabus (Bilton, 1988: 13). In the formal way, the
school provides the child with the intellectual tools needed like reading, writing
and numeracy. The school also teaches the history of the society, for example,
how the society evolved, the scientific and cultural achievements of the past
and opportunities for the future. Children are oriented to the culture in which
they live in the school. The school also provides children with the competencies
they need to be productive members of the group.

Through the hidden curriculum (informal way), social roles, for example,
leadership roles are acquired. Leadership roles have to do with being a group
leader – those are formal positions. Children are also exposed to adult role
models in form of teachers and administrators.

Gender roles are also influenced by the hidden curriculum. Girls are prepared
for the adult social and family roles and are expected to behave in ‘feminine’
ways when relating to peers and staff members. Learning and teaching materials
such as books may also reproduce gender in the school by depicting girls and
women in stereotypical feminine roles and with feminine characteristics and
behaviours (Gordon and Chimedza, 1993).

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As teachers interact with girls and boys in the classroom, they may label girls
as less able than boys. Girls may develop a negative self-concept and become
demotivated which will cause them to perform poorly. Girls are made to feel
invisible at school. School sports are also based on gender with boys doing
more aggressive sports whilst girls dance. Teachers therefore may be
responsible for the reinforcement of primary gender socialization, discrimination
against girls in school and thus gender inequalities in education.

Activity 3.4

? Examine the school’s role in the socialization of the primary

school child.

The Peer Group

At school, the hidden curriculum operates through the peer group. The peer
group is an important influence on a child’s life. The peer group consists of
friends and people of roughly the same age, whose behaviour influences the
child. Within the peer group sub-culture, we become aware of the value of
conformity, learn role behaviour and behaviour consistent with that particular
group (Waters and Crook, 1990).

The peer group provides an opportunity for children to learn how to interact
with agemates, how to deal with hostility and dominance, how to relate to a
leader and how to lead others. It helps the child to develop a concept of self.
The peer group is also a medium of communication for the child. Therefore, it
provides an effective learning situation. It also transmits the culture of society
(Datta, 1985).

The peer group shelters and protects its members. It gives them psychological
sustenance by meeting emotional needs of affection, understanding and
acceptance. It invests individuals with specific status (Datta, 1985).

Peers laugh at individuals if they go against the typical gender roles, that is,
group of boys laughing at their friend who plays netball for example.

The Mass Media

Mass media refers to media of communication which include newspapers,

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magazines, television, radio, movies, computer networks, videos, compact

disks (CDs) and other forms that reach mass audiences. These media
communicate information to a large, sometimes global audience. Most people
learn about the world through these forms of media.

The mass media are sources of identity in the public sphere. It should be
noted that the electronic media is creating a global village (a community in
which people throughout the world see major news unfold and hence,
participate in the same event). Attitudes and patterns of behaviour are influenced
by the information given and the way it is presented. Attitudes towards other
countries, ethnic groups, gender, appropriate behaviour and political events,
for example, are all affected by the media treatment of them.

Activity 3.5

? 1. You need to reflect on the questions below pertaining to the

mass media.
a) Is television harmful for children?
b) Are media shaping our values?
c) Are males and females equally represented on television?
d) Does the print media’s representation of women serve to
reinforce sex role stereotypes?

The print media can be regarded as a form of cultural production where

hegemonic norms and values are created and reinforced (Ryfe, 1999). Whilst
mass media are major agencies of socialization, there is need to have a strong
‘filter’ when evaluating messages of mass communication.

Most of the research studies carried out in the specific areas of television
viewing and socialization of young children, shows that children socially benefit
from watching educational programming, as well as perhaps suffering from
watching violent programming (Anderson, 2001). Significantly, these research
studies stress the theory that it is not television, as a medium, that has an
influence in children’s socialization but rather the content of the programming
they watch, their active engagement while they watch it and other external
issues such as who they watch television with. As adults, during the tertiary
socialization phase, entry into the workforce or tertiary education and broader
contacts with society provide many opportunities for further socialization

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(Nettle, 2003). However, tertiary socialization is beyond the scope of this

unit.

3.4 The Principle of Stratification

People have been grouped together and given status according to the groups
they belong to, from time immemorial. In this section of the unit, we discuss
the principle of stratification, that is, its meaning, theories of stratification as
well as the implication of the principle to education in general and the school
in particular.

3.4.1 What is Stratification?

 Stratification refers to the rules regulating who should have what of the
desirable things in life (wealth, power and prestige) and under what
conditions (Mulkey, 1993).

 It also refers to persistent patterns of social inequality in a society that

are perpetuated by the way in which power, prestige and wealth are
distributed and passed on from generation to generation. Ogbu (1994)
views social stratification as arrangement of social groups in a
hierarchical order of subordination and domination in which some groups
have equal access to the financial resources of society.
From the explanations above, social differences become social stratification
when people are ranked hierarchically along some dimension of inequality,
whether this be wealth, power, prestige or some other characteristics. The
three terms are explained below: -

Wealth – refers to one’s property, capital and income. Wealth refers to

economic status. Values of all economic assets (income, property) is wealth.
People with similar wealth are in a similar class (for example, the wealthy
versus the poor).

Power – implies the ability to make major decision or to influence others to

act to one’s benefit. It also refers to ability of people to achieve their goals
despite opposition from others. Power can shape society. It can also direct
one’s actions.

Prestige – refers to respect with which a person or status, position is regarded

by others (fame, honour, esteem). Those with common social prestige belong

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to similar status group regardless of wealth (university professors and lawyers).

Occupation therefore is a main factor in one’s prestige.

Education affects occupational status and income closely associated with it.
Various occupations have different amounts of prestige, including the ability
to influence others.

Activity 3.6

? 1. What is your definition of social stratification?

2. Identify dimensions of inequality that differentiate people in
Zimbabwe.

3.4.2 Systems of Stratification

These are present in many forms in all societies. One system of stratification is
that in which individuals are ranked and assigned status based on some
characteristics. The characteristics could be ascribed (gender) or achieved
(occupation). However, degrees of significance of ascribed as opposed to
achieved status vary in different systems of stratification.

An important form of stratification is degree of flexibility. Reference here is to

closed or open system. In a closed system, membership is based on ascribed
status. In such a system, there are rigid boundaries. Positions are set by ascribed
status. There is little mobility of people from one class to the other. An ascribed
status is one that is attached to people on a basis other than their earning it
through merit (skin colour, religion).

In an open system, boundaries between lands of hierarchy are more flexible

as they are influenced by achieved status or merit. The possibility of movement
from one status to another is referred to as social mobility. (movement of
individuals or groups from one level and in a stratification system to another
either upward or downward). For example, sociologists investigate how
frequently the child of a peasant farmer becomes a medical doctor.

Social mobility is divided into two types. The first, exchange mobility is
when people in high status jobs lose their positions and people in lower status
jobs are promoted to higher status. This mobility depends on whether the
system is closed or open.

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The second type structural mobility refers to the changes in people’s social
statuses as a consequence of changes in the economic structure of the society
– whether certain kinds of jobs are needed by the society (Mulkey, 1993).
Most people however, even in open society remain in the social class of their
parents.

3.4.3 Theories on Stratification

Functionalist and conflict theories of stratification will be discussed in this
section of the unit.
 Functionalist Theory of Social Stratification and Education
Social Stratification and Social Order
Functionalists argue that social stratification is inevitable and necessary.
The functionalist theory of social stratification focuses on social order.
The main concern of the theory is on the role of division of labour in
holding society together. In other words, the theory focuses on the
functional integration of the whole society. This is only possible if the
different organs of society (the family, the school, the economy and
politics) play their roles for society. It is also possible when the role
incumbents, in an organization like a school, discharge their duties in
order to realize the goals of the school.

For functional integration of the whole society to occur, there should

be values agreed upon by members of society. This is referred to as
value consensus (Durkheim in Haralambos and Holborn, 1990). For
example, if people value working hard, they make their society develop
faster. This makes their society a cohesive unit hence the function of
social stratification in this instance is that of maintaining social order.

 Talcott Parsons Theory of Social Stratification

Parsons (1970) noted that the emergency of industrial societies brought
with it values like achievement. He argued that a merit system placed
people in occupations. These occupations were arranged in a
hierarchical order of material rewards and social prestige. This
arrangement was according to their functional importance to society.
Functional importance means the capacity of the occupations to
produce some service or good required by society (Parson in
Abercrombie et al (1988).

High rewards, according to Parsons, were necessary to motivate people

to do functionally important jobs and there was a social consensus

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(agreement) about the importance of occupations. In industrial society,

therefore, with specialised division of labour, some people will follow
their directions. What should be noted here is that there are differences
in power and status between the administrators and the followers. In a
school situation, the school head has more power and a higher status
as compared to teachers.

Power is used by administrators to achieve the collective goals of society.

If the goal of society is wealth, it becomes incumbent upon the
administrators to use the power invested in them by virtue of their
positions to ensure that the followers work hard in order to generate
wealth for society.

To Parsons, social stratification is inevitable and desirable, given that it

is necessary for the co-ordination and integration of a specialised
division of labour as well as the achievement of collective goals that
are based on shared values. In the same vein, inequality is inevitable as
some people will always be at the top (administrators) because of their
value to society, whilst others will always follows their (administrators)’
directives, (Parsons in Ballantine, 1993).

Talcott Parsons in Mulkey (1993) argues that it is by consensus of

needs and values that the process occurs. Also it is on the basis of
achievement (merit) not ascription (sex, race, socio-economic status
(SES)) that selection and allocation take place and lower socio
economic status pupils are in this way afforded an opportunity to
mobilise in the system.

 Davis and Moore on Stratification and Education

For Davis and Moore (1945), stratification is a functional pre-requisite
(function needed for a system to survive and operate effectively). The
role of education in the stratification process is made clearer if we
follow the argument given by the above two functional theorists. They
argue in Ballantine (1993) as follows:

1) People are induced to do what society needs done, motivated to fulfil

roles by extrinsic rewards (money, prestige).

2) The importance of a particular role and scarcity of qualified persons to

fill the role determine the prestige rankings of positions. For instance,
doctors are seen as more important than bartenders and have more
prestige and higher pay.

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3) Those positions that are most complex and important and require the
most talent and training – that is education, are the most highly rewarded.
Davis and Moore (1945) argue for effective role allocation and performance
in which roles are filled by people best able to perform them. Necessary
training for the role should be provided. Furthermore, the roles should be
performed conscientiously.

Davis and Moore cited in Haralambos and Holborn (1995) also view social
stratification as a mechanism for ensuring effective role allocation and
performance. This can only be possible through:
 Ranking, for example, doctors as being of more functional importance
as compared to nurses.
 Distribution of innate ability and talent among individuals.
 Giving more and adequate time for training to doctors as compared to
nurses, thereby compensating doctors by means of high reward.
 The high reward will act as an inducement for conscientious performance
by doctors of this important role as compared to low reward for nurses.
Implications of the Functionalist Theory of Social Stratification and
Education

Functionalists explain that stratification in education plays a role in selecting

and training persons for occupational positions in society. They argue for
stratification functions to match important roles with scarce talents (Mulkey,
1993).

Durkheim, as noted in Unit 2, argues that schools transmit general social values
which provide the basis for social solidarity. He also points out that schools
teach pupils specific skills necessary for their future occupations (specialized
division of labour in industrial society).

Davis and Moore (1945) cited in Haralambos and Holborn (1995) view the
major function of the school as to develop, sort and select pupils by ability
levels to fill hierarchical positions. In other words, they see the education
system as the proving ground for ability and therefore the selecting agency of
placing people in different statuses according to their abilities.

Evidence of the argument above is social mobility (movement) of people from

a lower stratum (class) to a higher class. That is, a child may be born of
peasant parents but through schooling can end up being a doctor or engineer.

What we should note in Davis and Moore’s thesis (argument) is the assumption
that social stratification results in meritocracy (hierarchy in which all positions

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at the work place are rewarded based on ability or credentials). One criticism
that we can level against the theory is that it ignores inequalities based on
inherited wealth. The theory assumes that highest contributors to society are
rewarded the most.

Activity 3.7

? The major function of the school is to develop, sort and select

pupils by ability levels to fill hierarchical positions. Is this
statement a true reflection of the role of schools in Zimbabwe?

 The Conflict Approach to Stratification

The approach is influenced by Marx who argues that stratification is
avoidable, unnecessary and a source of conflict. The conflict approach
argues that social inequality is created and maintained by one group to
protect or enhance their own interests. It is believed that problems in
the education system originate from the conflicts in the society as a
whole. Karl Max felt that educational institutions perpetuate existing
class structure. This occurs when the type of education and knowledge
available to various groups of people is controlled and when people’s
access to positions in society is also controlled.

Education/schooling serves to reproduce the inequalities in society based

on power, income and social status. Conflict theorists argue that
stratification arises from a struggle to control scarce resources. Schools
support the status quo (Mulkey, 1993).

Bowles and Gintis in Ballantine (1993) argue that schools are agencies
for ‘reproducing’ the social relations of production necessary to keep
capitalist systems working. Schools reproduce social relations of
production in the sense that they have a middle class ‘bias’ and are
more closely aligned with the values and behaviour patterns of middle
class children.

NB: For more on Conflict Approach to Social Stratification you

should read Unit 2. Specific reference should be on Bowles and
Gintis and the Correspondence Theory.

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Conflict theories view educational systems as replicating the existing social

class inequalities by controlling what it means to be educated and restricting
access to educational resources and occupational positions (Carnoy, 1974).

The principle of stratification has been discussed as it addresses the issue of

inequality on society. The application of the principle as a tool for understanding
equality of educational opportunity has been highlighted in so far as who gets
what and under what conditions is concerned.

Activity 3.8

? 1. How far do you agree with Karl Marx’s Contention that

stratification is avoidable, unnecessary and a source of conflict?
2. Do Zimbabwean schools help, hinder or remain indifferent to
the inequalities that children bring to school?
3. Social stratification is functional to society and the school plays
an important part in ensuring that stratification is achieved
efficiently. Evaluate this statement and make reference to your
experiences in your school and community.

3.5 Social Control, Deviance and Education

The third principle of Sociology of Education is social control and deviance.

3.5.1 Social Control

Haralambos (1995) regards social control as the sum total of all cultural values,
norms, customs, ideas and ideals that maintain order in society. Order means
a state in which social life (actions and interactions) can be conducted without
major disruption. On the other hand, Parsons in Abercrombie, et al (1988:
225) defines social control as “the process by which through the imposition of
sanctions, deviant behaviour is counteracted and social stability maintained”.

Social control, from the definitions given above, refers to those mechanisms
designed to align behaviour at individual and societal levels. The mechanisms
could include rewards and sanctions that, channel behaviour or rules, laws
(norms defined and enforced by government), habits and customs by which a
society tries to maintain order. Social control can be external, taking the form

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of punishments for deviant behaviour, or internal being established by the

socialization process. What should be observed is that social control is present
in all societies. In the primary school, pupils are expected to pass at the end of
Grade Seven public examinations. Those who drop out and or fail will have
deviated from the standard role prescribed for pupils by society.

In trying to give meaning to social control, there has been constant reference
to deviant behaviour. This is the opportune time to define and explain deviance
and deviant behaviour.

3.5.2 Deviance
Mulkey (1993: 199) defines deviance as “socially disapproved violations of
important norms and expectations”. On the other hand, Haralambos and
Holborn (1995: 581) define deviance as “those activities which do not conform
to the norms and expectations of members of a particular society”. Deviance
is a form of behaviour which is considered to violate society’s norms and
therefore to be unacceptable.

Observations from the definitions of deviance above are that: -

 Deviance occurs when norms (rules, laws) are broken.
 Deviance has to do with activities bringing general disapproval from
members of a group or society.
 Deviance is culturally determined and cultures change over time and
vary from society to society.

3.5.3 Deviant Behaviour

It refers to behaviour which is different from normal behaviour or actions
which transgress commonly held norms. Deviant behaviour therefore, is a
social problem given that it harms individuals and can have disruptive effects
on social life.

Examples of deviant behaviour include: -

 Foul language
 Keeping ‘bad company’
 Habitual failure to keep appointments
 Heavy drinking

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Activity 3.9

? Identify forms of deviant behaviour school children engage in.

What could be the causes of these forms of deviant behaviour?

3.5.4 Theories of Deviance

 Biological and Psychological Theories
These have been developed claiming to show that crime and other
forms of deviance are genetically determined. Both theories share views
about deviants:
(i) they see the deviant as different from the population as a whole
(ii) a deviant is abnormal in a normal population
(iii) the abnormality predisposes the person to deviance
However, these claims have been largely discredited, as none of the theories
has been able to convincingly demonstrate that there is a casual relationship
between biology and crime.
 Sociological Theories of Deviance
Functionalist and Interactionist theories of deviance are to be discussed
in this section of the unit.
Deviance - A Functionalist Perspective

A functionalist analysis of deviance begins with society as a whole, rather than

an individual. The source of deviance is looked for in the nature of society
rather than in the biological or psychological nature of the individual. All
functionalists agree that “social control mechanisms” (the police, the courts,
etc) are necessary to keep deviance in check and so protect social order.

Functionalists like Emile Durkheim and Albert Cohen argue that a certain
amount of deviance has a positive function. They go further to point out that it
even contributes to the maintenance and well being of society. Durkheim argues
that all social change begins with some form of deviance. An example here is
Robert Mugabe, who was viewed as a terrorist by the colonial regime, became
a freedom fighter and ultimately a Prime Minister of Zimbabwe at
independence in 1980.

Albert Cohen’s analysis in Haralambos and Holborn (1990) shows that

deviance can be a safety value, providing a relatively harmless expression of
discontent. He gives the example of prostitution (a deviant act) which performs

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a safety value function without threatening the institution of the family.

Prostitution here provides a release from the family stress and pressure without
undermining family stability. However, prostitution in this day of Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS) no longer serves as a safety value given the dangers posed by the
pandemic.

Cohen goes further to say that certain acts are a useful warning device to
indicate that an aspect of society is malfunctioning. This may draw attention to
the problem and lead to measures being taken to solve it. In a school situation,
for example, truants may reveal unsuspected causes of discontent and this
may lead to changes that enhance efficiency and morale in the school.
 Robert K. Merton’s Theory of Deviance
Merton (1959) argues that deviance results from the culture and
structure of society and not from genetics as given by biological and
psychological theories. He adopts a standard functionalist position of
value consensus, that is, all members of society share the same values.
He noted that in the United States of America, the goals of society
were money, material positions, high status, power and an affluent life
style. Accepted ways of achieving these goals included hard work,
merit and a system of education providing the path to achieving the
above goals.

He also noted that since members of society were placed in different

positions in the social structure (class position), they do not have the
same opportunity of realizing the shared values or goals. Unequal access
to education for example, gives strain on the lower classes, whole access
to legitimate means of realizing the goals is blocked. There is a tendency
therefore, to strive for success by any available means (anomie –
normlessness).

Merton (1959) outlines five possible ways in which members of society

can respond to success goals, thereby producing four kinds of deviance:

 Conformity, or the acceptance of both cultural goals and means, is

seen as the result of successful socialization and the opportunity to
pursue these goals through socially approved means.
 Innovation – whilst all citizens are urged to succeed, the society
distributes opportunities unequally. The result is innovation (adopting
unlawful ways of pursuing and achieving success).
 Ritualism:- it represents the over-socialized, who are zealously

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conformist but have limited opportunities for advancement offered to

them.

 Retreatism: - it represents those who feel detached or alienated from

society as they do not share its goals or the means of achieving them.

 Rebellion: - is a form of adaptation aiming to bring about a social

structure in which the culturally defined standards of success would be
significantly altered so that merit, hard work and reward would be
closely related. Rebels among pupils reject the values of school and
the rules which embody them.
The bottom line in Merton’s development of the concept of deviance and
anomie (state of normlessness or the breakdown of normative guidelines) is
that the socially disadvantaged lack the opportunities to achieve consensual
norms by legitimate means. Therefore, some reject either the means or the
goals themselves.

Activity 3.10

? 1. Discuss the school implications of Merton’s theory of deviance.

2. Examine the view that deviant acts by school pupils can be
functional for teaching and learning.

Deviance: An Interactionist Perspective

Generally, the perspective focuses upon the interaction between deviants and
those who define them as deviant (Haralambos and Holborn, 1990). It
examines how and why particular individuals and groups are defined as deviant
and the effects of such a definition upon their future actions. For example, the
interaction between the deviant and various agents of social control such as
parents, teachers, doctors, police, judges and probation officers may be
analysed. Furthermore, the effects upon the individual of being defined as a
criminal, delinquent, mentally ill, an alcoholic, prostitute or homosexual may
be examined.

In this perspective what we should note is that the definition of deviance is

negotiated in the interaction situation by the actors involved. The perspective
stresses the importance of factors internal to the individuals. Individuals do

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not react positively to external forces, they attach meanings to events before
deciding how to respond.

A focus on Howard S. Becker’s labelling theory on deviance helps you to

have insights into deviance and deviant behaviour.

Howard S. Becker and the Labelling Theory

The Labelling Theory has been the hallmark of interactionist perspectives on

deviance for more than thirty years. Becker in Haralambos and Holborn
(1990:610) argues that “social groups create deviance by making the rules
whose interaction constitutes deviance, and by applying those rules to particular
people and labelling them as outsiders”. In other words, the Labelling Theory
which assumes that labelling someone as deviant will reinforce their deviant
behaviour, is important as it starts from the assumption that no act is intrinsically
criminal (or normal).

Interactions like Becker therefore, argue that the deviant is one to whom the
label has been successfully applied and deviant behaviour as behaviour so
labelled. The argument continues when he says that there is no such thing as a
deviant act, an act only becomes deviant when others perceive it as such.
Therefore, Becker in Haralambos and Holborn (1990: 611) argues that
“Deviance is not a quality that lies in behaviour itself, but in the interaction
between the person who commits an act and those who respond to it”. It
follows from this argument that deviance is produced by a process of
interaction between the potential deviant and the agents of social control.

To Becker, if individuals are labelled as criminal, mentally ill or homosexual,

such labels largely override these people’s status as parent, worker, neighbour
and friend. Since a person’s self-concept is largely derived from the responses
of others, they will tend to see themselves in terms of the label. This may
produce a self-fulfilling prophecy (which we discussed in the unit of Sociological
Perspectives) whereby the deviant identification becomes the controlling one.

Activity 3.11

? How far true is the assertion that predictions made by teachers

about the future success or failure of pupils will tend to come
true because the position has been made?

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3.5.5 Deviant behaviour in schools

Despite very strict school regulations to prevent children from committing
deviant acts, deviant acts tend to be on the increase. Using the perspectives
that have been discussed in the unit, show how you can modify the following
pupils’ behaviours.

 A chatterer in an obedient class.

 A thief stealing from fellow pupils and school property.
 Wearing the wrong uniform or folding it, or lengthening one side of it.
 Dodging lessons.
 Bullying up smaller pupils or frequently engaging in fighting with fellow
pupils.

It is important that a good and objective understanding of deviant behaviour

in the school setting should be based on the pupils’ age, family background
and the norms and values of the society. Deviant behaviour in the classroom
or school should not be treated as an offence but rather as behaviour crying
for and indeed capable of being modified by appropriate behaviour modification
(counselling) techniques.

Activity 3.12

? What part can teachers play in deviant behaviour modification

in Zimbabwean schools?

3.6 Social Change and Education

In this section of the unit, we focus on the principle of social change. Change
is one of the most constant features of any society. For sociologists, social
change occurs when many members of the society adopt new behaviours that
have far reaching effects and important consequences.

3.6.1 The meaning of social change

The tem ‘social change’ is used within Sociology and applies to modifications
in social relationships or culture. Mulkey (1993) refers to social change as the
alteration of social structure (behavioural prescriptions).

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Major social processes through which social change occurs include discovery,
invention and diffusion. Think of the discoveries that have been made in modern
society and how these have revolutionised the way people behave. The same
could be said of the inventions like the aeroplane, electricity, telephone, cell
phone and the Internet. Important agents of social change are technology,
changing demographics (populations structure and pattern), the natural
environment, and the revolution and war.

3.6.2 Theoretical perspectives on social change

Evolutionary, functionalist and conflict theories of social change will be
discussed in this section of the unit.
 Evolutionary Theory
Classical Evolutionary Theory of Social Change was based on the
assumption that all societies develop from simple, ‘small scale’
beginnings into more complex industrial and post-industrial societies.
The development was unilinear, that is, there was one line of development
from simple to complex or from a primitive to an advanced state. It
was assumed that the changes inherent in this development were all
progress. It was also assumed that the rate of social change was slow,
gradual and piecemeal.

The theory emerged at a time when Charles Darwin was publishing his
theories on the origin of species, that biological species evolved from
the simple to the complex, and that there was ‘survival of the fittest’.
Evolutionary theorists applied these ideas to societies – a concept that
fitted very well with the colonial era when Britain and other colonizing
countries were heavily involved in bringing their ‘superior’ advanced
form of society to more ‘primitive’ societies, in exchange for their raw
materials and trade goods. Social change in accordance with Charles
Darwin approach to biological development, was Evolutionary not
Revolutionary. It should be noted that social change process (from
primitive to complex – modern society) as portrayed above, will take
centuries to complete. We should also note that evolutionary theory
described change, rather than explained it.

 Functionalist Theory of Social Change

The Functionalist Theory assumes, on the whole, that as societies
develop, they become increasingly complex and interdependent. The
theory emphasizes social order rather than social change. Functionalist

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theory, as presented by Talcott Parsons (1951), in Haralambos and

Holborn had the following tenets:

1) Human society is like a biological organism, with different parts

corresponding to the different institutions that make up a society;

2) Each institution performs a specific function for the good of the whole,
thus, there are four crucial functions that every institution must perform
to maintain the social fabric. These include:

(a) Adaptation to the environment – performed by the economy but not

any economic system, only capitalism can adapt to the environment;

(b) Goal attainment – performed by the government, pursuing liberal aims

as defined by English thinkers;

(c) Integration (linking the institution together) – performed by the legal

institutions and religion but not any religion. Branches of the Judo-
Christian religions were the rights ones;

(d) Latency (pattern maintenance of values from generation to generation)

– performed by the family as historical basic human organization and
education as an institution.

Functionalist theory assumes that: -

· all members accept their roles;
· all members accept the moral values of their society;
· ‘social order’ is achieved through complex processes of socialization,
education and sanctions;
· history is seen as a series of phases through which societies progress,
each phase is characterized by an increase in rationality;
· ‘social facts’ can be studied as ‘objective facts’ or ‘social laws’.
Thus, the process of social change can be viewed as a ‘moving equilibrium. A
society is relatively stable; it reacts to changes by making small adjustments to
keep itself in a state of functioning and balance.

Mulkey (1993) puts it succinctly when she says that:

The Functionalist Theory views society as consisting of interdependent parts,

each of which helps to maintain the equilibrium of the entire social system. It
focuses on social order rather than conflict; it accounts for social change by

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arguing that society changes in the direction of greater complexity while

maintaining its balance by integration of its parts or institutions. Strains to the
system introduced by social change stimulate adjustment that return the system
to stability and the new system contains different social arrangements than the
one that precede it.

The bottom line therefore, is that from a functionalist point of view, societies
tend towards harmony, stability, equilibrium and the status quo. Any behaviour
jeopardising those conditions will be considered anti-social and therefore
punishable.

The main limitation to the theory is that it really only attempts to explain
institutional change. The theory lost credibility because it proved inadequate
to explain the rapid upheaval and social unrest of the late 1950s and 1960s.
 Conflict Theory of Social Change
The conflict theory argues that conflict is the main factor behind social
change. The theory argues that conflict is useful and necessary.
Haralambos and Holborn (1990) say that Class conflict forms the basis
of the dialectic of social change. In Marx’s view, the history of all existing
societies is the history of class struggle. In view of this, conflict theory
views social change as resulting from tension between competing
interest groups in society over values and scarce resources (Mulkey,
1993). This is illustrated by:
 the struggle between slaves and slave masters during the slave mode
of production
 the struggle between the serfs and landlords during the feudal mode of
production
 the struggle between the proletariat (workers) and the bourgeoisie in
the capitalist mode of production.
Marxism argued that the potential for change, in the above modes of
production, was built into the basic structures of society, the relationship
between social classes which Marx saw as being intrinsic to the social relations
of production. According to Marx, eventually a society reaches a point where
its own organization creates a barrier to further economic growth and at that
point, crisis precipitates a revolutionary transformation of the society. Examples
have been given above as from slavery to feudalism to capitalism and finally
to socialism.

Marxists believed that social order was maintained through socialization,

education and ideology as alluded to in Unit 2. Therefore, control is maintained
to suit the vested interests of powerful groups and as the interests of these

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groups change, so does society. Change is therefore, ongoing until crisis point
is reached and transformation occurs. While Marx focused on class conflict
specifically, modern conflict theories have broadened their explanation of change
to social conflict generally.

The Conflict Theory is useful in explaining significant events in history and

ongoing changing patterns of race and gender relations. However, it struggles
to adequately explain the dramatic impact of technological development on
society or the changes to family organization.

Activity 3.13

? 1. Give your own explanation of the concept social change.

2. Compare and contrast functionalist and conflict explanations
of social change.
3. To what extent can schools bring about social change in a
given society?

3.7 Summary
The unit focused on some of the principles of Sociology of Education. These
were culture and socialization, stratification, social control and deviance as
well as social change. The meaning and importance of these principles, to you
as a teacher, have been brought out and explained. Each of the principles has
a role to play in Sociology of Education in general and in teaching and learning
in particular. Unit 4 focuses on School and Society.

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3.8 References
Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. and Turner, B.S. (1988) Dictionary of Sociology
– London: Penguin.
Anderson, D. et al (2001) Early Childhood Television Viewing and
Adolescent Behaviour Boston: Blackwell.
Ballantine, J. (1993) The Sociology of Education: A Systematic Analysis.
Englewood Cliffs. N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Bilton, T. et al (1988) Introducing Sociology. London: Macmillan.
Carnoy, M. (1974) Schooling in Corporate Society: The Political
Economy of Education in America. New York: Mckay.
Datta, A. (1985) Education and Society: A Sociology of African
Education. London: Macmillan.
Davis, K. and Moore, W.E. (1945) Some Principles of Stratification:
American Sociology
Review – Vol. 10. No. 2.
Ezewu, E. (1990) Sociology of Education. London: Longman.
Gordon, R. and Chimedza, R. (Editors) (1993) “Equity in Education” in
Teacher Education Packages – UNESCO.
Haralambos, M. and Holborn, M. (1995) Sociology: Themes and
Perspectives. London: Unwin Hyman.
Horton, P.B. and Hunt, C.D. (1980) Sociology. London: Penguin.
Hurd, G. (1980) Human Societies: An Introduction to Sociology. London:
Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.
McNeil, P. and Townley, C. (1986) Fundamentals of Sociology. London:
Hutchinson.
Merton, R. (1959) “Social Theory and Social Structure” in Social Work 4(2)
3 – 13
Mulkey, L.M. (1993) Sociology of Education: Theoretical and Empirical
Investigations. New York: HBJ College.
Ogbu, J. (1994) “Racial Stratification and Education in the US: Why Inequality
Persist” in Teachers’ College Record 96(2).
Parsons, T. “The School Class as a Social System: Some of the Functions of
American Society”. Havard Educational Review (1959: 297 – 319).
Ryfe, D.M. (1999) “Governing with the News: The News Media as a Political
Institution” in Journal of Communication. 49 (3) 196 – 200.
Vander Zanden, J.W. (1990) Sociology: The Core. New York: McGraw
Hill.
Walters, M. and Crook, R. (1990) Sociology One (2nd Edition). Melborne:
Longman.

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68 Zimbabwe Open University

 Unit Four

School and Society

4.1 Introduction

I n this unit we discuss the role and function of the school. The teacher and
the community’s roles are also discussed. You should be aware that society
consists of many interconnected social systems one of which is the school
system. We refer to society as the macro–system or level because the level
subsumes a number of other systems. The school system is referred to as
belonging to the micro-level because it is only an aspect of the wider social
system (society). Within the school is the teacher who plays a key role in
ensuring that the goals of the school are realized. The teacher also has a role
to play in the community surrounding the school. The community in which the
school is situated has a role to play in the school. It is our intention in this unit
to discuss the relationship between the school and the community and how
the teacher executes his/her duties in both organisations.
Sociology of Education Module DEP209

4.2 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 define and explain the terms social system and community

 discuss the school as a social system
 examine the role of the teacher and the community
 show that many sociological perspectives help to analyse what
goes on in the school system

4.3 Key Concepts

4.3.1 System
Abercrombie et al (1988:229) defines a system as “any collection of interrelated
parts, objects, things or organisms.” A system exists to satisfy some goal or
purpose.

4.3.2 Social System

In the structural functionalist school of Sociology, social system denotes a
pattern of social acts in pursuit of individual and collective goals governed by
the need of the “Social System” to maintain its own structure. Parsons (1959)
views it as a term of two or more social actors engaged in more or less stable
interaction within a bounded environment. It could also consist of both a social
structure of interrelated institutions, statuses and roles and the functioning of
that structure in terms of social actions and human interactions. The term may
be employed in the analysis of the school, university or the state as social
systems which have structures or interrelated parts.

4.3 Social System of the School

The social system of the school is best explained through the structural
functionalist approach. The school, in this approach is composed of many
distinct sub–systems or parts. Each of the sub-systems or parts has special
goals. Together the parts/sub-systems make up a functioning whole. However,
the major function of the school is to produce social beings. This is because
the school is a place where society recreates itself in the young.

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The sub – systems or parts of the school as a social system include the following:
 School Administration – the school Head, Deputy Head, Teacher in
Charge and Senior Teacher or Heads of Departments.
 Teachers and Pupils.
 Support staff and service, such as receptionists, secretaries, librarians,
bursars and grounds workers.
If any one of these parts of the school experiences problems or breakdown
or does not carry out its function, other interdependent parts are affected.
What we should note here is that each part is dependent on the other parts for
smooth operation, for the materials or resources it needs to function or even
its existence. The social system of the school can be defined by four
characteristics namely boundaries, interdependence of parts, needs and
equilibrium. A brief explanation of the characteristics is made below:
 Boundaries
A school system must have boundaries. If there are boundaries you
can identify what parts are in the system and those outside. The buildings
and the people who are members are parts of the school system hence
its boundaries. Non-members are not part of the school system.

 Interdependence of Parts
Parts of the school system are interdependent. What happens to one
part in the school system affects the other parts. If pupil enrolment
decreases for example, all parts of the system (number of staff
programmes, standards, the budget) are affected.

 Needs
The school as a social system has needs or requirements if it has to
survive. No pupils means no school. It also needs funds for its
programmes, salaries for its teachers and other personnel. It has to
have control over its members at an acceptable level.

 Equilibrium
Equilibrium as a characteristic of the school as a school system, refers
to a particular time when the school has adequate funds and adequate
number of pupils. If this equilibrium is threatened, for example, if the
number of pupils and staff increases very rapidly, then the school system
will be obliged to adapt itself to its new set of circumstances.

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4.3.1 Goals of the school system

School goals are not the product of isolated educational systems but reflect
the concerns of the larger society, the community, participants in the school
and other individuals. Functionalist theorists argue that goals give direction to
the school, helping it to function smoothly and to support the societal system.

Conflict theorists argue that school goals are goals of the dominant power
groups in society, and that these goals represent only one segment of society.
They go further to state that there are competing and contradictory goals held
by other groups in society.

Societal and Community Goals

These include the following among others:

 Pupils to excel in Mathematics and Science.
 Literacy and numeracy
 Equal treatment accorded to boys and girls.
 No corporal punishment. There should, however, be discipline and
control.

School Goals

The goals include the development in each individual of the knowledge,

interests, ideals, habits and powers where he/she will find his/her place and
use that place to shape both him/herself and society toward ever nobler ends,
(Ballantine, 1993). The school values could include good citizenship, or fitting
into society and individuality or making one’s own way through acceptable
means.

Individual Goals

These could be varied as follows:

 Administrators and teachers could desire high quality education, but
they could also have personality motivations such as the need for money,
prestige and knowledge.

 For pupils, school could be obligatory. They are required to attend.

Their individual goals vary depending on individual motivations.

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Activity 4.1

? 1.
2.
Define the term Social System.
Which sociological perspective best explains the school as a
social system? Justify your answer.
3. Examine school goals through the eye of the school as a social
system.

4.3.2 School Functions (The Purpose of the School)

By function we mean the appropriate or assigned duties, responsibilities,
missions, or tasks of an individual or institution (Good, 1978). School functions
are not attributed to a simple source. These come from society, the community
and family as well as individual pupils as discussed below.

Functions from Society: Include the Following:

 To socialize the young to carry out needed adult roles.
 To keep the young occupied.
 To delay the young entry to job market.
 To help perpetuate society.
 To socialize the young into particular society values, traditions and
beliefs.
 To develop in the young skills needed to live in society, for example,
reading, writing and responsibility.
 To select and allocate the young to needed roles from professionals to
labourers.
School Functions from the Family and the Community Include:
 To formalize socialization from family experience, especially informal
learning.
 To facilitate peer interaction.
 To structure socialization experience.
 To help meet family goals for successful children.
 To give children more options in the competitive market place.
 To produce young people who will fit into the community.
School functions from individual pupils are that the school provides an
opportunity to get together with peers and engage in sports and other activities.

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Activity 4.2

? Functionalist Sociologists view a school as a place where individuals

acquire the experiences and credentials which define their
subsequent position in society. How far true is this definition of the
function of the school in Zimbabwe?

4.3.3 The school as an organisation

Max Weber viewed complex organizations that were a result of industrialization
and urbanization as bureaucracies. As a result he came up with an ideal
bureaucracy. A bureaucracy with characteristics that cut across all complex
institutions and organisations in modern day society.

Ballantine (1993) gives Weber’s characteristics of an ideal school

bureaucracy as:
(A) Division of Labour which exists both at administration and teaching
levels together with a concern for allocating personnel to those positions
for which they are best suited. There is also a formalisation of recruitment
and promotion policies.

(B) Administrative Hierarchy: this hierarchy of school head, deputy head

and senior teacher and other, incorporates a specified chain of command
and designed channels of communications.

(C) Specific Rules of Procedure - inclusive of methods of teaching, tests,

recess, external activities and punctuality.

(D) Formalised and Affectively Neutral Role Relationships – There

is de-emphasis of personal relationships between pupils and teachers
and between teachers and administrators.

(E) Rationality of the School – as an organization and processes going

on within it.

(F) The Positions Individuals Hold in the Organization Call for

Accountability - The positions carry with them rights and
responsibilities.

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Activity 4.3

? Examine the merits and demerits of viewing schools as bureaucratic

institutions.

4.4 Interaction in the Classroom

Goslin in Sianni and Ugwuegbu (1980) identifies five dimensions of the
teacher’s behaviour which determine the nature and quality of the interaction
between the teacher and the pupil. These include the child’s physical position
in class, the frequency and type of teacher pupil interaction, the degree to
which each child participates in interaction, degree of affective relationship
and the teacher’s leadership style. These dimensions are discussed below:
 The Child’s Physical Position in Class
This is determined by teacher’s criteria. These criteria could be based
on ability of the child, whether the teacher decides to group pupils
according to ability, mixed ability or ability per subject which is
sometimes referred to as setting.

 The Frequency and Type of Teacher – Pupil Interaction

The teacher’s personality influences his or her interaction with the pupils.
An understanding and encouraging teacher will generate more interaction
with pupils than one who is perceived as uncaring for the needs of
pupils.

 The Degree to which Each Child Participates in Interaction - is

determined by size of class, method used by teacher and the experience
and skills of the teacher.

 Size of the Class: the bigger the class the less participation the teacher
gets from each pupil.

 Methods Used by the Teacher – child-centred approach creates

more opportunities for the pupil to participate in the interaction system
as compared to a teacher-centred approach.

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 Experience of the Teacher – Seasoned (experienced) teachers may

heighten the degree of pupil participation more than newly qualified
ones who do not have the experience to motivate.

 The Degree of Affective Relationship – interaction in the classroom

is also influenced by the degree of affective relationship. In other words,
teacher-pupil relationship should have an emotional and expressive
component. In this relationship the learner should feel emotionally secure.
This is only possible if teacher-behaviour is warm and responsible. The
teacher, in other words, should be a helpful adult.

 The Teacher’s Leadership Style: Sianni and Ugwuegbu (1980)

identified three styles of leadership that have a bearing on the nature of
interaction obtaining in the classroom, the styles are autocratic,
democratic and laissez faire.

Autocratic Teacher

An autocratic teacher demands conformity to rules. A break of the rules results

in a pupil being severely punished. This type of a teacher dictates all the steps
of attaining goals of the class. This teacher’s classroom has low pupil-to-pupil
interaction. The classroom atmosphere is usually tense. In other words, there
is teacher-centred or teacher dominated interaction in the autocratic teacher’s
classrooms.

Democratic Teacher

A democratic teacher tends to be warm in his/her interaction with pupils. The

teacher shares planning and decision making in the class with pupils. Child-
centred approaches are employed in the teaching. These could include project
and discovery methods.

The Laissez – Faire Teacher

This teacher employs what is referred to as a free reign approach. In this style
children are given the freedom to do what they want. There is no strict
adherence to rules. Pupils lack direction and no meaningful learning may take
place.

Observation

Whilst Goslin comes up with five dimensions of the teacher’s behaviour

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determining the nature and quality of the interaction between him/her and the
pupil, it should be noted that situations demand or dictate what style to use.
The bottom line is that the school, as a social system, cannot be understood
only from a structural – functionalist perspective but from the interactionist
point of view as well.

Activity 4.4

? 1. Examine the leadership styles identified by Sianni and

Ugwuegbu (1980).
2. Which style do you think enhances most classroom interaction?
Justify your answer.

4.5 Schools as Centres of Conflict

The Marxist theory relates to the idea of a system for solving problems. It is
an approach used to get the truth by resolving contradictions that exist between
two factors in a particular situation. Generally, parental attitudes to school
have a bearing on a child’s academic performance. Parents holding positive
attitudes about school stress to their children the importance of being punctual,
attending regularly and doing homework. Conversely, those having negative
attitudes may only remind children to remember to behave properly.

Findings of a study made by E. G. Edward Seaga in Siani and Ugwuegbu

(1980), who studied aspects of parental and community values about school
that affect parent – teacher relationship are that:
 there can be conflict between teachers and certain parents regarding
the utilization of education and this does affect the children concerned

 there can be a clash between what school teaches and what parents
consider that schools should teach

 there can be conflict over the kind of punishment to be meted out to

wrong doers. An example is the use of corporal punishment in the homes
when it is prohibited in schools

 there can be conflict over what parents think teachers should do and
what teachers actually do. An example is that of expecting a teacher to

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conduct Sunday service at church when the teacher is an atheist.

Another example is that of pupils refusing to sing the National Anthem
arguing that to do so was like worshipping idols.

4.6 Summary Observations of the School as a Social

System
No single sociological perspective can enhance a comprehensive understanding
of how the school, as a social system, operates. In studying the school as a
social system, there is need to apply as many sociological perspectives as
possible. Each perspective focuses on an aspect of the school as a social
system, for example, functions, structure, organization, interaction or conflict.

Activity 4.5

? Can a single sociological perspective enhance a sufficient and

comprehensive understanding of how the school, as a social system,
operates? Justify your answer.

4.7 The Role of the Teacher

It is virtually impossible to speak of the role of the teacher as if there was
something clearly defined which one could state concerning all teachers in all
schools and all situations. Good (1978) views a teacher as a person who
structures and guides in experiences leading to a change in behaviour of those
he or she instructs. In other words, a teacher is a formal socializer of the
socializee (pupil). A teacher has a role he/she plays in the school and the
community. This part of the unit examines the role of the teacher in the
classroom, the school and the community.

4.7.1 Meaning of the Term ‘Role’

The term role basically refers to the part one plays in life. Hargreaves (1975:46)
defines role as “a pattern of behaviour associated with, and expected of people
who are filling a given social position.” A role therefore, is what the group or
an individual occupying a particular status or position is supposed to do.

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The idea of role originally comes from the theatre. In the theatre an actor’s
role is controlled by the producer or director. It is very clear. In the school
classroom nobody tells the teacher what to do. The teacher’s role is not
clear-cut.

Functionalist Perspective of Role

From a functionalist perspective, the term ‘role’ is viewed as one of the most
important ways is which an individual activity is socially regulated. Roles create
regular patterns of behaviour and therefore a measure of predictability, which
not only expects individuals to function effectively because they know what to
expect of others, but also makes it possible for the sociologist to make
generalizations about society. Collectively a group of interlocking roles creates
a social institution. The school as an institution, for example, can be seen as
the combination of many roles including head, senior teacher, teacher and
pupil.

Roles, in the functionalist conception are created by society as a whole. They

are relatively rigid, largely universally agreed upon and role incumbents simply
take their designed roles on, and attempt to fulfil them as best as they can.

Interactionist Perspective of Role

In the interactionist perspective, the systematic use of the term “role” was
made by a philosopher, George Herbert Mead in his 1934 book Mind, Self
and Society. A role in this view is not fixed or prescribed but something that
is constantly negotiated between individuals in a tentative and creative way.
Mead’s main interest was the way in which children learn how to become
part of society by imaginative role taking. According to Mead (1934) children
imitate the roles of the people around them and try them to see how well they
fit. This is always done in an interactive way. It is not meaningful to think of a
role for one person alone, only for that person as an individual who is both
co-operating and competing with others. Each individual tries actively to define
the situation (understand his/her role) within it, choose a role that is
advantageous or appealing, play that role and persuade others to support the
role.

The Role of the Teacher in the Classroom

The teacher as an individual brings into the classroom his or her views of the
job, his or her prejudices, his or her personal fears and inadequacies, his/her
humanity and affection, (Karl Mannheim and Stewart in Morrish 1972: 234).
The children he/she teaches differ in physique, appearance, intelligence,

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sociability, temperament, social and personal background. In the classroom

the teacher is an instructor, a socializer socializing the socializees and an
evaluator. Pupils agree that the teacher’s job is to teach. Whilst they prefer
socialization in their peer groups and nuclear families, it is also the role of
teachers to engage in secondary socialization. In the school there is development
of social skills for social integration like tolerance, mutual understanding and
cooperation of pupils. (See section on socialization in this module for finer
details). Teachers also monitor and evaluate children’s work. In other words,
teachers act as quality controllers. However, final assessment of pupils is done
by examination boards like Zimbabwe School Examinations Council
(ZIMSEC).

The teacher in the classroom is also a monitor, maintains control and facilitates
learning. Redl and Wattenberg in Hoyle (1969: 59-60) give 14 sub-roles of a
teacher in the classroom as follows: -
(1) Society’s representative – indicates moral precepts.
(2) Judge – as he/she processes students’ knowledge and ratings.
(3) Resource – as he/she possesses knowledge and skills.
(4) Helper – as he/she provides guidance for pupils facing difficulties.
(5) Referee – settles disputes among pupils.
(6) Detective – discovers rule breakers.
(7) Objective of identification – possesses traits which children imitate.
(8) Limiter of anxiety – helps children to control selves.
(9) Ego- support – helps children to control impulses.
(10) Group leader – establishes the climate of the group.
(11) Parent Surrogate – acts as object of bid for attention from younger
children.
(12) Target of hostilities – acts as object of aggression arising from frustrations
in pupils’ bid for attention.
(13) Friend and confidante – establishes warm relationship with children
and shares confidences.
(14) Object of affection – meets the psychological needs of the children.

Activity 4.6

?
Does the characterization of the teacher’s role in the classroom,
given by Redl and Wattenberg (1951) above, reflect the teacher’s
classroom role today? Justify your answer.

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4.7.2 The role of the teacher in the school

Basically, there are two sub-roles of the teacher in the school. These are the
teacher’s social identity (Havighurst, 1953) and the teacher’s personal identity.
On the sub-role of teacher’s identity, Havighurst (1953) analysed six tasks.
 The first is that the teacher is viewed as a mediator of learning. This is
viewed as a basic role of the teacher in the school.

 The teacher’s second task is that of a disciplinarian. The argument given

here is that the learning atmosphere in the school should be conducive.
The school emphasizes the pupil’s working environment to allow him/
her to function in a serious manner.

 The third task is that of being a parent substitute. In this case the teacher
is seen as a baby-minder particularly in the infant classrooms. Even in
the junior grades the teacher is viewed as carrying out this task.

 The fourth task is that of being judge. A sub-role referred to in Hoyle

(1969) as well.

 The fifth task is that of being a confidante. In this case the teacher is
expected to have a warm and close relationship with pupils. Such a
relationship will allow pupils to come for discussion on matters
challenging them.

 Mediator of society’s norms and values is the sixth task analysed by

Havighust. Most teachers fair badly on this one. What should be noted
is that every subject has a socio-cultural base and an ideological stand.
Teachers tend to take their sub-cultural norms and values into the
classroom at the expense of pupils. Alternatively, they take norms and
values of the dominant cultural group at the expense of those of other
pupils. By and large in this task the teacher is viewed as an advocator
of character development of the child.
On the personality identity sub-role, the teacher places different emphasis on
tasks due to age as well as attitude. There are two dimensions of the teacher’s
personal identity, that is, the instrumental and the expressive. On the instrumental
dimension, the concern of the teacher is with instruction and cognitive
development of the pupil. The teacher may claim to be a foundation of
knowledge whilst pupils are passive recipients of it. On the expressive
dimension, the concern of the teacher is with emotional, affective and social
development of pupils. The stress here is on personal relations. The teacher is

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viewed as engaging in a counselling role. Teachers are also expected to advise

pupils on road safety, HIV/AIDS or drug taking adding on to an already
diffuse and scattered set of responsibilities.

Activity 4.7

? Compare and contrast teacher’s modern classroom and school

roles.

4.7.3 The role of the teacher in the community

One cannot be categorical about teacher’s role in the community as communities
are many and varied. However, transmission of knowledge, norms and values
is the main role. The following roles appear to cut across the varied
communities:
 Coaching and managing sports clubs.
 Organising out of school activities, school trips/camps.
 Facilitating the electoral process as monitors, election officers and
agents.
 Teachers and pupils can clean streets. They can also visit and help the
aged.

 Teachers can be engaged in adult or computer literacy programmes or

be part time tutors in distance education programmes (with the
Zimbabwe Open University) can also educate adults in child rearing,
nutrition and cleanliness.

 Teachers can engage in research geared towards community

improvement/development.

 Teachers can also take part in community projects, for example,

conservation of soil, getting rid of a nearby mosquito pool and organize
tree-planting sessions during the first weekend of December of every
year (in Zimbabwe).

 Teachers can be interpreters of government polices in rural settlements

by bringing the plans of government to the knowledge of the people as
well as bringing the wishes and requirements of the people to the
attention of government.

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Activity 4.8

? 1. Discuss with other teachers what your role as a teacher in

your community is.
2. Assess the teacher’s role and actions in the school system
and say how they can be best harnessed to achieve the
collective goals of the school.

4.8 The Role of the Community in the School

Community is “whenever the members of any group, small or large, live
together in such a way that they share the basic conditions of a common life.
One’s life may be lived wholly in it, all of one’s social relationships may be
found within it”. (MacIver and Page 1959:9). A community is the immediate
social environment of the school.

The Community has a crucial role to play in the school as is shown below:
 The school is located in the community.

 The children who are in the school come from the community. The
community socializes children in certain skills, habits, feelings, values
and perceptions.

 The School Development Committees are composed of members of

the community and the community engages in the planning and
development of the schools.

 The parents and guardians monitor school pupil’s homework activities.

 Parents pay school fees and levies which go some way in ensuring that
the needs of the school are met.

 The community engages in fund-raising activities as well as donating

funds to the school for its development.

 Experts from the community also come into the school to share their
expertise with teachers and children. Examples include nurses on health
issues, sages (old people) on the history of the community and sports
experts with different sporting skills all come in and assist.

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 The community can raise funds to purchase things like buses, cars,
computers for the school. These resources are meant to benefit the
school in general and the pupils in particular.

 The community can provide manual labour for the building of school
structures.

Activity 4.9

? 1. The relationship between the school and the community is

inextricably interwoven. Discuss.
2. With reference to your school and its environment, discuss
the assertion that “The school cannot operate in isolation from
the community.”

4.9 Summary
In this unit we have shown that to understand how schools work as social
systems, we may not rely on a single sociological perspective, but all
sociological perspectives available. You can focus on the structure and functions
of the school in the analysis process. You can also focus on the interaction that
obtains in the classroom and the school. Alternatively, sources of conflict in
the school can inform you about how the school operates as a social system.
The teacher plays a central role in the classroom, in the school and in the
community. However, the multiple roles set may lead the teacher to experience
role conflict. The community has also been shown to have an inextricably
interwoven relationship with the school. Both institutions are reciprocal in
their functions and one cannot do without the other. The bottom line is that
there should be good, if not excellent, rapport between the school and the
community.

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4.10References
Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. and Turner, B.S. (1988) (Eds) Dictionary of
Sociology London: Penguin.
Ballantine, J. (1993) The Sociology of Education: A Systematic Analysis,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall.
Good, C.V. (1978) Dictionary of Education, London: Longman.
Hargreaves, D.H. (1975) Interpersonal Relations and Education. London:
Longman.
Hoyle, E. (1969) Human Development and Education. London: Longman,
Routledge and Kegan Paul (RKP).
Maclver, R. and Page, C. (1959) Society: An Introductory Analysis, London:
Macmillan.
Mead, G.H. (1934) M. Ind, Self and Society Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Morrish, I. (1972) The Sociology of Education An Introduction, London:
Allen and Unwin Ltd.
Parsons, T. (1959) “The School Class as a Social System: Some of the
Functions in American Society” Harvard Educational Review (1959)
29: 297-319.
Role of the Teacher: Retrieved 01/09/2004 from Http://
[Link].p/c deisma 95. html.
Sianni, G. and Ugwuegbu, D.C.E. (1980) Educational Psychology in a
Changing World. London: Goerge Allen and Unwin.

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86 Zimbabwe Open University

 Unit Five

Contemporary Social Problems

in Education

5.1 Introduction

P overty, gender, child abuse and disability are some of the contemporary
social problems that have an impact on what goes on in schools. In this
unit we examine how each of these social problems impact on the school
system. Each of the social problems is examined separately for purposes of
emphasis. Otherwise there are situations in which two or more of them combine
negatively to affect children’s access to education as well as how the children
are treated in the school by other children and teachers. We hope that if you
become aware of these social problems you will be in a position to come up
with interventions that may go some way in solving these social problems.
Sociology of Education Module DEP209

5.2 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 explain the concepts poverty, gender, child abuse and disability

 relate the four social problems to education
 examine interventions that the school and society can come up
with to address the four contemporary social problems

5.3 Poverty and Education

Poverty is one of the social problems that currently impact on education of
children negatively. Children who come from very poor home background
either do not go to school at all or attend but with too many odds against
them. Chances of those children dropping out of school are not uncommon.

5.3.1 What is poverty

Poverty is a term that is not viewed by society in a positive way. It is usually
associated with deprivation and or lack of something. A person who is poor
lacks what the rich have. Poverty tends to have a stigma on the identity of the
individual or the social group. In Sociological analysis it is one term that is
difficult to define, measure and explain.

Poverty therefore is any barrier to prosperity. This barrier could be lack of

resources and opportunities, or feelings of being denied the right to education,
to be productive, as well as diminished feelings of empowerment to obtain
resources and opportunities. However, there is an absolute definition of poverty
as well as a relative one.

Absolute poverty is a situation in which there are zero resources to maintain a

healthy life style. The poor, in this context, are below the poverty datum line
and are sometimes referred to as the under class.

Absolute poverty therefore, is a level of poverty in which the minimum levels

of food, clothing and shelter are difficult to meet for the poor.

An absolute definition of poverty has been criticized by sociologists on the

grounds that such a general and global definition fails to take into account
important socio-economic differences between countries.

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The definition of relative poverty can only be understood within the broader
socio-economic context of the society in which the poor live. Relative poverty
measures whether or not an individual is poor in relation to those around him/
her. The poor, in any given society therefore, are in part defined by their
opposite group, that is, the rich. The poor from this explanation of poverty
therefore are, those with significantly less access to income and wealth than
those with more access to the same.

5.3.2 Explanation of poverty and the poor

These include cultural and structural explanations of poverty.

 The Cultural Deprivation Explanations

These pinpoint that the cause of poverty is a result of the poor themselves.
The poor are seen as individuals who have been either badly socialized such
that they possess deviant values or are part of a deviant sub-culture (Sociology
Online/Anthony Siddens Third Way, 2005).

This explanation of poverty argues that the poor’s sub-culture may be so

pervasive that deviant attitudes are reproduced from one generation to another
by parents who act as ‘deviant role models’ to their children. In this way the
poor are said to be part of a sub-culture, which is somewhat antagonistic to
the mainstream culture of society. Out of this explanation came the term culture
of poverty.

The term ‘culture of poverty’ was introduced by anthropologist, Oscar Lewis.

He intended to render the poor as legitimate, interesting subjects whose lives
were battered by poverty and to reveal that poverty itself, generated a way of
life that constituted a unique ‘culture of poverty’. This was a liberal, innovative
perspective since “the poor” had previously been construed as lacking culture
(Readers’ Companion to U.S. Women’s History — Culture of Poverty, 20/
06/2005).

 Structural Explanation of Poverty

The Structural or Material explanations of poverty are of greater sociological

importance because they seek to demonstrate the wider social determinants
of poverty. Such explanations will variably consider the economic, or the
political, or the social structures and institutions of society as being the causes
and reasons for poverty and the poor.

In some senses these explanations may be referred to as society blaming

explanations.

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 The Neo-Marxists, for example, would suspect that the structures and
institutions of the capitalist economy necessarily entail poverty and the
immersion of millions across the globe.

 The Feminists might argue that the structures and institutions of patriarchy
necessarily entail poverty and in particular ‘the feminization of poverty’
As women’s roles in society often leave them with care giving
responsibilities with low pay careers and no job and poor economic
circumstances, poverty is often high among single female parents and
elderly widows.

 Thus we find a preponderance of women in poverty in most rich nations,

(Casper, Maclalian and Garfinkel, 1994). The attempt (in structural
explanation of poverty) is made to construct a holistic account of the
place of poverty in society-as-a-whole and not to place the blame for
poverty on the poor. In short, these explanations reject the individualistic
approach to poverty of the cultural deprivation theories.

 The Marxists view poverty as a class related phenomenon. Social life

is based on the production of wealth. Those who own the means of
production will exploit these who work for them giving them wages
that are not commensurate with their labour input in the production
process.

Activity 5.1

? 1. Define poverty using your own words.

2. Show the difference between absolute and relative poverty.
3. Given that there is a cultural deprivation and a structural
explanation of poverty, which one would you use to explain
poverty in Zimbabwe? Give reasons for your answer.

5.3.3 Poverty and education in Zimbabwe

The Zimbabwean government has made considerable attempts to afford all
children equal educational opportunity; Great success was realized in increased
access to primary education. However, for the very poor sections of the
Zimbabwean society, equality of educational opportunity has remained a pipe
dream.

What could be the possible reasons for the children of the very poor to continue
to have less access to education and to receive unequal treatment in schools?

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Gordon and Chimedza (1993) attribute this to two factors, that is, material
poverty at home and teachers’ attitudes and expectations in the schools.

Material poverty at home is a major factor contributing to lack of access

and poor performance by pupils in the lowest socio-economic stratum in
Zimbabwean society. Apart from tuition fees, other costs attached to education
of poor children include cost of uniforms and writing materials among others.
A less obvious cost is the loss of the child as an economically active member
of the family unit. In the case of girls there is loss of domestic labour.

The Economic activities the children get into from an early age include
agriculture, herding of livestock, street vending or even begging. Girls are
often called upon to look after young, elderly or sick relatives as their families
are unable to afford the services of professional carers. Many poor families
cannot afford these additional costs of education and thus may be unable or
unwilling to send their children, particularly daughters, to school.

Over and above the cost of education, the extreme poverty of some families
means that they are unable to aid their children educationally in other ways.
Most very poor parents are themselves uneducated and are therefore, usually
unable to help their children with homework or academic problems that may
arise. Poor families cannot afford toys, games, books and other resources,
which may be helpful to their children’s cognitive development. Because of
the poverty at home, poor children are very often inadequately nourished
which affects their ability to learn and to concentrate during lessons. Also,
they may live in overcrowded or squalid conditions and without electricity,
which means that it is very difficult for them to do homework (Gordon and
Chimedza, 1993).

For all the above reasons, once in the school, poor children usually continue
to be disadvantaged by the poverty at home.

Factors in the School

Disproportionately large numbers of poor children are in the lower academic

stems and are labelled or defined as underachievers or slow learners (Gordon
and Chimedza, 1993). Whilst this could be attributed to factors relating to the
home/background of the poor pupils, teacher attitudes and expectations, may
also play a large part in the under achievement of poor pupils.

A self-fulfilling prophecy may operate for poor pupils. This is possible when
teachers apply negative labels to, and have very low expectations of poor
pupils. When these labels and expectations are communicated to the pupils

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during classroom interaction, the resultant negative self-concepts and lack of

confidence lead to poor performance and underachievement. This lack of a
positive self-concept in relation to the school combined with all the other
problems that a poor child may have, is a very heavy burden for the child to
overcome.

Activity 5.2

? 1. What school needs do children who come from very poor

backgrounds lack?
2. What can you, as a teacher, do to attend to the plight of very
poor children in your class?
3. What can the school, the community and the government do
to improve on the plight of the school children coming from
very poor backgrounds?

5.4 Gender and Education

Gender is another Contemporary school problem that has brought to the fore
the issue of inequality in educational opportunity. For the theoretical explanation
of gender you need to revisit the unit on sociological perspectives. The focus
should be on the Feminist Perspective in particular.

5.4.1 Explanations of gender

Sociologists have generally come to an agreement that sex is biologically
determined hence, sex refers to basic physiological differences between females
and males. Being male or female therefore is biologically determined. On the
other hand, gender relates to social and cultural differences, Abercrombie et
al (1988) point out that the gender of a person, that is, being masculine or
feminine is culturally constructed.

It follows therefore, that the roles that boys and girls, men and women take in
society are created by society on the grounds that males do certain kinds of
jobs, which are differentiated from those carried out by women. There are a
number of competing theories about how gender roles become established.
 The Gene-biology Argument:
Proponents of this position argue that biology accounts for gender
differences in society; that human beings possess a genetically based

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programme a ‘biogrammer’ which predisposes them to behave in certain

ways. It follows from this argument that women are biologically equipped
for pregnancy and childbirth. Roles and occupations related to the home
and childbearing, referred to as domestic roles are said to be natural to
women. On the other hand, men are said to be genetically equipped to
carry our roles outside of the domestic sphere.

In view of the above argument Gordon and Chimedza (1993) state

that the gene-biology argument underlies the approach to education,
which assumes that the natural differences between boys and girls
necessitates differences in the types and amount of education the two
sexes need to receive in preparation for the family and occupational
roles they will carry out as adults.

 Gender Role Socialization: The main argument here is that boys and
girls learn gender roles from parents, peers and teachers (for more
details about gender role socialization revisit the unit on culture and
socialization). From the gender role socialization argument, it can be
said that appropriate gender roles are learned through socialization rather
than genetically given.

 School determined inequalities are also reproduced through peer

pressure, the media and sport and by the education system. The
education system in particular prepares girls for feminine domestic
activities and occupations by reproducing socially constructed
inequalities and power differentials between man and women.

5.4.2 Interventions aimed at resolving gender related

inequalities in education
The interventions to be discussed include gender sensitization, a social dimension
fund, removal of gender stereotyping in school textbooks, awarding of
scholarships and bursaries to girls and positive discrimination among others.

 Gender Sensitization of Teachers

Training teachers to be gender sensitive is one form of intervention that
has been put in place to bring about gender equity. Teachers have been
and continue to be agents of gender stereotyping. One way of doing
this in schools, is through gender sensitization workshops. In teachers’
colleges and universities’ faculties of education, the issue of gender has
been factored into the discipline of Sociology of Education.

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If teachers are gender sensitized, it becomes incumbent upon them to

prevent sexual abuse of any kind in the school system. Teachers would
also ensure a change in girls’ education by according equal attention to
girls and boys in the classroom activities. Gender stereotyping will also
be avoided.

 Social Dimension Fund

Swanson (1995) says that a Social Development Fund was established
to improve the economic constraints that affected the participation of
women and girls in education. The fund assisted pupils whose parents
were unable to pay either primary or secondary tuition fees. Whilst the
fund was intended to benefit all the disadvantaged groups in society,
one group that benefited from it was the girl child. It is unfortunate that
the programme has been discontinued due to economic hardships in
Zimbabwe.

5.4.3 Removal of gender stereotyping in school textbooks

Prior to this intervention most textbooks showed pictures of doctors, engineers,
trade drivers, teachers and plumbers as males. By merely looking at such
pictures pupils got to think that such jobs were the preserve of boys. On the
other hand, females were depicted as clerk-typists, receptionists, nurses and
of course mothers. In the same vein pupils on being exposed to such pictures
thought that the jobs belonged to girls. The Zimbabwe Government now
encourages those who produce school text books to make a deliberate effort
to deconstruct gender role stereotyped by showing, for example, females in
jobs as train drivers, lorry drivers, doctors and mechanics, likewise to depict
males as nurses, clerk-typists and receptionists.
 United Nations International Children’s Fund (UNICEF) also
contributed significantly to demonstrating gender role stereotyping in
school textbooks. Booklets entitled “There is room at the top” have
been produced with funding form UNICEF. The books contain
biographies of women with outstanding achievements in Zimbabwe.
Whilst there could be problems in ensuring that such books got to the
intended readership, the benefits derived from such texts cannot be
over emphasized. However, the constraint to this intervention is that
the bulk of the textbooks used in schools as well as the charts show
gender stereotypes. It will be quite sometime before the desired texts
get to every pupil who should benefit from them.

 Awarding of Scholarship and Barriers

Awarding of scholarships to girls particularly those who are poor and

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gifted is another intervention that has been put in place to do away with
gender disparities in education. Swedish International Development Aid
(SIDA) and Camfed are two institutions that have played a key role in
awarding scholarships and bursaries to girls. Given that scholarship
programmes cover a combination of costs such as tuition, textbooks,
uniforms and boarding facilities, it should be noted that if the number of
beneficiaries were to be increase especially amongst girls coming from
poor home backgrounds, gender disparities in education would be
reduced.

 Positive Discrimination (Affirmative Action)

Positive discrimination is another intervention that has been put into
place. It entails relaxing conditions and criteria for girls’ admission to
certain levels of education. It involves a system at advanced level and
university education (Swanson, 1995). In 1995 affirmative action was
instituted at the University of Zimbabwe. Affirmative action involves
the preferential treatment of individuals or groups because of past or
present disadvantages suffered by them according to Boulle, in Squelch
(1993). Whilst the cut off point in 1995 for males’ entry into University
was ten (10) points, for females, it stood at eight (8) points, the logic
behind the preferential treatment was that for a long time the girls/females
had been denied access to higher education. Whilst this sounded a
noble proportion, it should be noted that this was reverse discrimination
given that males who had the same number of 8 points as females, as
well as those who had 9 points were discriminated against. Reverse
discrimination however is a bold attempt to compensate for past unfair
discrimination to a group. What is doubtful though is whether reverse
discrimination is the right way to tackle the problem (O’hear, 1981).

 Giving female teachers priority in promotions is one form of intervention

that has been put in place in Zimbabwe. Research has shown that the
presence of women teachers tends to reduce parents’ concerns about
their daughters’ morality and safety. This therefore increases girls’
participation in schools. Also it has been noted that, female teachers
provide girls with positive role models and hence enhance girls’
enrolment and retention (UNICEF, 1992). Giving female teachers
priority in promotions also enables them to become role models for
girls to emulate and aspire to similar or better achievement. This becomes
more so even as females teachers are promoted to head schools and to
become District Education Officers.
The Secretary’s Report for the Ministry of Education and Culture (1993)

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states that deliberate moves were initiated at the provincial level to encourage
female teachers to apply for promotion to heads and deputy heads. However,
it is only at the level of head and deputy head where promotion of female
teachers has been done significantly. A cursory look at the number of females
promoted to the level of departmental directors and above, shows that very
little has been done at this level.

 Gender Policy

The Ministry of Youth Development, Gender and Employment Creations has

come up with a gender policy as a guideline to mitigate gender inequalities in
society. In as far as education and training is concerned. Zimbabwe’s adult
literacy rate of 86 per cent makes it the second highest in the region. However,
women constitute 60 per cent of illiterate adult population and the school
drop out rate, particularly among female students, still remains high. Enrolment
at secondary school level, universities and vocational training institutions is
also significantly lower for females than for males.

Some of the strategies suggested by the National Gender Policy, to address

gender issues in education and training include.
 Amending all relevant educational and legal instruments in order to
promote gender equality and equity.

 Incorporate gender issues in all curricula at all levels of education.

 Provide equal equitable educational resources to women and men at

all levels.

 Appoint competent women at decision-making level in the education

sector to create equitable representation of sexes.

 Eliminate all forms of discrimination against boys and girls in education

and skills training which includes science and technology.

 Support gender studies and research activities that will provide

disaggregated data for planning purposes.

 Promote and encourage girls to take on science, mathematics and

technology at all levels of education.

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 Introduce gender awareness programmes to pre-and post-training

teacher courses.

Activity 5.3

? 1. In what ways is gender a contemporary social problem in

the school?
2. Identify strategies given under gender policy, which teachers
can use in schools to address gender issues.
3. Show how teachers can use these strategies in addressing
gender issues in their schools.
4. What other institutions, apart from primary and secondary
schools, can help in addressing gender issues given the
strategies in this part of the module?
5. What could these institutions do to address gender
inequalities? Justify your answer.

5.5 Child Abuse and Education

In this section of the unit we define abuse, discuss types of child abuse, examine
its causes and effects as well as implication of child abuse to education. Children
have become increasingly important in social policy issues because their
position in society has become precarious as a consequent of high divorce
rates, the more widespread domestic violence and sexual abuse of children,
the prevalence of single parent households and the failure of divorced men to
provide adequate financial support for children of previous marriages
(Abercrombie et al, 1988).

5.5.1 Definition of child abuse

According to Yahoo Education Encyclopaedia (2005: 1) child abuse is
“physical, sexual, or emotional maltreatment or neglect of children by parents,
guardians or others responsible for a child’s welfare”. In other words, child
abuse is any physical, sexual, emotional injury or injuries sustained by a child
as a result of cruel or inhumane treatment or malicious act by persons who
has permanent or temporary care of the child.

A child is any human being aged between zero and eighteen years. A child is
also referred to as a minor.

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The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child declared that failure
to honour any of the child’s rights is a form of child abuse. Some of the children’s
rights are freedom of expression, protection from torture and maltreatment,
protection from exploitation, child labour, protection form sexual abuse, right
to good health, education and recreation. In other words, child abuse is a
violation of any children’s rights.

In Zimbabwe child abuse takes the following forms treating step-children

cruelly, beating children, child labour, denying a child access to medicine,
education or food, child marriage and child rape (Participation, Development,
Power and Democracy (1997)). In the family, marital discord, domestic
violence, unemployment and poverty are all factors that can precipitate abuse.

5.5.2 Types of child abuse

The four major types of child abuse are:
 Physical abuse
 Sexual abuse
 Emotional abuse
 Neglect
Child exploitation (separate from sexual exploitation) is yet another form of
abuse. In this form of abuse a child is excluded from activities that benefit
others. Child labour therefore, is an example of child exploitation for
commercial purposes. There is no doubt that explosive child labour detracts
children’s physical, cognitive emotional and social development.

There is need for us to examine in more detail each of the four major types of
child abuse stated above.

Physical Abuse

Physical abuse is any non-accidental physical injury to a child. The parent or

caregiver who inflicts the injury may not have intended to hurt the child. The
injury is not looked at as an accident given that the caregiver’s actions were
deliberate.

The injury could be a result of any assault on a child’s body such as:
 Beating, whipping, paddling, punching, slapping or hitting.
 Pushing, shoving, shaking, kicking or throwing.
 Pinching, biting, chinking or hair pulling.
 Burning with cigarette. Scalding water or other liquids such as acid.

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 Severe punishment that is inappropriate to a child’s age.

We should note that corporal (physical) punishment is distinguished from

physical abuse in that physical punishment is the use of physical force with the
intent of inflicting bodily pain, but not injury, for the purpose of correction or
control. Physical abuse is an injury that results from physical aggression.
However, physical punishment, if it gets out of control, it can become physical
abuse. Corporal punishment can only be administered by school heads or
any teacher delegated the responsibilities by the school head. There should
be a witness when administering it.

Emotional Abuse

Sometimes referred to as verbal or mental abuse or psychological abuse or

maltreatment. It has to do with any attitude, behaviour or failure to act on the
part of the caregiver, which interferes with a child’s mental health or social
development.

Examples of emotional abuse include, among others:

 Ignoring, withdrawal of attention or rejection
 Lack of praise or positive reinforcement
 Yelling or screaming
 Threatening or frightening
 Belittling, telling the child they are bad or worthless
 Name calling, shaming or humiliating
This type of abuse can come from adults or from other children who include
teachers, siblings, parents and bullies at school among others.

A child’s physical needs might be neglected by the parent’s inability to provide

adequate nourishment, to attend to medical needs, or to provide an adequate
living environment (Hayes and Emshoff, 1993). The parents may ignore or
reject the child, which, apart from the emotional consequences for the child,
may result in inadequate supervision and or failure to ensure the child’s safety.

Neglect involves families that are significantly disadvantaged having a multitude

of problems to deal with.

Sexual Abuse

Any sexual act between an adult and a child such as

 Fondling a child’s sexual parts – genitals, breasts or buttocks.

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 Actual or attempted penetrative sex with a child whether vaginal (rape)

or anal (sodomy).
 Displaying or exposing a child’s sexual parts for sexual gratification of
another person.
 Displaying or exposing the abuser’s sexual parts to a child for sexual
gratification of exposure.
 Oral sex with a child (that is, mouth to sexual parts) (Child and Law
Project, 1998: 11).
Such acts are usually committed by parents, teachers, strategists, baby sitters
and day-care providers. Sexual abuse is never the child’s fault.

Evidence available shows that sexual abuse is still prevalent in school. The
Secretary’s reports from the Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture (1990-
1993) all show that schools are bedevilled by incidents of improper association
between teachers and girl pupils. In 1992, reported offences of this nature
numbered 110 from January to July.

Neglect

Neglect has to do with failure to provide for the child’s physical, educational;
or emotional needs. Physical neglect includes:
 Inadequate provision of food, housing or clothing.
 Denial or delay of medical care.
 Inadequate hygiene.
Educational neglect has to do with failure to enrol a child of school going age
to school.

Emotional (psychological) neglect has to do with lack of emotional support

and love. It includes;
 Failure to attend to the child’s need for affection.
 Domestic violence in the child’s presence, such as spousal or partner
abuse.
 Drug and alcohol abuse in the presence of the child.

5.5.3 Causes of child abuse

These are many and varied. Many forms of abuse arise from ignorance,
isolation or cultural tradition. If, for example, children are viewed as property,
or parents believe that children have to be tightened up to face the hardships
of life, some cultures believe that girls need to be genitally mutilated to assure
virginity and later marriage.

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A personal history of being abused (childhood trauma) alcohol or drug use,

marital conflict and unemployment are also viewed as aspects in child abuse.

5.5.4 Results of child abuse

Abused children are more likely to experience generalized anxiety, depression
truancy, shame and guilty or suicidal and homicidal thoughts or engage in
criminal activity, promiscuity and substance abuse.

Child abuse can have dire consequences for the child which include:
 A child becoming someone who lies, resents, fears and retaliates.
 A child having low self-esteem.
 A child probably abusing his or her own brothers and sisters.
Physical abuse may result in:
 Difficulty in establishing intimate personal relationships.
 Difficulty in adulthood with physical closeness, touching intimacy.
 High levels of anxiety, depression or substantive abuse.
 Becoming an abusive parent or care giver.
Emotional abuse can result in serious behavioural cognitive and emotional
problems. Sexual abuse can result in low self-esteem, a feeling of worthlessness,
an abnormal or distorted view of sex and a tendency to become child abusers
or prostitutes.

5.5.5 Remedy to child abuse

Education is an essential component of the effort to prevent child abuse and
neglect and reduce the consequences to abused and neglected children.

As a teacher, you are expected to identify abused children in your class. The
following symptoms can help you identify them. These include:
 Lack of concentration in class;
 Children being easily irritable;
 Withdrawn children or isolates;
 Reacting to other children with distress, aggression, anger and violence.
Approaches you could employ as a teacher include:
 Guidance and counselling
 Reporting to police
 Informing parents
 Discussions with parents or guardians

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 Informing school administration

 Getting assistance from Social Welfare

Activity 5.4

? 1. In your own words define child abuse.

2. Of the four forms of child abuse you have read about, which
one do you think is common in the school? Give reasons
for your answer.
3. What is the role of the teacher in mitigating child abuse in the
school system?

5.6 Disability and Education

5.6.1 Introduction
Disability is no longer considered simply as a medical problem affecting only
a minority of the population, but is increasingly perceived as one of the major
socio-political phenomenon with implications for society as a whole, Barnes
(1993) points out that disability is an issue in Sociology similar to class, gender,
race and sexuality.

5.6.2 Disability defined

Disability is the inability to perform an activity considered normal for a human
being, resulting from impairment (Wood and Badey, 1987).

Disability is based on impairment and could be physical. Examples include

short sight, brain damage or absence of a leg or hand. Society has a culture.
Culture can be in material or non-material form. Material form includes
technology like spectacles, which allow the short, sighted to carry out their
roles. Non-material culture includes values, norms, social and economic roles.

Handicap comes from impairment. It occurs when one is unable to carry out
a social role that is normally expected. In other words, a handicap is socially
constructed based on a physical impairment (Wood, 1981).

Disability, which is also socially constructed, occurs when someone has a

handicap and is prevented by social circumstances from carrying out the role
because there is discrimination and prejudice.

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Culture therefore mediates impairment. In Zimbabwe, access to most buildings

does not cater for the disabled. Most transport facilities do not cater for the
disabled. Albinos are rarely employed as receptionists.

5.6.3 The social construction of disability

The social construction of disability occurs in a number of ways. A person
who is unable to do something because of a physical handicap is given a label.
The label may stick if society views the disabled as such. The significant others,
particularly the parents and teachers, may also view the disabled as having a
handicap. If the person labelled disabled accepts the label because it has
come from the parent or teacher (the significant other), this may lead to a
negative self-concept. The negative self-concept may lead to negative action.
The person applying in the label may see it as a master status overriding any
other abilities the person who is disabled may have. Therefore, negative
reaction follows and this reaction may reinforce the disability. The persons so
labelled may fulfil the prophecy.

Fulfilling the prophecy has negative effects on the person so labelled. The
person may be poverty-stricken as he or she is denied access to education or
employment, as his/her life chances are limited.

In the third world countries, disability or impairment occurs in infancy. In

developed countries it is mainly in old age. Cultural practices and beliefs tend
to cause disability. For example, cliterodectomy (cutting off of the clitoris)
causes disability. Amongst the Kikuyu of Kenya the clitoris is partly removed.
The scar tissue that remains does not expand. This leads to high infant mortality
when the woman subjected to cliterodectomy is giving birth.

5.6.4 Albinism as a disability

We made reference to disability as a situation in which a person so labelled is
unable to use one’s body through injury or disease. An albino is disabled as
he or she lacks melanin a pigment under the skin that protects the skin from
heat or cold. The skin of the albino has no pigmentation. Black/African albinos
appear as if they are whites and are easy to notice. The Caucasians (whites)
are difficult to notice.

The skin of the albino ought to be protected from adverse weather conditions
or else the skin dies and cancer ensues. Skin cancer is disease number one
amongst the albinos. Short eyesight is disease number two amongst the albinos.
The eyes are affected. The eyes are myopic (short eyesight).

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Long ago albinos among Africans, in Zimbabwe in particular, were killed at

birth because they could not live for a very long time. They had a short life
span because clothing was not available, so they developed cancer early and
died. Killing of the albinos at birth was viewed as merciful on the part of
society. Such a scenario led to prejudice towards albinos.

5.6.5 Education and Albinos

What do teachers do when they have albinos in their classes? Usually they
are not found in sports. They tend to hide in classrooms. There are
misconceptions about albinos. Albinism is said to be contagious and that
Albinos have a short life. Given their short life span, it follows that parents
should not waste money educating them. Consequently, today most albinos
are not educated even if parents could afford.

Teachers, therefore, should ensure that the rights of albinos are protected.
Officially, albinism at one time was not recognized as a disability. In view of
this the Department of Social Welfare could not assist them.

At one time the Ministry of Health was persuaded and agreed in principle to
secure and provide sunscreen lotion for the albinos. We should note that
albinism is a hereditary condition. There are recessive genes in the
chromosomes, which lead to the birth of an albino. A wife who gives birth to
an albino is likely to be divorced by her husband. Furthermore albinos are
discouraged from marrying each other, as the child of such a marriage is likely
to have more problems.

Generally, the albinos need long sleeved shirts and shorts. They are not many
in Zimbabwe. In 1998 their estimated population was 2 400. Awareness
campaigns for albinism as a contemporary social problem could be done in
form of shows, the school system, and colleagues. Acceptance of albinos in
the mainstream of society is important. The family and the school are important
institutions in making the young aware of albinism.

Teachers should explain the condition of albinism to the other children as well
as to the albino children themselves in the classes. The albino child should sit
in front given the visual handicap that characterizes them. As the teacher teaches
albinos, giving of notes and examples are likely to assist the children to follow.
Albinos should be involved in all school activities like drama, athletics and
gardening. The teacher should ensure that they wear long sleeved clothes.

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During School Open Days, special talks with parents on albinism should be
arranged. Teachers, therefore, have a role to play in attitude change to albinism
since they are the advocates for change.

Activity 5.5

? 1. What forms of disability are found in your area?

2. Identify two myths explaining how albinism comes about.
Contrast these myths with albinism as a social construction.
3. Examine ways in which you, as a teacher, can deconstruct
the belief that disability is inability.

5.7 Summary
The Zimbabwe government has made considerable attempts to afford all
children equal educational opportunities particularly in the primary school.
However, equality of educational opportunity for the poor, for girls, for the
disabled has remained elusive. Child abuse militates against children’s learning
in schools as well. In this unit we have discussed some of the reasons why
contemporary social problems negatively impact on the schooling of children.
The poor continue to have less access to education. The girls continue to
receive unequal treatment in schools. The disabled continue to be discriminated
against. Some interventions to address these contemporary problems have
been suggested.

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5.8 References
Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. and Turner, B.C. (1988) Dictionary of Sociology.
London: Penguin.
Barnes, C. (ED) (1993) Making Choices: Independent Living, Personal
Assistance and Disabled People in Belpher: The British Council of
Organisation of disabled People.
Casper, Mclanahan and Garfield (1994) “in the Gender Poverty Gap: What
we can learn from other Countries?” American Sociological Review
59 pp 594 – 605.
Child and Law Project (1998) in Parade .
“Child Abuse: Types, Signs, Symptoms, Causes” and Help Retrieved 23/07/
04: Cole, M., Hill D. and Sham, S. (1997) Promoting Equality in
Primary Schools. London: Cassell.
Gordon, R. and Chimedza, R. (1993) Access and Equity in Education for
all: Teacher Education Packages, Harare: UNESCO.
Hanson, B.J. (1997) Takadini, Harare: Fidalyn Productions.
Hayes, H.R. and Emshoff, J.G. (1993) “Substances Abuse and Family
Violence”. in Hampton, R.L., Gullora, T.P., Adams, G.R., Potter, E.H.,
and Weisseberg, R.P. (eds). Family Violence, Prevention and
Treatment, Issues in Children’s Lives. Newbury Park, California: Sage
Publications.
O’hear, A. (1981) Education, Society and Human Nature: An Introduction
to the Philosophy of Education, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Participation, Development, Power and Democracy; An Introduction to
Basic Civic Concepts (1997) Harare: African Community Publishing
and Development Trust.
Poverty: Its Definition and Measurement: Sociology Online/Anthony
Siddens Way. Retrieved 08/06/2005 on http://
[Link],[Link]/soc essays/Poverty,Ltm
Readers Companion to U.S. Woman History—”Culture of Poverty”
Retrieved 20/06/2005 on [Link] [Link]/history/
readerscomp/women/html/wh009400– culture of [Link].
Squelch, J.M. (1993) “Education for Equality” in Dekker, E.T. and Lemmer.
E.M. Eds) Critical Issues in Modern Education, Durban: Butterworth.
Sociology Online/Anthony Siddens Third Way (2005)
Swanson, N. (1995) Redressing Gender Inequalities in Education: A
Review of Constraints and Priorities in Malawi, Zambia and
Zimbabwe: Brighton, Overseas Development Administration.
Secretary for Education and Culture (1993): Annual Reports for the Secretary
of Education and Culture (1990-1993) Harare: Government Printers.

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The National Gender Policy (2003) Harare: Government Printers.

Wood, P. and Badley, E.M. (1987) “Epidemiological Appraisals of
Disablements” in Bennet, A. Recent Advances in Community
Medicine: London: Churchill, Livingston.
UNICEF (unpublished) Achieving Gender Equity in Education in
Zimbabwe, Harare: UNICEF.

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