Advanced Embedded Systems

Third & Fourth Years – Second Semester

Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 1

 Course Objectives
 This course will enable the students to:
 Provide the basics of embedded system design principles.
 Learn the design process of embedded system applications.
 Understand the typical components of an embedded system, the
concepts of real-time operating systems (RTOSs), the inter-process
communication, and the different communication interfaces.
 Provide exposure to embedded system development tools with
hands on experience in using basic programming techniques.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 2

 Course Outcomes
 Upon completion of this course, the students will be able to:
 Understand and design the embedded systems.
 Learn the basics of OS and RTOS.
 Understand types of memory and interfacing to external world.
 Understand embedded firmware design approaches.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 3

 Course Materials
 Text Books
 Marilyn Wolf, Computer as Components: Principles of Embedded
Computing System Design 4th Edition, Morgan Kaufmann – Elsevier, 2016.
 Xiaocong Fan, Real-Time Embedded Systems: Design Principles
and Engineering Practices, Elsevier Inc., Copyright © 2015. ISBN:
978-0-12-801507-0
 Other Recommended Books
 Peter Marwedel, Embedded System Design: Embedded Systems
Foundations of Cyber-Physical Systems 3rd Edition, Springer
Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York, 2017.
 Meikang Qiu and Jiayin Li, Real-Time Embedded Systems: Optimization,
Synthesis, and Networking, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, 2011.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 4

 Grading
 Grading is based on:
 Oral and Practical Exam: 20 %
 Midterm and Term Work: 20 %
 Midterm Exam at Week 8
 Final Written Exam: 60 %
 Final Term Exam at Week 16

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 5

Chapter One: Introduction to Embedded Systems

Objectives:
 Computing Systems
 Characteristics of Embedded Systems
 Design Challenges
 The Embedded System Design Process

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 6

 Computing Systems
 Computing systems are everywhere.
 Most of us think of “desktop” computers.
– PC’s
– Laptops
– Mainframes
– Servers
 But there’s another type of computing system called embedded
systems.
– Far more common...

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 7

 Examples of Embedded Systems

Anti-lock brakes Modems

Auto-focus cameras MPEG decoders
Automatic teller machines Network cards
Automatic toll systems Network switches/routers
Automatic transmission On-board navigation
Avionic systems Pagers
Battery chargers Photocopiers
Camcorders Point-of-sale systems
Cell phones Portable video games
Cell-phone base stations Printers
Cordless phones Satellite phones
Cruise control Scanners
Curbside check-in systems Smart ovens/dishwashers
Digital cameras Speech recognizers
Disk drives Stereo systems
Electronic card readers Teleconferencing systems
Electronic instruments Televisions
Electronic toys/games Temperature controllers
Factory control Theft tracking systems
Fax machines TV set-top boxes
Fingerprint identifiers VCR’s, DVD players
Home security systems Video game consoles
Life-support systems Video phones
Medical testing systems Washers and dryers

And the list goes on and on

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 8

What are Embedded Systems? Cont.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 9

 Embedded Systems Vs General Computing Systems
General Purpose Computing System Embedded System
general purpose computers

1. A system which is a combination of generic HW and 1. A system which is a combination of special purpose
general purpose operating system (GPOS) for HW and embedded OS for executing a specific set
executing a variety of applications. of applications.
2. Contain a GPOS. 2. May or may not contain an OS for functioning.
3. Applications are alterable (programmable) by user (it 3. The firmware of the embedded system is pre-
is possible for the end user to re-install the OS, and programmed and it is non-alterable by the end-user.
add or remove user applications). 4. Application specific requirements (like performance,
4. Performance is the key deciding factor on the power requirements, memory usage etc.) are the
selection of the system. Always “faster is better‟. key deciding factors.
5. Less/not at all tailored towards reduced 5. Highly tailored to take advantage of the power
operating power requirements, options for saving modes supported by hardware and operating
different levels of power management. system.
6. Response requirements are not time critical. 6. For certain category of embedded systems like
7. Need not be deterministic in execution mission critical systems, the response time
behavior. requirement is highly critical.
mission critical systems 7. Execution behavior is deterministic for certain type
hard real time systems
of embedded systems like „hard real time‟ systems.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 10

 Types of Embedded Systems
 General Computing
 Applications similar to desktop computing, but in an embedded
systems.
 Video games, wearable computers, set-top boxes, automatic tellers.
 Control Systems
 Closed-loop feedback control of real-time systems.
 Vehicle engines, chemical processes, nuclear power, flight control.
 Signal Processing
 Computations involving large data streams.
 Radar, sonar, video compression.
 Communication & Networking
 Switching and information transmission.
 Telephone system, Internet.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 11

A Block Diagram of an Embedded System

Control
(Output) Motor/Light
produce

System Bus
Observe Temperature
Processor (Input) Sensor

mem

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 12

An Embedded System Example

 BMW 850i Brake and Stability Control System

observer when i push on brake

control
bus system

processor

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 13

 Characteristics of Embedded Systems
 Embedded systems have several common characteristics that
distinguish them from other computing systems.
 Single-functioned
– Executes a single program, repeatedly.
 Tightly-constrained
– Low cost, low power, small, fast, etc.
 Reactive and real-time
– Continually reacts to changes in the system’s environment.
– Must compute certain results in real-time without delay.

any thing has an red color is very important ya man

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 14

Characteristics of Embedded Systems Cont.

 Embedded systems have to provide sophisticated functionality:

 Complex algorithms: The operations performed by the microprocessor may
be very sophisticated.
 User interface: Microprocessors are frequently used to control complex
user interfaces that may include multiple menus and many options.
 Embedded computing operations must meet deadlines:
 Real time: In some cases, failure to meet a deadline is unsafe and can even
endanger lives.
 Multi-rate: Many embedded computing systems have several real-time
activities going on at the same time. They may simultaneously control
some operations that run at slow rates and others that run at high rates.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 15

Characteristics of Embedded Systems Cont.

 Many Embedded Systems must meet real-time constraints:

 A real-time system must react to stimuli from the controlled object
within the time interval dictated by the environment.
 For real-time systems, right answers arriving too late (or even too
early) are wrong.
 “A real-time constraint is called HARD, if not meeting that constraint
could result in a catastrophe“.
 All other time-constraints are called SOFT.
 A guaranteed system response has to be explained without statistical
arguments.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 16

Characteristics of Embedded Systems Cont.
 Many Embedded Systems must be dependable:
 Reliability: R(t) = probability of system working correctly provided
that is was working at t = 0.
 Maintainability: M(d) = probability of system working correctly d
time units after error occurred.
 Availability: probability of system working at time t.
 Safety: no harm to be caused.
 Security: confidential and authentic communication.
 Even perfectly designed systems can fail if the assumptions
about the workload and possible errors turn out to be wrong.
 Making the system dependable must not be an after-thought, it
must be considered from the very beginning.
Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 17
Characteristics of Embedded Systems Cont.
 Many Embedded Systems must be efficient:
 Energy efficient
 Code-size efficient (especially for systems on a chip)
 Run-time efficient
 Weight efficient
 Cost efficient
 Dedicated towards a certain application: Knowledge about
behavior at design time can be used to minimize resources and
to maximize robustness.
 Dedicated user interface (no mouse, keyboard and screen).

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 18

Characteristics of Embedded Systems Cont.
 Application-specific functionality: Specialized for one or one class
of applications.
 Deadline constrained operation: System may have to perform its
function(s) within specific time periods to achieve successful results.
 Resource challenged: Systems typically are configured with a modest
set of resources to meet the performance objectives.
 Power efficient: Many systems are battery-powered and must conserve
power to maximize the usable life of the system.
 Form factor: Many systems are light weight and low volume to be used
as components in host systems.
 Manufacturable: Usually small and inexpensive to manufacture based
on the size and low complexity of the hardware.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 19

An Embedded System Example -- A Digital Camera

Digital camera chip

CCD
CCD preprocessor Pixel coprocessor D2A
A2D

lens

JPEG codec Microcontroller Multiplier/Accum

DMA controller Display ctrl

Memory controller ISA bus interface UART LCD ctrl

 Single-functioned -- always a digital camera.

 Tightly-constrained -- Low cost, low power, small, fast.
 Reactive and real-time -- only to a small extent.
Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 20
Design Challenge – Optimizing Design Metrics

 Obvious design goal:

– Construct an implementation with desired functionality.
 Key design challenge:
– Simultaneously optimize numerous design metrics.
 Design metric
– A measurable feature of a system’s implementation.
– Optimizing design metrics is a key challenge.
 Common metrics
Unit cost: the monetary cost of manufacturing each copy of the system,
excluding NRE cost.
NRE cost (Non-Recurring Engineering cost): The one-time monetary
cost of designing the system.
Size: the physical space required by the system.
Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 21
Design Challenge – Optimizing Design Metrics Cont.

 Common metrics
– Performance: the execution time or throughput of the system.
– Power: the amount of power consumed by the system.
– Flexibility: the ability to change the functionality of the system without
incurring heavy NRE cost.
– Time-to-prototype: the time needed to build a working version of
the system.
– Time-to-market: the time required to develop a system to the
point that it can be released and sold to customers.
– Maintainability: the ability to modify the system after its initial
release.
– Correctness, safety, many more.

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 Design Challenge – Optimizing Design Metrics Cont.

 Expertise with both software and hardware is needed to

optimize design metrics.
– Not just a hardware or software expert, as is common.
– A designer must be comfortable with various technologies in
order to choose the best for a given application and constraints.
Digital camera chip
CCD
CCD Pixel coprocessor D2A
A2D
preprocessor
lens
JPEG codec Microcontroller Multiplier/Accum

DMA controller Display ctrl Hardware

Power

Memory controller ISA bus interface UART LCD ctrl

Software

Performance Size

NRE cost

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 23

Time-to-Market: a demanding design metric
 Time required to develop a product to the point it can be sold to
customers.
 Market window
– Period during which the product would have highest sales.
 Average time-to-market constraint is about 8 months.
 Delays can be costly.

Revenues ($)

Time (months)

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 Losses due to Delayed Market Entry

Peak revenue
 Simplified revenue model
– Product life = 2W, peak at W
Revenues ($)

Peak revenue from

delayed entry
On-time – Time of market entry defines a
Market Market fall triangle, representing market
rise penetration.
Delayed
– Triangle area equals revenue.
 Loss
D W 2W
Time
– The difference between the on-
On-time Delayed
entry entry time and delayed triangle areas.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 25

 Losses due to Delayed Market Entry Cont.

 Area = 1/2 * base * height

– On-time = 1/2 * 2W * W
Peak revenue
– Delayed = 1/2 * (W-D+W)*(W-D)
Percentage revenue loss = (D(3W-
Revenues ($)

Peak revenue from 

delayed entry
On-time D)/2W2)*100%
Market fall
Market
rise
 Try some examples
Delayed – Lifetime 2W=52 wks, delay D = 4 wks
– (4*(3*26 –4)/2*26^2) = 22%
– Lifetime 2W=52 wks, delay D=10 wks
D W 2W
– (10*(3*26 –10)/2*26^2) = 50%
On-time Delayed Time
– Delays are costly!
entry entry

height = 0.5 base

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NRE and Unit Cost Metrics
 Costs:
• Unit cost: the monetary cost of manufacturing each copy of the system,
excluding NRE cost
• NRE cost (Non-Recurring Engineering cost): The one-time monetary cost
of designing the system
• total cost = NRE cost + unit cost * # of units
• per-product cost = total cost / # of units
= (NRE cost / # of units) + unit cost
• Example
– NRE=$2000, unit=$100
– For 10 units
– total cost = $2000 + 10*$100 = $3000
– per-product cost = $2000/10 + $100 = $300

Amortizing NRE cost over the units

results in an additional $200 per unit

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NRE and Unit Cost Metrics Cont.

 Compare technologies by costs -- best depends on quantity

• Technology A: NRE=$2,000, unit=$100
• Technology B: NRE=$30,000, unit=$30
• Technology C: NRE=$100,000, unit=$2
$200,000 $200
A A
B B
$160,000 $160
C C
tota l c ost (x1000)

p er p rod uc t c ost
$120,000 $120

$80,000 $80

$40,000 $40

$0 $0
0 800 1600 2400 0 800 1600 2400
Numb er of units (volume) Numb er of units (volume)

• But, must also consider time-to-market

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The Performance Design Metric
 Widely-used measure of system, widely-abused
– Clock frequency, instructions per second – not good measures.
– Digital camera example – a user cares about how fast it processes images,
not clock speed or instructions per second.
 Latency (response time)
– Time between task start and end.
– e.g., Camera’s A and B process images in 0.25 seconds.
 Throughput
– Tasks per second, e.g. Camera A processes 4 images per second.
– Throughput can be more than latency seems to imply due to concurrency,
e.g. Camera B may process 8 images per second (by capturing a new image
while previous image is being stored).
 Speedup of B over S = B’s performance / A’s performance
– Throughput speedup = 8/4 = 2

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 29

Embedded System Technologies

 Technology
– A manner of accomplishing a task, especially using technical
processes, methods, or knowledge.
 Three Key Technologies for Embedded Systems
– Processor Technology.
– IC Technology.
– Design Technology.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 30

Processor Technology
 The architecture of the computation engine used to implement a
system’s desired functionality.
 Processor does not have to be programmable.
– “Processor” not equal to general-purpose processor.

Controller Datapath Controller Datapath Controller Datapath

Control Control index

Register file Control Registers
logic and logic
logic and total
State State State
Custom +
register register register
General ALU
IR PC ALU
IR PC
Data Data
memory memory
Program Data Program
memory memory memory
Assembly Assembly
code for: code for:

total = 0 total = 0
for i =1 to … for i =1 to …
Single-purpose (“hardware”)
General-purpose (“software”) Application-specific

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Processor Technology Cont.

 Processors vary in their customization for the problem at hand.

total = 0
for i = 1 to N loop
total += M[i]
Desired Functionality end loop

General-Purpose Application-Specific Single-Purpose

Processor Processor Processor

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 32

General-Purpose Processors
 Programmable device used in a variety of
applications. Controller Datapath
– Also known as “microprocessor” Control Register
logic and file
 Features State
register
– Program memory General
– General datapath with large register file and IR PC ALU

general ALU.
Program Data
 User benefits memory memory
– Low time-to-market and NRE costs. Assembly
code for:
– High flexibility.
total = 0
 “Pentium” the most well-known, but there are for i =1 to …

hundreds of others.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 33

Single-Purpose Processors

 Digital circuit designed to execute exactly

one program. Controller Datapath
– a.k.a. coprocessor, accelerator or peripheral. Control index
logic
 Features total
State
– Contains only the components needed to register +
execute a single program.
– No program memory. Data
memory
 Benefits
– Fast
– Low power
– Small size

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 34

Application-Specific Processors

 Programmable processor optimized for a

particular class of applications having Controller Datapath

common characteristics. Control Registers

logic and
– Compromise between general-purpose and State
single-purpose processors. register
Custom
ALU
 Features IR PC

– Program memory. Data

Program memory
– Optimized datapath. memory
– Special functional units. Assembly
code for:
 Benefits
total = 0
– Some flexibility, good performance, size and for i =1 to …

power.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 35

IC Technology
 The manner in which a digital (gate-level) implementation is
mapped onto an IC.
– IC: Integrated circuit, or “chip”.
– IC technologies differ in their customization to a design.
– IC’s consist of numerous layers (perhaps 10 or more).
• IC technologies differ with respect to who builds each layer and when
it is built.
 Three Types of IC Technologies
– Full-custom/VLSI.
– Semi-custom ASIC (gate array and standard cell).
– PLD (Programmable Logic Device).
gate
IC package IC oxide
source channe drain
l Silicon
substrate

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 36

Programmable Logic Device (PLD)

 All layers already exist.

– Designers can purchase an IC.
– Connections on the IC are either created or destroyed to
implement desired functionality.
– Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) very popular.
 Benefits
– Low NRE costs, almost instant IC availability.
 Drawbacks
– Bigger, expensive (perhaps $30 per unit), power hungry, slower.

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Moore’s Law
 The most important trend in embedded systems.
– Predicted in 1965 by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore.
IC transistor capacity has doubled roughly every 18
months for the past several decades

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 38

Moore’s Law Cont.

 Wow
– This growth rate is hard to imagine, most people underestimate.
– How many ancestors do you have from 20 generations ago.
i.e., roughly how many people alive in the 1500’s did it take to make you?
220 = more than 1 million people.
– (This underestimation is the key to pyramid schemes!).

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 39

Moore’s Law Cont.

1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002

10,000 150,000,000
transistors transistors

Leading edge Leading edge

chip in 1981 chip in 2002

 Something that doubles frequently grows more quickly than

most people realize!
– A 2002 chip can hold about 15,000 1981 chips inside itself.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 40

Design Technology
 The manner in which we convert our concept of desired system
functionality into an implementation.
Compilation/ Libraries/ Test/
Synthesis IP Verification

System System HW/SW/ Model Simulate./

Compilation/Synthesis: specification synthesis OS Checkers
Automates exploration and
insertion of implementation
details for lower level.
Behavioral Behavior Cores HW-SW
specification synthesis Co-simulators
Libraries/IP: Incorporates
pre-designed implementation
from lower abstraction level
into higher level. RT RT RT HDL simulators
specification synthesis components

Test/Verification: Ensures
correct functionality at each
level, thus reducing costly Logic Logic Gates/ Gate
iterations between levels. specification synthesis Cells Simulators

To final implementation

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 41

Design Technology Cont.

 A system implementation must be:

quickly optimize design metrics.
 Designers must be improve design technology to enhance productivity.
 To improve the design process, understand the design process itself.
 A top-down design process is illustrated above.
 The designer refines the system through several abstraction levels.
 System level: describe the desired functionality or specification of
the system in a language such as C.
 Behavioral level: distribute portions of a system among several
general and/or single-purpose processors.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 42

Design Technology Cont.

 Register-transfer (RT) level: convert behavior on GPPs to assembly

code, and behavior on SPPs to a connection of register-transfer
components and state machines. Then, refine the register-transfer-
level specification of a SPP into a logic specification consisting of
Boolean equations; no refinement of a GPP's assembly code is done
at this level.
 Logic Level: refine the remaining specifications into an
implementation, consisting of machine code for GPPs and a gate-
level netlist for SPPs.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 43

Design Technology Cont.

 There are three main approaches to improve the design process:

 Compilation/Synthesis
 Specify desired functionality in an abstract manner and
automatically generates lower-level implementation details.
 Libraries/IP
 Reuse pre-existing implementations.
 Test/Verification
 Ensure the system functionality is correct.
 Several other approaches also exist.
 Each approach can be applied at any of the four abstraction levels.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 44

Design Technology Cont.

100,000

10,000

(K) Trans./Staff – Mo.

1,000

100

Productivity
10

0.1

0.01

2005
1993

2003
2001
1983

1987
1985

1991
1989

1999
1997

2007
1995

2009
 Exponential increase over the past few decades.

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 45

 The Co-design Ladder

 In the past: Sequential program code (e.g., C, VHDL)

– Hardware and software design Compilers

Behavioral synthesis
(1990's)
technologies were very different. (1960's,1970's)
Register transfers
– Recent maturation of synthesis Assembly instructions RT synthesis
enables a unified view of hardware Assemblers, linkers
(1980's, 1990's)

and software. (1950's, 1960's) Logic equations / FSM's

Logic synthesis
 Hardware/Software “Co-design” Machine instructions (1970's, 1980's)
means the simultaneous design of Logic gates
hardware and software to meet
system objective

Implementation
Microprocessor plus VLSI, ASIC, or PLD
program bits: “software” implementation: “hardware”

The choice of hardware versus software for a particular function is simply a tradeoff
among various design metrics, like performance, power, size, NRE cost, and especially
flexibility; there is no fundamental difference between what hardware or software can
implement.
Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 46
Independence of Processor and IC Technologies

 Basic tradeoff
– General vs. custom.
– With respect to processor technology or IC technology.
– The two technologies are independent.

General- Single-
purpose ASIP purpose
General, processor processor Customized,
providing improved: providing improved:

Flexibility Power efficiency

Maintainability Performance
NRE cost Size
Time- to-prototype Cost (high volume)
Time-to-market
Cost (low volume)
PLD Semi-custom Full-custom

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 47

 Design Productivity Gap
 While designer productivity has grown at an impressive rate
over the past decades, the rate of improvement has not kept pace
with chip capacity.
chip doesnot keep pace with growth of ICs

transistor capacity

10,000 100,000

1,000 10,000

Logic transistors100 1000

per chip 10 Gap 100 Productivity
(in millions) IC capacity (K) Trans./Staff-Mo.
1 10
0.1 1
productivity
0.01 0.1

0.001 0.01

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 48

 Design Productivity Gap Cont.
 1981 leading edge chip required 100 designer months.
– 10,000 transistors / 100 transistors/month.
 2002 leading edge chip requires 30,000 designer months.
– 150,000,000 / 5000 transistors/month.
 Designer cost increase from $1M to $300M.
10,000 100,000
1,000 10,000

Logic transistors100 1000

per chip 10 Gap 100 Productivity
(in millions) IC capacity (K) Trans./Staff-Mo.
1 10
0.1 1
productivity
0.01 0.1
0.001 0.01

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 49

 Design Productivity Gap Cont.
 The situation is even worse than the productivity gap indicates.
 In theory, adding designers to team reduces project completion time.
 In reality, productivity per designer decreases due to complexities of
team management and communication.
 In the software community, known as “the mythical man-month”.
 At some point, can actually lengthen project completion time! (“Too
many cooks”).
Team
60000 16 15 16
• 1M transistors, 1 designer = 18
50000 19
5000 trans/month
40000 24 23
• Each additional designer 30000
reduces for 100 trans/month Months until completion
20000 43
• So 2 designers produce 4900 10000 Individual
trans/month each
0 10 20 30 40
Number of designers

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 50

 ?

Advanced Embedded Systems Dr. Salah Eldin Shaban 51