1.

1 Introduction
This chapter provides the theoretical framework of the study as it highlights the foundation
of vocabulary in EFL and the emergence of information and communication technology (ICT) in
language learning. It also presents the vocabulary development through technology.
1.2 Vocabulary in English as a Foreign Language
1.2.1. Definition of Vocabulary
Vocabulary is widely regarded as an essential part in acquiring a language, forming the basis
of comprehension and meaningful communication. Several scholars have provided various
definitions to clarify its importance, generally agreeing that vocabulary development is essential to
learn English since words are the fundamental building blocks of communication that allow one to
successfully express ideas, emotions, and facts (Zuhriya et al., 2024). Alqahtani (2015) also states
that learning vocabulary is a highly important element of learning a foreign language; this is because
the significance of new terms is often stressed, whether in books or in classrooms.
Numerous authors offer closely aligned definitions of vocabulary. Alfaki (2015) and Ur
(2022, p. 6) emphasize that vocabulary is not just made up of single words; it also consists of
phrases and multi-word expressions that have the same meaning as individual words.
Building on these definitions, scholars have also highlighted various aspects of vocabulary
learning. According to Lado (1995, as cited in Nur Rahmah, Tahir, & Talib, 2023), key aspects of
vocabulary learning include meaning, spelling, pronunciation, and word class. Each of these aspects
plays a central role in vocabulary acquisition and how learners can develop their word knowledge
effectively.
Vocabulary aids in speaking, listening, reading, and writing. It is one way of conveying
meanings and concepts (Alamri & Hakami, 2022). Without a sufficient stock of words, learners are
unable to interpret what they hear or read, and they lack the means to express themselves in speech
or writing. Put simply, no language skill can function independently of vocabulary. This is why
Nation (2001, p. 1) describes vocabulary knowledge as central to all language use, and why the
study of vocabulary acquisition remains one of the most active areas of research in applied
linguistics.
1.2.2. Receptive and Productive Vocabulary
Vocabulary has been classified by numerous scholars into different categories. In this regard,
Hiebert and Kamil (2005) distinguished between two main types: receptive vocabulary and
productive vocabulary. Receptive vocabulary, also known as recognition vocabulary, encompasses
the words that learners can identify and interpret during listening and reading activities. These
lexical items are less accessible and less familiar to learners than the words they actively produce. In
contrast, productive vocabulary, or expressive vocabulary, refers to the collection of words that are
accessible for expressive output; it is usually more common, recognizable, and regularly used.
Similarly, Zhou (2010) compared the two categories, explaining that receptive vocabulary is the
capacity to decode and understand the meaning of the language when it is presented visually or
auditorily. While productive vocabulary refers to a set of words that is used when talking or writing.
Figure 1: Receptive and expressive (productive) vocabulary (adapted from Pikulski and Templeton,
2004, p. 2)

1.2.3. Definition of Vocabulary Knowledge

“Vocabulary is the knowledge of words and word meanings" (Diamond & Gutlohn, 2006),
meaning that vocabulary knowledge requires being aware of every element of that word that enables
one to use it efficiently. According to Milton (2009), knowing a word requires knowledge of its
orthographic (its visual spelling) and phonological forms (its unique sound pattern). Vocabulary
knowledge requires understanding how words function in different contexts.
Vocabulary knowledge involves more than just knowing a word’s basic meaning, yet it requires a
better understanding of how the word works and how to use it effectively. Nation (2022) states that
knowing a word involves knowing three major dimensions, which are the word form, meaning, and
use. This demonstrates that vocabulary knowledge requires more than understanding what a word
means but also knowing how it works in different situations and how it is set up.
Dale (1965, as cited in Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2013) classified word knowledge into
four main stages:
Stage 1: Total absence of knowledge.
Stage 2: The word is recognized as existing, but the meaning remains unknown.
Stage 3: Identifying the word when it appears in context.
Stage 4: Reaching the most advanced stage of word knowledge.
Vocabulary knowledge requires understanding how words function in different contexts.
Nation and Waring (1997) stated that "vocabulary knowledge enables language use,
language use enables the increase of vocabulary knowledge, knowledge of the world enables the
increase of vocabulary knowledge and language use, and so on."
1.2.4. Breadth and Depth of Vocabulary Knowledge
Breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge are widely recognized. Researchers use the two
complementary dimensions to describe vocabulary knowledge. According to Bardakçi (2016),
vocabulary breadth of knowledge is concerned with the linear and one-dimensional aspect of
vocabulary knowledge, while vocabulary depth goes beyond word meaning to include semantic
associations, collocational knowledge, and grammatical patterns. Another definition was provided
by Zheng (2024, p. 33), who defined breadth, which is also known as vocabulary size, as the
quantity and number of words they are familiar with. Depth was defined as the degree to which a
learner understands a word and is familiar with it.
Breadth of knowledge is usually measured through various testing formats such as the
vocabulary size test (VST) by Paul Nation and David Belgar (2007), which was designed to
determine the number of word families a learner is familiar with. Another test was proposed by
Milton (2009), who measured breadth using the translation test to get a real sense of how many
words a student has at their disposal, while depth is measured through the word-association format,
which was developed by Read (1993, 1998) to determine the learner’s true level of word knowledge,
not just if they can recognize it (as cited in Read, 2007).
Breadth and depth are not opposites, but they are complementary. Zheng (2024) points out
that they are connected to each other, as repeated exposure to language plays a central role in
strengthening them.
1.2.5. The Significance of Vocabulary for EFL Learners
Vocabulary is often seen as the driving force behind foreign language learning, with many
scholars emphasizing its importance, as Richards & Renandya (2002, p. 255) noted, “Vocabulary is
a core component of language proficiency, as it provides much of the basis for how well learners
speak, listen, read, and write."
In other words, vocabulary acts as the primary catalyst that empowers learners to master the
four language skills more effectively. Hussain (2018) has also stated that the mastery of vocabulary
is fundamental, as it underpins every dimension of communication, from decoding sounds and
symbols to producing fluent speech and text. Consequently, it is an essential part of learning a
language successfully.
1.2.6. Vocabulary Learning Strategies
According to Asgari and Mustafa (2011), vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs) refer to the
techniques employed by the language learners to expand their English vocabulary. Nation (2022)
argued that vocabulary learning strategies should not be considered only as tools to improve how
well students learn words; they can also be seen as a way to help learners become more responsible
for their own learning.
 Vocabulary learning strategies are classified in various ways, as different researchers have
proposed a wide range of taxonomies to describe them. Oxford & Burry Stock (1995) classified the
language learning strategies that are applicable to vocabulary learning into six main categories:
memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies.
Another taxonomy was developed by Norbert Schmitt (1997, as cited in Craven, 2013, p.
10), who combined the discovery consolidation taxonomy put forth by Cook and Mayer with
Rebecca Oxford's (1990) taxonomy, which included memory, cognitive, metacognitive, and social
strategies, to present a comprehensive and detailed vocabulary learning strategies taxonomy.
1.3. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Language Learning
1.3.1. From CALL to MALL: A Historical Perspective
With the continuous progress and inclusion of technology in education, language learning
has adopted several technological approaches, among them computer-assisted language learning
(CALL) and mobile-assisted language learning (MALL). CALL represents one of the first
technological innovations in language instruction, which appeared in language education in the
twentieth century. Levy (1997) defined computer-assisted language learning as “the search for and
study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning" (p. 1); he also argued that
CALL became possible with the evolution and widespread use of computers.
Based on the classification of Warschauer and Healey (1998), CALL is classified into three
historical phases: the first phase was the behavioristic CALL, which was developed as a part of
computer-assisted instruction. Its foundation was the behaviorist learning theory. Learning was
perceived as a process of habit formation developed through repetition, stimulus-response tasks, and
reinforcement. Computers supported this process by acting as a mechanical tutor, allowing learners
to practice regularly while receiving instant feedback adjusted to their rate of learning.
The second phase was the communicative CALL, which emerged when the behavioristic
language teaching started to decline. This phase emphasized using language forms, implicit
grammar teaching, and student-generated utterances.
The third phase was the integrative CALL, which focused on authentic language use, skill
integration, and ongoing use of technology in learning.
Over the past fifteen years, a new subfield emerged, which is called mobile-assisted
language learning. Mobile devices such as laptops, tablets, and smartphones have become an
essential part of everyday life. Ozer & Kılıç (2018) stated that mobile devices have become the
primary engine of modern life, radically redefining social interaction with others, educational
methodologies, and navigating our careers. Alemi et al. (2012) argued that mobile-assisted language
learning fosters autonomous learning by supporting self-directed study via phones. The smartphone
functions as a personal guide, promoting independence and keeping learners at the core of their own
language learning.
According to Kukulska-Hulme & Shield (2008), MALL distinguishes itself from traditional
computer-assisted language learning as it gives the freedom to study wherever and whenever the
learner wants, using their mobile devices instead of a fixed computer.
1.3.2. Defining ICT-Based Applications
To this day, the term "ICT" does not have a universally accepted definition due to its
continuous evolution and advancement. Gillespie (2012) defined ICT as "information and
communication technology is a term that covers a range of hardware (machines) and software
(applications of the machines)" (p. 03), meaning that ICT has two basic types: hardware, which
represents the tangible and physical devices such as computers, and software, which represents the
application of those machines. Another definition was provided by Tamilselvan and Sivakumar
(2012), who stated that ICT refers to the technologies that enable access to information through
telecommunications systems. It is closely related to IT but places greater attention on
communication tools such as mobile devices, wireless connections, online networks, and other
communication services. They have also stated that “ICT is concerned with the storage, retrieval,
manipulation, transmission, or receipt of digital data" (p. 18); this indicates that ICT deals with
saving the information to find and access it later, after that changing or editing that information, then
sending it over a network, and finally receiving it.
1.4. Previous Studies
The connection between vocabulary acquisition in EFL situations and ICT-based
applications has been the subject of several research projects. Due to their direct relevance to the
topic of this investigation, the studies evaluated below were chosen. The use of technology for
vocabulary learning, learners' attitudes toward digital tools, and the particular benefits generated by
computer-based or mobile applications in EFL contexts are all covered in one or more of these.
When combined, they provide the current study's empirical basis.
1.4.1. Studies on Mobile-Assisted Vocabulary Learning
 Both Ağca and Özdemir (2013) and Lu (2008) have examined the effectiveness of mobile
devices technologies in enhancing EFL students vocabulary. The two studies used different
instructional designs and research focuses. Ağca and Özdemir study was carried out in Turkey and
published in procedia-social and behavioral sciences. It examined the use of QR (code-supported
multimedia materials) with 40 EFL students at Gazi university demonstrating a practical way of
incorporating mobile technology into learning and how it can support the students vocabulary
learning. The study employed an experimental design using a pre and post tests format to measures
students vocabulary achievement and motivation while using mobile technologies. The results
showed a notable enhancement in students motivation and improvement in their academic
achievement. While Lu (2008) was published in the journal of computer assisted learning. It
examined 30 senior high school students in Taiwan providing an example of mobile assisted
vocabulary learning in a formal educational setting investigating the effectiveness of vocabulary
learning via SMS messages over two weeks. The results showed that students who used SMS to
learn vocabulary outperformed those who used standard word list on short term retention tests.
Overall, the two studies confirm that mobile-assisted vocabulary learning improves learner
proficiency and facilitates lexical acquisition. Despite their shared conclusion, they differ in
important ways: Agca and Ozdemir (2013) worked with university students and used visually rich
multimedia delivered through QR codes, whereas Lu (2008) worked with secondary learners and
relied on text-only SMS messages. Yet both produced significant vocabulary gains, which suggests
that the delivery channel matters less than the regularity and distribution of mobile exposure. This
convergence across different educational levels, technologies, and national contexts strengthens the
case for mobile-assisted vocabulary learning as a broadly applicable pedagogical strategy.
1.4.2. Studies on Electronic Dictionaries and CALL Tools
An interesting study titled "What Lexical Information Do L2 Learners Select in a CALL
Dictionary and How Does It Affect Word Retention?" was published in Language Learning and
Technology (vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 61–81) by Laufer and Hill (2000). The study looked at the kinds of
information L2 learners chose to obtain and how they engaged with electronic dictionaries
throughout reading assignments. Crucially, the researchers discovered that no one kind of lexical
information—like a definition or translation—was consistently better for word retention. The
frequency and diversity of look-ups did predict improved retention: students who used more than
one search option for the same word demonstrated superior retention results. Laufer and Hill (2000)
concluded that electronic dictionaries are superior to paper dictionaries because they can
accommodate different learning styles by providing a variety of lexical information at the same
time. The use of feature-rich dictionary programs, like Reverso Context and Cambridge Dictionary
Online, which provide Algerian EFL students with a variety of information types in a single lookup,
is supported by this finding, which is directly related to the current study. It also explains why the
tool's richness is just as important as actually looking up words.
The Modern Language Journal published research by Chun and Plass (1996) titled "Effects
of Multimedia Annotations on Vocabulary Acquisition." They investigated the effects of various
multimedia glosses on foreign language vocabulary learning, specifically comparing text-only, text-
plus-picture, and text-plus-video annotations. According to their findings, students who accessed
annotations that combined written definitions with visual images recalled a substantially higher
number of words than those who utilized glosses that were either text-only or text-plus-video. Chun
and Plass (1996) suggested that this advantage occurs because combining verbal and visual
information triggers dual coding mechanisms in the brain, which leads to a deeper mental
representation of the word. This study supports the use of applications like YouTube and picture-
based flashcard apps in EFL vocabulary training and offers a cognitive explanation for why
multimedia vocabulary applications outperform basic text-based tools.
Laufer and Hill (2000) and Chun and Plass (1996) share a fundamental theoretical premise:
vocabulary retention improves when learners receive information through multiple channels at the
same time. However, the two studies differ in focus and methodology. Laufer and Hill (2000)
examined learner-driven choice within electronic dictionaries, showing that retention benefits arise
from the diversity of information the learner actively selects. Chun and Plass (1996), by contrast,
examined researcher-designed multimedia glosses and showed that the format of the presentation
itself shapes retention outcomes. These complementary findings suggest that both the design of ICT
tools and the degree of autonomy learners exercise within them independently contribute to
vocabulary learning gains.
1.4.3. Studies on Gamified Applications and Vocabulary Motivation
A well-known efficacy study on the Duolingo language learning software was carried out by
researchers from the City University of New York and the University of South Carolina (Vesselinov
and Grego, 2012). While more than 300 people were initially recruited for their study, the final
analysis focused on 88 participants who used the program to study Spanish as a foreign language
and completed the final testing. The results demonstrated that the content normally taught in a first-
semester university language course could be covered with an average of 34 hours of Duolingo use,
rather than a full academic semester. The application's gamified features, such as points, streaks, and
prizes, as well as the instantaneous corrective feedback it offers following each activity, were
credited by the researchers with these improvements. Vesselinov and Grego (2012) concluded that
the application serves as an effective tool for improving language proficiency within a short
timeframe. Even though this study concentrated on Spanish rather than English, it is directly related
to the current investigation since Duolingo is one of the most popular vocabulary apps among EFL
students at Algerian universities, and this research offers verifiable proof that using the app results
in quantifiable language improvements.
A study titled "Affect and Willingness to Communicate in Digital Game-Based Learning"
was published in the journal ReCALL by Reinders and Wattana (2015). Five Thai university students
who took part in a 15-week game-based language learning program were the subjects of this
qualitative study. The researchers investigated how the game-based environment impacted students'
emotional states and desire to communicate in the target language using observations and
interviews. The results demonstrated that students' motivation to communicate in English was
enhanced and affective barriers were considerably lowered by games. According to Reinders and
Wattana (2015), students were able to feel more at ease and less fearful of making mistakes when
using the target language because of the non-threatening setting that digital games produced (p. 50).
They came to the conclusion that learning through digital games fosters an environment where
students are more inclined to take communicative risks (Reinders & Wattana, 2015, p. 51). This
study is pertinent to the current research because it shows that the affective and motivational
advantages of game-based digital tools extend beyond mere enjoyment and have a direct impact on
learners' willingness to interact with and use new language, including vocabulary.
Comparing the two studies in this section reveals both a shared outcome and a meaningful
methodological contrast. Vesselinov and Grego (2012) used a large-scale quasi-experimental design
with over 300 participants to measure quantifiable proficiency gains, situating their research firmly
in the quantitative tradition. Reinders and Wattana (2015), by contrast, conducted an in-depth
qualitative investigation with only five students, prioritising the depth of the learners’ emotional and
communicative experience over statistical breadth. Despite these methodological differences, both
studies reach a consistent conclusion: digital game-based tools produce language learning outcomes,
whether measured as proficiency scores or as changes in affective states, that traditional instruction
alone does not replicate. This convergence strengthens the broader argument that gamified ICT
applications are pedagogically effective across different research paradigms.
1.4.4. Studies on Incidental Vocabulary Learning Through Multimedia Content
A study titled "The Effect of Out-of-Class Exposure to English Language Media on
Learners’ Vocabulary Knowledge" was published in ITL—International Journal of Applied
Linguistics by Peters (2018). The study examined the link between the vocabulary knowledge of 79
Flemish EFL teenage learners and their exposure to English media outside of the classroom.
Participants reported being exposed to a variety of media, such as written material, music, movies,
television, and the internet. The results demonstrated a positive correlation with vocabulary
knowledge, particularly for written print, internet use, and non-subtitled television shows and
movies (Peters, 2018, p. 157). Notably, the study revealed no significant relationship between
language knowledge and captioned or subtitled media. According to Peters (2018), the length of
formal instruction did not explain as much of the diversity in vocabulary knowledge as extramural
exposure to English-language media (p. 159). This finding emphasizes the significance of what
students do outside of the classroom and is pertinent to the current study because it offers empirical
proof that vocabulary growth is more influenced by out-of-class digital media engagement than by
classroom hours alone. This fact influences how first-year EFL students at Bouira University
develop their lexical knowledge.
In a study investigating the role of technology in language learning, Fathali and Okada
(2018) examined how 162 Japanese undergraduate EFL students engage with ICT for vocabulary
development. Their research, published in the Australasian Journal of Educational Technology,
explored the effectiveness of digital tools for learning outside the classroom (pp. 138, 143). The
findings indicated that students who integrated digital applications into their daily routines showed
higher levels of engagement and reported that these tools made the vocabulary learning process
more flexible compared to traditional methods (Fathali & Okada, 2018, pp. 147–150). Furthermore,
this empirical evidence aligns with the theoretical work of Nation (2001), who argues that learners
must encounter new words multiple times at distributed intervals to successfully move them into
long-term memory. By providing constant access to language input, ICT applications create the
necessary conditions for the repeated encounters required for permanent vocabulary retention.
 In a case study investigating the digital habits of Japanese EFL learners, Fathali, Marandi,
and Okada (2020) identified a significant discrepancy between how students utilize technology in
their daily lives versus their target language studies. Although more than 85% of the participants
engaged with information and communication technology (ICT) daily for general communication
and entertainment in their native language, their engagement in English remained remarkably low
(p. 157). Specifically, the researchers found that 59% of students relied primarily on online
dictionaries or dictionary applications for vocabulary-related tasks, a behavior they attributed to the
traditional "Yakudoku" or translational reading method prevalent in the Japanese context (Fathali et
al., 2020, p. 164). This suggests that while students possess high levels of technological proficiency
for everyday tasks, they often utilize modern digital tools to reinforce traditional, passive learning
habits rather than adopting more interactive or collaborative vocabulary-building strategies (p. 164).
Furthermore, the study identified that a major obstacle to effective out-of-class language learning
(OCLL) is not a lack of access to technology, but rather the students' insufficient knowledge
regarding which specific applications are most effective for linguistic development (Fathali et al.,
2020, p. 168). These findings are highly relevant to the current investigation at Bouira University, as
they highlight the necessity of moving beyond simple ICT access toward providing students with the
digital literacy required to select and utilize applications that foster active vocabulary growth.
Reading Peters (2018), Fathali and Okada (2018), and Fathali et al. (2020) together reveals a
consistent pattern: informal, out-of-class digital exposure contributes meaningfully to vocabulary
development, often more so than formal classroom instruction. However, the three studies also
reveal an important tension. Peters (2018) found that passive media exposure, particularly non-
subtitled television and the internet, correlates with vocabulary gains. Fathali and Okada (2018)
showed that students who integrated digital tools into their daily routines reported greater flexibility
and engagement. Yet Fathali et al. (2020) found that even students with high levels of daily ICT use
still relied primarily on passive, translation-based strategies, limiting the depth of their vocabulary
development. The key difference across these studies, therefore, is not access to technology but the
quality and intentionality of digital engagement. This distinction is directly relevant to Bouira
University, where students may own smartphones and use them regularly without necessarily
deploying them in ways that support active vocabulary growth.
1.4.5. Studies in the Algerian and Arab EFL Context
 A study titled "The Attitudes of Second Year EFL Students at Dr. Moulay Tahar University
towards Learning English Pronunciation through Mobile Assisted Language Learning" was
published in the Arab World English Journal by Ghounane (2019). The study looked at how 15
instructors and 95 second-year EFL students at the University of Saida in Algeria felt about using
mobile apps to acquire English pronunciation. The researcher gathered data using a students'
questionnaire, a teachers' interview, and student pre- and post-tests. The findings demonstrated that
both teachers and students had favorable opinions about incorporating mobile technology into
pronunciation instruction. After utilizing the mobile applications, students also showed a notable
improvement in their phonetic transcription and oral output abilities (Ghounane, 2019). Ghounane
(2019) concluded that mobile tools provide a doorway for what is referred to as "free education,"
enabling learners to move beyond the limitations of the traditional classroom. This study is directly
relevant to the current research, even though it concentrated on pronunciation rather than
vocabulary, because it offers empirical evidence from the Algerian EFL context that mobile
applications produce quantifiable language gains and generate positive attitudes among both
students and teachers at Algerian universities, which mirrors the main concerns of the current study.
Among 54 first-year EFL students at Tlemcen University, Benrabah and Kameche (2022, p.
143) examined the issue of vocabulary attrition, or the slow loss of lexical words over time.
According to their research, the main causes of this lexical loss—which mostly affects productive
skills like speaking—are a lack of engagement and inadequate exposure to the target language
(Benrabah & Kameche, 2022, p. 143). The results indicate that vocabulary attrition in EFL contexts
can be overcome with the use of ICTs in the modern day. To strengthen pupils' linguistic repertoire,
it is crucial to maximize the use of technology in language learning (Benrabah & Kameche, 2022, p.
143). The integration of ICT-based applications is a viable pedagogical strategy to mitigate storage
and retrieval difficulties in early tertiary education, as this study shows that "Generation Z" students
are naturally familiar with technological tools (Benrabah & Kameche, 2022, p. 150). This finding is
highly relevant to our research at Bouira University.
A paper titled "SMS: Tool for L2 Vocabulary Retention and Reading Comprehension
Ability" was published in the Journal of Language Teaching and Research by Motallebzadeh and
Ganjali (2011). Forty Iranian EFL university students were split into two groups for the study. While
the control group acquired the same vocabulary through conventional classroom training, the
experimental group received new vocabulary items via SMS messages on their mobile phones. The
SMS group performed noticeably better on reading comprehension and vocabulary retention tasks,
according to post-test results. These improvements were ascribed by the researchers to the frequency
and dispersed character of SMS-based vocabulary exposure. Motallebzadeh and Ganjali (2011, p.
1114) concluded that receiving vocabulary input through mobile messages offers a convenient and
effective complement to classroom instruction. Although this study is based in Iran, its conclusions
can be applied to the Algerian EFL context due to the same status of English as a foreign language
and the similar role of the classroom as the main yet inadequate learning environment.
A review paper by Alqahtani (2015) titled "The Importance of Vocabulary in Language
Learning and How to be Taught" was published in the International Journal of Teaching and
Education. This document summarizes current research and pedagogical theory on vocabulary
learning and teaching, in contrast to experimental or survey-based investigations. According to
Alqahtani (2015), vocabulary is a crucial part of learning a language, and teachers must employ a
range of strategies to meet the various requirements and learning preferences of their students (pp.
24, 30-31). The article examines a variety of tried-and-true techniques for teaching vocabulary, such
as using mnemonics, working with realia and photos, learning words through context, and checking
dictionaries. The author notes that successful vocabulary training relies on carefully integrating
strategies because no single approach is effective for all students (Alqahtani, 2015, pp. 30-31). This
paper is directly related to the current study because it provides a broad theoretical framework for
the discussion of vocabulary instruction and supports the idea that Algerian university instructors
should take a more comprehensive approach to teaching vocabulary than just repetition and
translation drills. Additionally, the review subtly endorses the usage of various digital tools as
extensions of the multi-method philosophy advocated by Alqahtani (2015), such as context-based
applications and electronic dictionaries.
The studies reviewed in this section differ in their national and linguistic contexts: Ghounane
(2019) works within the Algerian university system, Benrabah and Kameche (2022) examine first-
year Algerian EFL learners specifically, Motallebzadeh and Ganjali (2011) draw on an Iranian EFL
context, and Alqahtani (2015) provides a review article grounded in Arabic-speaking pedagogical
literature. Despite these contextual differences, the four studies converge on a shared finding: in
EFL settings where English occupies a foreign rather than a second language position, formal
classroom time is insufficient on its own to build the vocabulary students need. Motallebzadeh and
Ganjali (2011) show that mobile delivery supplements classroom instruction effectively, while
Benrabah and Kameche (2022) argue that ICT tools are essential to prevent vocabulary attrition
among Generation Z learners. Ghounane (2019) demonstrates positive student and teacher attitudes
toward mobile tools in Algeria specifically, a finding particularly relevant to the present study.
Together, these studies show that the need for ICT-supported vocabulary learning is not limited to
one context; it is a shared characteristic of EFL environments in the Arab and North African region.
1.4.6. Studies on Learner Attitudes and Perceptions Toward ICT Vocabulary Tools
Ozer and Kılıç (2018) conducted a study with 63 university students enrolled in an A2 level
English language preparatory course. Their results showed that the experimental group, which used
mobile applications, outperformed the control group in terms of academic performance.
Furthermore, Ozer and Kılıç (2018) discovered a clear link between increasing mobile phone
integration in the learning process and greater academic gains. The students' positive opinions of
mobile learning, which increased their motivation and engagement, were credited with this result
(Ozer & Kılıç, 2018). This study shows that technology-enhanced learning can close language
performance disparities when students have a favorable attitude toward the instruments utilized,
which makes it extremely relevant to the research at Bouira University.
Stockwell (2012) assessed several empirical research studies on student attitudes about
CALL and MALL environments. While learners generally have positive attitudes toward
technology-assisted language learning, he found that this positivity is conditional: learners respond
favorably to digital tools when they offer well-defined, structured learning objectives and fit in with
their everyday routines. Furthermore, Stockwell (2012) noted that a student's likelihood of sticking
with digital vocabulary tools over time cannot be accurately predicted by a good attitude alone. He
observed that learners' positive opinions and real sustained use were consistently at odds. According
to Stockwell (2012), a variety of factors, including app usability, instructor support, and the
availability of an internet connection, moderate learners' regular usage of mobile vocabulary
resources. This realization is especially relevant to Algerian universities, where insufficient
infrastructure and teacher supervision might occasionally impede students' favorable views toward
ICT technologies.
The two studies in this final section take different positions on the relationship between
attitude and actual use. Ozer and Kilıç (2018) treat positive attitude as a driver of better academic
outcomes, showing that students who engage more willingly with mobile tools perform better.
Stockwell (2012), by contrast, introduces a more cautionary view, arguing that positive attitude is
not a reliable predictor of sustained engagement and that practical factors such as usability, teacher
guidance, and internet access ultimately determine whether students continue using digital
vocabulary tools. This distinction is directly relevant to the present study. Simply confirming that
students at Bouira University hold positive views toward ICT applications is not sufficient; the study
must also examine whether and how those tools are actually being used, and what practical barriers
prevent more consistent engagement. Stockwell’s (2012) framework therefore provides a useful
analytical lens for interpreting the findings in Chapter Three.
5. Research Gap
Although the studies reviewed in this chapter collectively establish the positive impact of
ICT-based applications on EFL vocabulary development, a significant gap remains in the existing
literature. The majority of empirical studies on this topic have been conducted in East Asian,
Turkish, or Iranian EFL contexts, with only a limited number of investigations focusing on the
North African and specifically Algerian university setting. Among the few studies that address
Algeria, Ghounane (2019) examined mobile-assisted pronunciation learning at the University of
Saida, and Benrabah and Kameche (2022) investigated vocabulary attrition at the University of
Tlemcen. No study to date has specifically investigated the impact of ICT-based applications on
vocabulary development among first-year EFL students in an Algerian English department.
Furthermore, while several studies examine learner attitudes toward digital tools, far fewer
investigate the specific applications students use, the frequency of their use, and the extent to which
teachers in this context actively integrate these tools into their instruction. This study aims to
address these gaps by exploring the use of ICT-based applications among first-year EFL students at
Bouira University and examining their impact on vocabulary development, thereby contributing
locally grounded empirical evidence to an area of research that has thus far been dominated by
international contexts.
6. Conclusion
This chapter has reviewed the principal theoretical and empirical foundations of the present
study. The first part established that vocabulary is a core component of language proficiency
(Richards & Renandya, 2002, p. 255), covering its definitions, types, dimensions of knowledge,
significance for EFL learners, and the main learning strategies used to acquire it. The second part
traced the development of technology in language learning from CALL to MALL, and defined ICT-
based applications as the primary tools of interest in this investigation. The third part reviewed
previous studies from a range of national and EFL contexts, comparing their methodologies and
findings, identifying points of convergence, and noting where studies differ. The literature
consistently shows that ICT-based applications produce vocabulary gains, improve learner
motivation, and generate positive attitudes, yet also reveals a recurring gap between tool availability
and systematic classroom integration. Research in the Algerian university context specifically
remains limited, a gap the present study directly addresses.
The following chapter presents the research methodology adopted to investigate the impact
of ICT-based applications on vocabulary development among first-year EFL students at the
University of Bouira, explaining the choices of research design, data collection instruments, and
analysis procedures that guided the empirical work of this study.