Chapter Two: Units and Distance Measurement Techniques
2.1. Introduction
Every surveyor has to measure the horizontal distance between two points on the surface of the
earth. Measurement of horizontal distance or making linear measurements is required in chain
surveying, traverse surveying, and other types of surveying. In surveying the distance between
two points means a horizontal distance. When slope distances are measured in the field, these are
always reduced to the equivalent horizontal distances for preparation of map.
Distance is one of the fundamental measurements in surveying. Distance is required in many
instances, e.g. to give scale to a network of control points, to fix the position of topographic
detail by offsets or polar coordinates, to set out the position of a point in construction work, etc.
The basic methods of measuring distance are, at the present time, by taping or by
electromagnetic (or electro-optical) distance measurement, generally designated
as EDM. For very rough reconnaissance surveys or approximate estimates pacing may be
suitable. For distances over 5 km, GPS satellite methods, are usually more suitable.
Units of measurement
There are two main systems of measurements:
M.K.S. (Meter, Kilogram, Second) Metric System (SI=System International)
F.P.S. (Foot, Pound, Second) British System
a) The SI unit of length is the base unit meter (m)
1 decameter = 101m = 1 dam
1 hectometer = 102m = 1 hm
1 kilometer = 103m = 1 km
1 mega meter = 106m = 1 Mm
1 gigameter = 109m = 1 Gm
1 tetrameter = 1012m = 1 Tm
1 decimeter = 10-1m = 1 dm
1 centimeter = 10-2m = 1 cm
1 millimeter = 10-3m = 1 mm
1 micrometer = 10-6m = 1 µm
1 nanometer = 10-9m = 1 nm
1 picometer = 10-12m = 1 pm
b) The SI unit for area is the derived unit square meter (m2)
1 hectare = 104m2 = 100 m * 100m = 1 ha
1 square kilometer = 106m2 = 1000m * 1000m = 1km2 = 100ha
c) The SI unit for volume is the derived unit cubic meter (m3)
1000 cu millimeters = 1 cubic centimeter
1000 cu centimeters = 1 cubic decimeter
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1000 cu decimeters = 1 cubic meter
2.2. Methods of measurements
1. Direct methods: the distance is actually measured on the field using a tape.
2. Indirect methods: the distance is not actually measured on the field. It is computed
indirectly (for example: stadia tachometry).
Electromagnetic Distance Measuring (E.D.M): The main instrument for surveyors on site
today is the ‘total station’. It is an instrument that combines the angle measurements that could
be obtained with a traditional theodolite with electronic distance measurements.
Two different types are available:
1) Electro optical instruments, which use light waves for measurement of distance.
2) Microwave instruments, which use radio waves for measurement of distance.
3. Approximate method
The following approximate methods are commonly used in reconnaissance surveying for the
measurement of horizontal distances. These methods are also use sometimes to detect large
mistakes in linear measurements obtained with a tape.
A. Pacing: A person can determine the distance walked by Counting the number of paces
made. The distance can be obtained by multiplying the number of paces by the average
length of the paces.
B. Measuring wheel: A measuring wheel consists of a wheel mounted on a lower end of
rod about 1 m long through a division. The upper end of the rod has a handle. The wheel
is pushed along the ground. The distance traversed is recorded on the dial attached the
wheel.
Figure 1: Measuring wheel
C. Speedometer: All automobiles have a speedometer to indicate the speed and the distance
travelled. If the ground is smooth, the speedometer can be used to measure the distance.
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2.3. Chain surveying/Taping
Measuring tapes can be classified into 5 types depending upon the material used in their
manufacture.
1. Linen or cloth tapes
2. Glass-fiber tapes
3. Metallic tapes
4. Steel tapes
5. Invar tapes
Figure 2: steel and invar tapes
1. Linen or cloth tapes: These tapes are made of linen or cloth. The tape is light and handy but
not very accurate. These tapes are available in length of 10m, 20m, 25m and 30m
2. Glass–fiber tapes: These tapes are similar to linen and plastic coated tapes but they are
made of glass-fiber. The tapes are quite flexible, strong and non-conductive.
3. Metallic tapes: These tapes are similar to linen tapes but are made of water proof fabric or
glass fiber in which metallic wires are interwoven.
4. Steel tapes: The steel tapes are the most commonly used tapes in surveying. They are more
accurate than metallic tapes. The steel tapes are made of steel or stainless steel strip.
5. Invar Tapes. Invar tapes are made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel (36%), which has a
very low coefficient of thermal expansion. Invar tapes are used for linear measurements of
very high precision.
2.3.1. Taping accessory
In addition to a tape, the following small instruments and accessories are required for the
determination of the length of a line
A. Arrows (Chain pins): They are used to mark the position of the ends of the tape on the
ground.
B. Pegs: Wooden pegs are used to mark the position of the survey stations or the end points of
the survey line
C. Ranging Rods: The process of locating a number of points on a long survey line is called
ranging. Ranging rods are used to locate intermediate points such that these points lie on the
straight line joining the end stations. Ranging rods are made of well-seasoned, straight-
grained timber.
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D. Plumb bobs: The plumb bob plays a very important role in surveying. As a freely suspended
plumb bob always points towards the gravity, it indicates the direction of the vertical line. In
linear measurements plumb bobs are used for measuring distances on sloping ground.
Figure 3: Ranging rods hold by ranging rod tripods
2.3.2. Principles of chain surveying
A triangle is a simple figure which can be plotted from the lengths of three sides even if the
angles are not known. In chain survey, the area to be surveyed is divided into a framework
consisting of triangles.
Selection of survey station and Survey lines
The main station should be mutually inter-visible so that ranging can be done easily.
Survey lines should pass through a level open ground as far as possible so that chaining
can be done easily.
The survey lines should be selected such that there are no obstacles in chaining and
ranging.
If required, number of subsidiary stations should be selected and subsidiary lines run to
avoid long offsets.
2.3.3. Miscellaneous taping and ranging operation
To measure the length of a survey line, the chain or tape has to be stretched from one end to the
other end. This is possible only when the length of the survey line is less than the tape length.
However, if the length of the line is greater than the tape length, the length of the line cannot be
measured accurately without establishing intermediate points on the line by the method of
ranging.
1. Ranging
Ranging is the process of establishing intermediate points on a straight line. It ensures the
measurement of straight distance between two points. There are different techniques of ranging
out line under different circumstances but, we will limit ourselves to the direct method and
ranging out lines using prism square.
Ranging out lines directly
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Let A and B are the two ends of a line AB, and they are inter-visible. To perform ranging for
establishing intermediate points follow the following procedure:
Set up two ranging poles vertically on the two ends of the line to be measured.
Figure 4: setting up ranging poles at the two ends
Stand behind one of the ranging pole at a distance of about 2-3 meters.
Let your assistant hold another ranging rod approximately on the line at a distance not
greater than one tape lengths.
By looking left and right along assistant’s ranging pole, direct your assistant to move the
ranging pole towards the line so that point ACB appear to be in one line. The assistant
has to hold the ranging pole vertically.
Figure 5: setting out the intermediate point
Note:
Never take an intermediate point for ranging out a further intermediate point. If the first
intermediate point has been aligned incorrectly you would align the second one into a
wrong line.
After establishing all intermediate points the result of the ranging out has to be checked.
The poles should appear one after the other in the right order, i.e., from the nearest to the
most distant one.
Having more than one ranging pole to be aligned, start always with the farther one to
have a good visibility.
Figure 6: ranging out of a ranging rod form incorrect intermediate point
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Taping horizontal distance over level ground
The simplest taping operation is measuring over level ground where the tape can be stretched out
while fully supported by the ground as shown in the figure below. Range pole is set at each end
of the line and the tape is unwound (relaxed) and laid out on the ground with the zero ends
forward. The front tape person then takes the zero end of the tape hands one pin to the rear tape
person, and moves forward along the line.
Figure 7: Taping horizontal distance over sloping ground
Taping horizontal distance over slope ground
Consider two point A and B which are several tape lengths apart along a slope. The horizontal
distance between the two points can be measured by supporting the tape at the two ends only, as
shown in the figure below. Assuming that the distance is to be measured downhill, the front tape
person holds one end of the tape at a comfortable height above the ground so that the straight line
joining the two ends are approximately level. Tension is applied and the position of the end of
the tape is transferred by means of a plumb bob to the ground. Where a point is set or on a hard
surface, a keel mark is made. If accurate work is needed, the tape is stretched a second time and
the mean of the two measurements will be taken. It is hardly feasible or good practice to hold the
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tape more than 5 ft. (≈ 1.5m) above the ground; if the slope is more than 5ft per tape length it is
necessary to break tape.
Figure 8: horizontal distance measurement over sloppy area
2.4. Sources and Correction for systematic errors in Taping
Steel tapes are calibrated under a specific temperature and tension. Change in temperature,
tension and mode of support affect the result of taping. The errors caused by these sources
behave according to physical laws and can be expressed with mathematic expressions. They are
systematic errors.
1. Correction for absolute length
If absolute (actual) length of the tape is different from the designated or nominal length of the
tape, the difference between the two causes a systematic error. If a tape is in continuous use, due
to wear and tear, stretch or shrink, the absolute length of the tape will become different from the
designated length. The correction to account this error is called correction for standardization
and determined using the following formula:
2. Correction for standard
A steel tape will normally be provided with standardizing data, for example it may be designated
as 30m long under a tension of 50N at a temperature of 20 Cwhen laid on the flat. With use the
tape may stretch and it is imperative that the tape is regularly checked against a reference tape
kept specifically for this purpose.
3. Correction for tension (Pull correction)
Since a steel tape is elastic to a small extend it length is changed by variation in the tension
applied.
The correction, which should be applied, is
Where P is the tension applied in the field.
Ps is the standard/ calibration tension (tape at AU: 50N=5kp)
A is the cross sectional area of the tape.
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E is Young’s modulus for the tape material (N/ mm2)
L is the observed length.
Note: The sign of the correction takes that of quantity (P-Ps)
To apply this correction a tension handle is needed.
4. Correction for sag
A tape supported only at the ends will sag in the center by an amount that is related to its weight
and the pull (tension). In the case of a long tape intermediate supports can be used to reduce the
magnitude of the correction.
The correction that is applied reduces the curved length to the chord Length.
Where w is the weight of the tape per unit length
L is the observed length
P is the tension applied in the field.
Note: If the tape is used on a plane surface, which can be considered flat, then no
correction is applicable. To apply this correction a tension handle is needed.
5. Correction for temperature
If a tape is used at a field temperature different from the standardization temperature then the
correction is
Ct Lt ts
Where, α is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material.
Steel: 0.0000115 m/ (m C)
Invar: 0.000001 m/ (m C), t is the field temperature ts is the standardization
temperature
Note: The sign of the correction takes the sign of (t- ts).
To apply this correction a thermometer is needed.
6. Correction for slope
In surveying it is essential that horizontal lengths are determined. When a distance lies along a
uniform slope and when the difference in height between the two end points has been determined
it may be preferable to measure the distance directly.
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Figure 9: Correction for slope
Afterwards the horizontal distance can be computed by applying the following correction:
Where: h is the difference in height between the end points
S is the measured slope distance
7. Correction to mean sea level
In the case of long lines the relationship between the length measured on the ground and the
equivalent length at mean sea level has to be considered.
Figure 10: Correction to mean sea level
In the measured length is Lm and the height of the line above datum is H then the correction to
be applied is
Examplees:
1-A survey line was measured with a tape, believed to be 20m long, a length of 284.62m
resulted. On checking, the tape was found to measure 19.95m long.
a) What was the correct length of the line?
b) If the line measured is a slope distance and the difference in height between the end
points is 14.20m what would be the reduced horizontal length used in the plotting of
the survey?
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c) What reading is required to produce a horizontal distance of 15.08m between two site
pegs, one being 0.66m above the other?
Solution
i. A length of 20m has been booked overall, but actually only a length of 19.95m has been
covered.
ii. The correction for slope has to be applied:
The horizontal distance is therefore: 283.91-0.36 = 283.55m
iii. the following reading is required:
2- A distance of 220.450 m was measured with a steel band of nominal length 30 m. On
standardization the tape was found to be 30.003m. Calculate the correct measured distance,
assuming the error is evenly distributed throughout the tape.
Error per 30 m = 3 mm
3-A 30-m band standardized at 20C was found to be 30.003 m. At what temperature
is the tape exactly 30 m? Coefficient of expansion of steel = 0.000 011/C.
Expansion per 30 m per C = 0.000011 X30 = 0.00033 m
∴Tape is 30 m at 20C – 9C = 11C
Expansion per 30 m per 9C = 0.00033 X9 = 0.003 m
Alternatively, ∆t = (ts – ta), where, ts is standard To & ta is actual To, then,
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