Unit -5

Autonomous systems

Artificial Intelligence
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1) Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence in machines that
are programmed to think and act like humans. It involves the development of algorithms and
computer programs that can perform tasks that typically require human intelligence such as
visual perception, speech recognition, decision-making, and language translation.
2) AI has the potential to revolutionize many industries and has a wide range of applications,
from virtual personal assistants to self-driving cars.
3)Before leading to the meaning of artificial intelligence let understand what is the meaning of
Intelligence- Intelligence: The ability to learn and solve problems.
4)The most common answer that one expects is “to make computers intelligent so that they
can act intelligently!”, but the question is how much intelligent? How can one judge
intelligence?
…as intelligent as humans. If the computers can, somehow, solve real-world problems, by
improving on their own from past experiences, they would be called “intelligent”.
Thus, the AI systems are more generic(rather than specific), can “think” and are more flexible.
Intelligence, as we know, is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge. Knowledge is the
information acquired through experience.
5) Experience is the knowledge gained through exposure(training). Summing the terms up, we
get artificial intelligence as the “copy of something natural(i.e., human beings) ‘WHO’ is
capable of acquiring and applying the information it has gained through exposure.”
 Artificial Intelligence

Intelligence is composed of:

 Reasoning
 Learning
 Problem-Solving
 Perception
 Linguistic Intelligence
6)Many tools are used in AI, including versions of search and mathematical optimization, logic,
and methods based on probability and economics. The AI field draws upon computer science,
mathematics, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, neuroscience, artificial psychology, and many
others.
7)The main focus of artificial intelligence is towards understanding human behavior and
performance. This can be done by creating computers with human-like intelligence and
capabilities. This includes natural language processing, facial analysis and robotics. The main
applications of AI are in military, healthcare, and computing.
Uses of Artificial Intelligence :
Artificial Intelligence has many practical applications across various industries and domains,
including:
1. Healthcare: AI is used for medical diagnosis, drug discovery, and predictive analysis of
diseases.
2. Finance: AI helps in credit scoring, fraud detection, and financial forecasting.
3. Retail: AI is used for product recommendations, price optimization, and supply chain
management.
4. Manufacturing: AI helps in quality control, predictive maintenance, and production
optimization.
5. Transportation: AI is used for autonomous vehicles, traffic prediction, and route
optimization.
6. Customer service: AI-powered chatbots are used for customer support, answering
frequently asked questions, and handling simple requests.
7. Security: AI is used for facial recognition, intrusion detection, and cyber security threat
analysis.
8. Marketing: AI is used for targeted advertising, customer segmentation, and sentiment
analysis.
9. Education: AI is used for personalized learning, adaptive testing, and intelligent tutoring
systems.
 Game Playing in Artificial Intelligence
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1)Game Playing is an important domain of artificial intelligence. Games don’t require much
knowledge; the only knowledge we need to provide is the rules, legal moves and the
conditions of winning or losing the game.
2)Both players try to win the game. So, both of them try to make the best move possible at
each turn. Searching techniques like BFS(Breadth First Search) are not accurate for this as the
branching factor is very high, so searching will take a lot of time. So, we need another search
procedures that improve –
 Generate procedure so that only good moves are generated.
 Test procedure so that the best move can be explored first.
Game playing is a popular application of artificial intelligence that involves the development
of computer programs to play games, such as chess, checkers, or Go. The goal of game
playing in artificial intelligence is to develop algorithms that can learn how to play games and
make decisions that will lead to winning outcomes.
1. One of the earliest examples of successful game playing AI is the chess program Deep
Blue, developed by IBM, which defeated the world champion Garry Kasparov in 1997.
Since then, AI has been applied to a wide range of games, including two-player games,
multiplayer games, and video games.
There are two main approaches to game playing in AI, rule-based systems and machine
learning-based systems.
1. Rule-based systems use a set of fixed rules to play the game.
2. Machine learning-based systems use algorithms to learn from experience and make
decisions based on that experience.
In recent years, machine learning-based systems have become increasingly popular, as they
are able to learn from experience and improve over time, making them well-suited for
complex games such as Go. For example, AlphaGo, developed by DeepMind, was the first
machine learning-based system to defeat a world champion in the game of Go.
The most common search technique in game playing is Minimax search procedure . It is
depth-first depth-limited search procedure. It is used for games like chess and tic-tac-toe.
Minimax algorithm uses two functions –
MOVEGEN : It generates all the possible moves that can be generated from the current
position.
STATICEVALUATION : It returns a value depending upon the goodness from the
viewpoint of two-player
This algorithm is a two player game, so we call the first player as PLAYER1 and second
player as PLAYER2. The value of each node is backed-up from its children. For PLAYER1
the backed-up value is the maximum value of its children and for PLAYER2 the backed-up
value is the minimum value of its children. It provides most promising move to PLAYER1,
assuming that the PLAYER2 has make the best move. It is a recursive algorithm, as same
procedure occurs at each level.

Figure 1: Before backing-up of values

 Figure 2: After backing-up of values We assume that PLAYER1 will
start the game.

4 levels are generated. The value to nodes H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O is provided by

STATICEVALUATION function. Level 3 is maximizing level, so all nodes of level 3 will
take maximum values of their children. Level 2 is minimizing level, so all its nodes will take
minimum values of their children. This process continues. The value of A is 23. That means A
should choose C move to win.

Advantages of Game Playing in Artificial Intelligence:

1. Advancement of AI: Game playing has been a driving force behind the development of
artificial intelligence and has led to the creation of new algorithms and techniques that can
be applied to other areas of AI.
2. Education and training: Game playing can be used to teach AI techniques and
algorithms to students and professionals, as well as to provide training for military and
emergency response personnel.
3. Research: Game playing is an active area of research in AI and provides an opportunity
to study and develop new techniques for decision-making and problem-solving.
4. Real-world applications: The techniques and algorithms developed for game playing can
be applied to real-world applications, such as robotics, autonomous systems, and decision
support systems.

What is the internet of things (IoT)?

1) The internet of things, or IoT, is a network of interrelated devices that connect and exchange
data with other IoT devices and the cloud. IoT devices are typically embedded with technology
such as sensors and software and can include mechanical and digital machines and consumer
objects.
2) Increasingly, organizations in a variety of industries are using IoT to operate more efficiently,
deliver enhanced customer service, improve decision-making and increase the value of the
[Link] IoT, data is transferable over a network without requiring human-to-human or
human-to-computer interactions.
3) A thing in the internet of things can be a person with a heart monitor implant, a farm animal
with a bio chip transponder, an automobile that has built-in sensors to alert the driver when tire
pressure is low, or any other natural or man-made object that can be assigned an Internet
Protocol address and is able to transfer data over a network.

Digital Image Processing

What is an image?
An image is defined as a two-dimensional function,F(x,y), where x and y are spatial
coordinates, and the amplitude of F at any pair of coordinates (x,y) is called the intensity of
that image at that point. When x,y, and amplitude values of F are finite, we call it a digital
image.
1)Digital Image Processing means processing digital image by means of a digital computer.
We can also say that it is a use of computer algorithms, in order to get enhanced image either
to extract some useful information.
2)Digital image processing is the use of algorithms and mathematical models to process and
analyze digital images. The goal of digital image processing is to enhance the quality of
images, extract meaningful information from images, and automate image-based tasks.

The basic steps involved in digital image processing are:

1. Image acquisition: This involves capturing an image using a digital camera or scanner, or
importing an existing image into a computer.
2. Image enhancement: This involves improving the visual quality of an image, such as
increasing contrast, reducing noise, and removing artifacts.
3. Image restoration: This involves removing degradation from an image, such as blurring,
noise, and distortion.
4. Image segmentation: This involves dividing an image into regions or segments, each of
which corresponds to a specific object or feature in the image.
5. Image representation and description: This involves representing an image in a way that
can be analyzed and manipulated by a computer, and describing the features of an image in
a compact and meaningful way.
6. Image analysis: This involves using algorithms and mathematical models to extract
information from an image, such as recognizing objects, detecting patterns, and quantifying
features.
7. Image synthesis and compression: This involves generating new images or compressing
existing images to reduce storage and transmission requirements.
8. Digital image processing is widely used in a variety of applications, including medical
imaging, remote sensing, computer vision, and multimedia.
Types of an image
1. BINARY IMAGE– The binary image as its name suggests, contain only two pixel
elements i.e 0 & 1,where 0 refers to black and 1 refers to white. This image is also known
as Monochrome.
2. BLACK AND WHITE IMAGE– The image which consist of only black and white color
is called BLACK AND WHITE IMAGE.
3. 8 bit COLOR FORMAT– It is the most famous image [Link] has 256 different shades
of colors in it and commonly known as Grayscale Image. In this format, 0 stands for Black,
and 255 stands for white, and 127 stands for gray.
4. 16 bit COLOR FORMAT– It is a color image format. It has 65,536 different colors in [Link]
is also known as High Color Format. In this format the distribution of color is not as same
as Grayscale image.

Natural Language Processing

1) The essence of Natural Language Processing lies in making computers understand the
natural language. That’s not an easy task though. Computers can understand the structured
form of data like spreadsheets and the tables in the database, but human languages, texts, and
voices form an unstructured category of data, and it gets difficult for the computer to
understand it, and there arises the need for Natural Language Processing.
2) There’s a lot of natural language data out there in various forms and it would get very easy
if computers can understand and process that data. We can train the models in accordance with
expected output in different ways. Humans have been writing for thousands of years, there are
a lot of literature pieces available, and it would be great if we make computers understand that.
But the task is never going to be easy.
3) There are various challenges floating out there like understanding the correct meaning of
the sentence, correct Named-Entity Recognition(NER), correct prediction of various parts of
speech, co reference resolution(the most challenging thing in my opinion). Computers can’t
truly understand the human language.
4) If we feed enough data and train a model properly, it can distinguish and try categorizing
various parts of speech(noun, verb, adjective, supporter, etc…) based on previously fed data
and experiences. If it encounters a new word it tried making the nearest guess which can be
embarrassingly wrong few times. It’s very difficult for a computer to extract the exact meaning
from a sentence.

5) Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a sub field of computer science and artificial
intelligence that deals with the interaction between computers and human languages. The
primary goal of NLP is to enable computers to understand, interpret, and generate natural
language, the way humans do.
Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a field of Artificial Intelligence (AI) that deals with
the interaction between computers and human languages. NLP is used to analyze, understand,
and generate natural language text and speech. The goal of NLP is to enable computers to
understand and interpret human language in a way that is similar to how humans process
language.
1. Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a field of computer science and artificial
intelligence that focuses on the interaction between computers and humans using natural
language. It involves analyzing, understanding, and generating human language data, such
as text and speech.
2. NLP has a wide range of applications, including sentiment analysis, machine translation,
citext summarization, chatbots, and more. Some common tasks in NLP include:
3. Text Classification: Classifying text into different categories based on their content, such as
spam filtering, sentiment analysis, and topic modeling.
4. Named Entity Recognition (NER): Identifying and categorizing named entities in text, such
as people, organizations, and locations.
5. Part-of-Speech (POS) Tagging: Assigning a part of speech to each word in a sentence, such
as noun, verb, adjective, and adverb.
6. Sentiment Analysis: Analyzing the sentiment of a piece of text, such as positive, negative,
or neutral.
7. Machine Translation: Translating text from one language to another.

Robotics:

What exactly is a ROBOT?

A robot is a machine capable of sensing and interacting with its environment.
what is Artificial Intelligence?
Artificial Intelligence is a computer program that mainly focuses on the development and
analysis of algorithms which in other words means that AI is a computer program that is
capable of creating a machine having its own intelligence and behavior. And now let’s see the
main question:
. Weak Artificial Intelligence
This type of AI is used to create a simulation of human thought and interaction. The robots
have predefined commands and responses. However, the robots do not understand the
commands they do only the work of retrieving the appropriate response when the suitable
command is given. The most suitable example of this is
Siri and Alexa
. The AI in these devices only executes the tasks as demanded by the owner.
2. Strong Artificial Intelligence
This type of AI is used in those robots who perform their tasks on their own. They do not need
any kind of supervision once they are programmed to do the task correctly. This type of AI is
widely used nowadays as many of the things are becoming automated and one of the most
interesting examples is
self-driving cars and internet cars etc.
.