Cloud Computing (ITC 607)

Table of Contents:
Lesson Lesson Title (font size 11; font style Garamond) Pg. No.
No.
1 Course Overview 2
2 Introduction to Cloud Computing 3
3 History and Background of Cloud Computing 5
4 Basics of Computers 9
5 Basics of Data Communication 10
6 Basics of Computer Networking 11
7 Advanced Topics of Computer Networks 22
8 Virtualization 27
9 Essential Characteristics of Cloud Computing 35
10 Benefits of Cloud Computing 40
11 Risks and Challenges of Cloud Computing 41
12 Roles and Boundaries of Cloud Computing 43
13 Cloud Service Models 45
14 Data Storage in Clouds 55
15 Miscellaneous Services of Cloud Computing 58
16 Cloud Deployment Models 61
17 Service Oriented Architecture 64
18 Cloud Security Threats 66
19 Trust Issues in Cloud 71
20 Mechanisms Related to Cloud Infrastructure 72
21 Service Agreements 77
22 Cloud Hosting Data Center Design 79
23 Cloud Architecture 83
24 Specialized Cloud Mechanisms 88
25 Cloud Management 99
26 Fundamental Cloud Architectures 101
27 Advanced Cloud Architectures 104
28 Cloud Federation 122
29 Cloud Delivery/Service Models’ Perspectives 123
30 Inter-Cloud Resource Management 127
31 Cloud Cost Metrics and Pricing Models 128
32 Cloud Service Quality Metrics 133
33 Cloud Simulator 136
34 Computer Security Basics 137
35 Network Security Basics 144
36 Cloud Security Mechanisms 145
37 Privacy Issues of Cloud Computing 148
38 Security Issues of Cloud Computing 151
39 Trust Issues of Cloud Computing 155
40 Open Issues in Cloud 158
41 Disaster Recovery in Cloud Computing 161
42 Migrating to the Cloud 167
43 Cloud Application Scalability and Resource Scheduling 171
44 Mobile Cloud Computing 176
45 Special Topics in Cloud Computing and Conclusion of Course 182
Lesson No. 01
INTRODUCTION TO COURSE
Module No – 001
• This course is designed to cover different dimensions of Cloud Computing.
• The course aims at providing good knowledge regarding the Cloud Computing.
• The course begins with the background knowledge.
• Cloud Computing has over lapping features with various other forms of computing.
• Basically it is the provision of computing (over virtualized resources) as a (charged for)
service over the Internet.
• It is important to build some conceptual foundations.
• Cloud computing has somehow evolved from the fields of Cluster Computing and Grid
Computing.
• The course begins with the overview of these field.
• Since the Cloud Computing aims at providing computations over Internet, this course
builds and revises the basic and advanced networking concepts such as:
• Network structures, designs, protocols etc.
• Switching, routing and network virtualization.
• Data center networking
• Cloud Computing depends upon a technology called Virtualization technology for dynamic
creation and provisioning of computing resources.
• Up-to-date knowledge of virtualization is discussed before proceeding.
• Different features of Cloud Computing with reference to course books and National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) USA will be introduced/explained as and
when an enough background knowledge is gained.
• The course continues with the coverage of Cloud architecture, services, examples and
issues related to security and privacy etc. for Cloud Computing.
• Later on, the in-depth coverage of Cloud mechanisms are covered.
• The delivery models of Cloud Computing and Cloud Services are periodically discussed
with increasing complexity.
• The consumers of Cloud Computing are under a legal cover of Service Level Agreement
(SLA).
• The rights and liabilities of Cloud consumers and Cloud providers are also covered.
• A significant volume of the course covers the security issues related to computers and
Cloud computing.
• We shall also discuss the disaster recovery and decision making for Cloud computing.
• Cloud Computing setup and hosting is a complex task.
• Cloud management and Cloud hosting data center architectures are also covered.
• Cloud Computing is also provisioned through mobile phones.
• As special contribution:
o The course covers the Mobile Cloud Computing field.
o The emerging field of Software Defined Networking (SDN) is introduced.
• Recommended books and publications:
o “Cloud Computing: Concepts, Technology & Architecture” Book by Ricardo
Puttini, Thomas Erl, and Zaigham Mahmood; Prentice Hall/PearsonPTR
o “Cloud Computing” Book by Kris Jamsa; Jones & Bartlett Publishers
o Liu, Fang, et al. "NIST cloud computing reference architecture." NIST special
publication 500.2011 (2011): 292.
• Please follow these important points:
o Cover the course according to modules.
o If a key term is confusing to you, use the recommended course book/s and/or
Google.
 o Usually, the detail of the key term is covered in the same module or coming
modules, so be patient.
o Background knowledge is provided to refresh the previous knowledge only. Not
for knowledge building.
o Students are encouraged to study/consult the books related to Networks and
Computer Architecture, Computer Security, Network Security etc. as well.
• Teacher’s email: saimatunio@[Link]

Lesson No. 02
INTRODUCTION TO CLOUD COMPUTING

Module No – 002:
“Cloud computing is a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand
network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g.,
networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly
provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider
interaction.”

National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST) USA

• Essential Characteristics according to NIST definition:
• On-demand self-service
• Broad network access
• Resource pooling
• Rapid elasticity
• Measured service
• On-demand self-service: A consumer can unilaterally\individually provision computing
capabilities, such as server time and network storage, as needed automatically without
requiring human interaction with each service provider.
• Broad network access: Capabilities are available over the network and accessed through
standard mechanisms that promote use by heterogeneous client devices (e.g., mobile
phones, tablets, laptops, and workstations).
• Resource pooling: The provider’s computing resources are pooled to serve multiple
consumers according to consumer demand. The customer generally has no control or
knowledge over the exact location of the provided resources (e.g., country, state, or
datacenter). Examples of resources include storage, processing, memory, and network
bandwidth.
• Rapid elasticity: Capabilities can be elastically provisioned and released with demand. To
the consumer, the capabilities available for provisioning often appear to be unlimited and
can be appropriated in any quantity at any time.
• Measured service: Cloud systems automatically control and optimize resource use by
leveraging a metering capability. Typically this is done on a pay-per-use or charge-per-use
basis.
Module No – 007:
• Cloud Service Models according to NIST definition:
o Software as a Service (SaaS)
o Platform as a Service (PaaS)
o Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
• Software as a Service (SaaS):
o The capability provided to the consumer is to use the provider’s applications
running on a cloud infrastructure. A cloud infrastructure is the collection of
hardware and software that enables the five essential characteristics of cloud
computing.
o The applications are accessible from various client devices a web browser (e.g.,
web-based email), or a program interface.
o The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure
including network, servers, operating systems, storage, or even individual
application capabilities, except for limited user specific application configuration
settings.
o
• Platform as a Service (PaaS):
o The capability provided to the consumer is to deploy onto the cloud infrastructure
consumer-created or acquired applications created using programming languages,
libraries, services, and tools supported by the provider.
• Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS):
o The capability provided to the consumer is to provision processing, storage,
networks, and other fundamental computing resources where the consumer is
able to deploy and run arbitrary software, which can include operating systems
and applications.
o The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure
but has control over operating systems, storage, and deployed applications; and
possibly limited control of selected networking components (e.g., host firewalls).
• Cloud Deployment Models according to NIST definition:
o Private cloud
o Community cloud
o Public cloud
o Hybrid cloud
• Private cloud: The cloud infrastructure is provisioned for exclusive use by a single
organization comprising multiple consumers (e.g., business units). It may be owned,
managed, and operated by the organization, a third party, or some combination of them,
and it may exist on or off premises.
• Community cloud: The cloud infrastructure is provisioned for exclusive use by a specific
community of consumers from organizations that have shared concerns (e.g., mission,
security requirements, policy, and compliance considerations). It may be owned, managed,
and operated by one or more of the organizations in the community, a third party, or some
combination of them, and it may exist on or off premises.
• Public cloud: The cloud infrastructure is provisioned for open use by the general public.
It may be owned, managed, and operated by a business, academic, or government
organization, or some combination of them. It exists on the premises of the cloud
provider.
• Hybrid cloud: The cloud infrastructure is a composition of two or more distinct cloud
infrastructures (private, community, or public).
 Lesson No. 03
HISTORY AND BACKGROUND OF CLOUD COMPUTING
Module No – 003:

• Computer Scientist John McCarthy is attributed with delivering the idea that computations
will be provisioned as utilities in future. This idea was presented in 1961.
• In 1960s and 1970s, the mainframes (giant powerful computers) were leased out by the
manufacturers.
• The idea of grid computing emerged in 1990s to use the processing power of networked PCs
for scientific calculations during idle times.
• In 1990s, [Link] started bringing remotely provisioned software services to the
enterprises. Amazon Web Services (AWS) were launched in 2002.
• In 2006, the term “cloud computing” emerged that enabled organizations to “lease” the
computing capacity and processing power from cloud providers.

Module No – 004: Overview of Cluster Computing:

• A computer cluster is a collection of interconnected stand-alone computers which

cooperate to work as a single resource pool of computing resources.
• Clusters became popular in 1990s when mainframes and traditional supercomputers were
becoming less cost-effective for high performance computing (HPC).
• In 2010, out of top 500 supercomputers. 85% were computer clusters built with
homogeneous nodes.
• Cluster computing has laid the foundation of modern day super computers,
computational grids and cloud computing.
• Important Benefits of Cluster Computing:
o Scalability
o High availability and fault tolerance
o Use of commodity computers
• Cluster Architecture (basic):

Cluster Architecture
Module No – 005: Overview of Grid Computing:

• The grid is an integrated computing infrastructure for bringing together computers to create
a large collection of compute, storage, and network resources.
• Grid is used to solve large-scale computation problems or to enable fast information
retrieval by registered users or user groups.
• Computers include PCs, workstations, server clusters, supercomputers, laptops, notebooks,
mobile computers, PDAs, etc.
• Building virtual grid through CPU scavenging: Creating a grid by using unutilized CPU
cycles in a network of computers at night or periods of inactivity.
o This is done on voluntary basis. The grid hosts donate some RAM, disk space
and network bandwidth as well.
o The most famous example is the SETI@Home which applied over 3 million
computers to achieve 23.37 TFlpos as of Sept. 2001.
• Grid Middle ware Layered Architecture (deployed on participant computers):

Grid Computing Overview

• Application: The top layer consisting of user applications to be run on grid.

• Collective Services: Focus on interaction among the resources. implements functions
such as resource discovery, scheduling, brokering etc.
• Resource service: Deals with the aggregated computing resources (software and
hardware) available for user applications in collective operations.
• Connectivity Layer: Provides the core networking among the computational resources of
fabric layer through physical or virtual networking.
• Grid fabric: Consists of all the computational resources such as storage systems, catalogs,
network resources, servers and their network connections.

Module No – 006: Difference between Cluster, Grid and Cloud Computing:

• The purpose of Grid Computing is to solve large scale computational problems.

• Just like Clusters, except that
 o The Grids make use of computational resources are spread across the nation or
the globe.
o These computational resources are owned by different organizations and are
shared (as grid resources) by multiple users.
o Grids heavily depend upon WAN/LAN resources.
o Virtual Supercomputer term is derived from Grid Computing whereby multiple
computers collaborate over network to create an illusion of a single big
computer.
• As compared to cloud:
o The resources do not join or leave the grid dynamically.
o Majority of the resources are not provisioned from data centers.
o Several organizations may unite to form a grid in the shape of a virtual
organization (VO). For example multiple hospitals and research centers may
collaborate in a VO to find a cure for cancer.

Module No – 042: Business Drivers for Cloud Computing:

• Various business drivers lure the organizations to start using Cloud.

• These include (but not limited to):
o IT Capacity Planning
o Cost Reduction
o Organizational Agility
o IT Capacity Planning:
▪ It is the estimation and fulfillment of future IT requirements of an
organization.
▪ The over provisioning of IT happens when acquired equipment is more
than the estimated requirements. Resulting in over expenditure.
▪ The under provisioning occurs when the equipment turns out to be
inadequate to fulfill the IT requirements of the future.
▪ IT Capacity planning is a difficult job as it should cover the fluctuating
load.
o Usually the companies adopt any of the following strategies:
▪ Lead Strategy: Adding new IT capacity in anticipation of future needs.
▪ Lag Strategy: Adding new IT capacity when the IT resources reach the
full utilization
▪ Match Strategy: Adding IT capacity in small increments.
o The capacity planning may lead to adopting the option of Cloud Computing and
then planning for future needs of Cloud resources rental instead of purchasing
the IT equipment.
o Cost Reduction: The costs include
▪ Cost of acquiring the IT infrastructure
▪ Operational overheads such as technical personnel salaries, upgrades,
utility bills, security, accounts and administrative staff salaries
▪ Why not choose the Cloud instead ?
o Organizational Agility: It is the responsiveness to the change. We consider the
change in IT for this topic.
• A possible shift, upgrade or acquiring a new software may require to upgrade the
hardware.
 o The routine procedures and the business may come to halt or the competitors
may out run if the organization fails to invest in IT just because of lack of
affordability.
• The Cloud on the other hand, just charges for the usage of IT resources, no need to
invest in infrastructure.

Lesson No. 04
BASICS OF COMPUTERS
Module No – 008:

• Mainframe:
o A mainframe is a large, expensive, powerful server that can handle hundreds or
thousands of connected users/servers simultaneously. For example a single
mainframe server of IBM’s Z series can provide the equivalent computing
throughput of at least 500 servers.
o In 1960s and 1970s, the mainframes were leased out by the manufacturers rather
than sold because of enormous cost of ownership.
• Mainframe leasing model:
o The customers were charged on monthly basis for the use of hardware such as
CPU, memory and peripheral devices.
o The software (compilers, editors etc.) usage was charged for the time of usage.
o The mainframe leasers used to develop customized software exclusively for a
client organization and charged for it.
o The client was also charged for the maintenance of those customized software.
o This model still exists in the form of cloud computing.
• Server:
o A server is a computer which provides services to other computers and/or
devices connected to it. Services provided by a server include the controlled
access to hardware and software resources and storage.
o A server can support hundreds and thousands of simultaneous users.
o Servers are available in a variety of sizes and types.
o Web server: stores websites and web apps and provides them on your desktops
and mobiles through web browsers.
o Domain Name Server (DNS): Stores domain names and the corresponding IP
addresses.
o Database server: Hosts database and provides access to data and provides data
manipulation functionality.
• Desktop:
o A desktop is a computer which is designed to remain in a stationary position. It is
used as a personal computer.
o Intended to be used by one person at a time.
o Performs the activities such as
 ▪ Input
▪ Processing
▪ Output
▪ Storage
.

Lesson No. 05
BASICS OF DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Module No – 009:

• Data Communication: Exchange of data over some transmission medium between two
devices.
• The following factors are essential for data communication:
o Data must be delivered to correct destination.
o There must be timely delivery of the data.
o There must not be uneven delay among the packet arrival time during audio or
video transmission.
• Components:
o Message: The data to be sent. Can be text, numbers, pictures, audio and video.
o Sender
o Receiver
o Transmission medium: The physical path through which a message travels from
sender to receiver.
o Protocol: The set of agreed-upon communication-rules between sender and
receiver devices. Two devices can be connected but not communicating without
a protocol.
• Data Representation:
o Text: Represented by bit pattern called code e.g.; Unicode and American
Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).
o Numbers: Directly converted binary of the number. ASCII is not used to
represent numbers.
o Images: Sent as binary patterns. Image is represented by a matrix of pixels. Pixel
is a small dot. Each pixel is assigned a bit pattern on the basis of color.
o Audio: A continuous stream of data. Different from text, numbers and images.
o Video: Can be a continuous stream or a sequence of image combinations.
Module No – 010: Data Flow:

• Data Flow:
o Simplex: Unidirectional communication in which either one of the sender or
receiver device can transmit. For example: key board, monitor etc.
o Half Duplex: Both devices can communicate but one at a time. The entire
capacity of the transmission medium is available to the transmitting device. For
example: walkie-talkies.
o Full Duplex: Both devices can send and receive at the same time. The
transmission medium should provide separate paths (channels) for the
transmission of each device. For example telephone conversation is full duplex.
 Lesson No. 06
BASICS OF COMPUTER NETWORKING
Module No – 011:

• Computer networking was conceived in 1960s soon after the invention of computers.
• A network is a collection of computers and devices connected together through
transmission media.
• Devices:
o Hosts: Large computers, desktops, laptops, cellular phone or security system.
o Connecting devices:
▪ Router: A device which connects the network with other networks.
▪ Switch: A device which connects devices within the network.
▪ Modem: A device which changes the form of data (modulates-
demodulates).
▪
• Network Criteria:
o Performance: It is often evaluated by two metrics:
▪ Throughput (bulk of data transmitted in unit of time) and delay.
▪ Performance: It is often evaluated by two metrics:
• Increasing the throughput may increase the congestion and hence
increase the network delay.
• The transit time (message travel time) and response time (time
between inquiry and response) indicate the network performance
also.
▪ Reliability: It is measured in terms of frequency of network failure, time to
recover from a failure and robustness from disasters.
▪ Security: Protecting data from unauthorized access and damage, and
implementation of security policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses.
• Physical Structures:
o Network Connections: Communication can only take place if the devices are
simultaneously connected to the same communication-path or link or connection.
o Link: A link can be dedicated link (Point to Point) or shared among devices
(multipoint).

Module No – 012: Network Topologies:

• Mesh: Every device has a dedicated point to point link to every other device.
o Advantage: Robustness of network from failure of any link.
 o Disadvantage: The bulk of cabling involved.
• Star: All devices are connected to a central device. Unlike mesh, there is no direct traffic
between any two devices but through the central device such as hub.
o Advantage: Requires only one I/O port in each device as compared to mesh.
o Disadvantage: If the central device fails, the whole network fails.
o
• Bus: A multipoint topology in which one long cable is used a network backbone.
o Advantage: Ease of installation. Requires less cabling than mesh and star.
o Disadvantage: Difficult to extend, signal drops along the length of cable results in
limited number of connections, breaking of backbone cable isolates the network
segments and introduces noise.
• Ring: The devices are connected in the form of ring. Each device acts as repeater.
o Advantages: Easy to expand and alter the network.
o Disadvantage: Failure of a single device can disable the entire network, transmitting
device needs to retain the token signal to perform transmission which slows down
the data rate.

Module No – 013: Network Types:

• Local Area Network (LAN): It is a privately owned network and has a scope of an office,
building or a campus. A LAN can even extend throughout a company.
o Each host in a LAN has a unique identifier or address.
o The communication packets between any two hosts in a LAN contain the source
and destination hosts’ addresses.
o Key features:
▪ Media type: wired/wireless, twisted pair/cable/fiber, radio, infrared
▪ Topologies: Bus, Star, Mesh, Ring, Tree
▪ Bit rate: from 1Mbps to 1Gbps
▪ Unicast, Broadcast, Multicast
o Typical LANs:
▪ Ethernet (CSMA/CD): Carrier Sense with Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (retransmission after collision detection)
▪ Local Talk (CSMA/CA): CSMA with Collision Avoidance (reserve the
media before transmission)
▪ Wireless LAN: IEEE 802.11, Range: < 100 m, Speed: 2Mbps
▪ Token Ring: A token travels around the ring, it must be retained by the
sender computer to send a single packet, 4,6 or 100 Mbps
▪ FDDI: Token ring with fiber optic cable, 100 Mbps
▪ ATM: Star based, uses switch, multiple devices can communicate
simultaneously, 25, 45, 155, 600+ Mbps
• Wide Area Network (WAN): A network that spans large geographical area such as town,
cities, states or even countries. Usually interconnects multiple LANs.
o Unlike LAN which is owned by the user organization, a WAN is normally created
and run by communication companies. It is leased to the user organizations.
o Types: Point to Point (P2P), Switched
 ▪ P2P WAN: Connecting two devices through wired or wireless media eg;
connecting two LANs to form a private internet or internetwork of a
company.
▪ Switched WAN: A network with more than two ends. It is a combination
of several P2P WANs connected by switches.
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): It is a computer network covering a large
geographical area bigger than LAN and smaller than WAN.
o Diameter: 5 to 50 km, several buildings or a whole city
o MAN is not owned by a single organization generally just like WAN. The MAN
equipment are usually owned by a service provider.
o MAN usually provides high speed connectivity to allow sharing regional resources.

Module No – 014: Switching:

• A WAN is a switched network in which a switch connects two links together to forward
data from one network to the other.
• Two common types of switched networks are:
o Circuit-Switched Network: A dedicated physical connection (circuit) is established,
maintained and terminated through a carrier network for each communication
session.
▪ Used extensively by telephone companies. Only useful when all the circuits
are being utilized simultaneously; otherwise the network is being
underutilized.
o Packet-Switched Network: It is a WAN switching method in which a single link is
shared among multiple network devices.
▪ Statistical multiplexing is used to enable devices to share the packet-
switching circuits.
Module No – 015: The Internet History and Accessing the Internet:

• Internet: It is a network of interconnected networks which include:

o Backbones: Large networks owned by communication companies such as PTCL,
AT&T etc.
o Provider Networks: Use the service of backbone for a fee. Connected to backbone
through peering points. Sometimes connected to other provider networks as well.
o Customer Networks: Use the services such as internet connectivity provided by
provider networks and pay a fee to provider for that.
o The Backbones and provider networks are also called Internet Service Providers (ISPs).
o Accessing the Internet:
▪ Telephone Networks: Dial-up service, DSL Service
▪ Cable Networks
▪ Wireless Networks
o Internet today: World Wide Web, Multimedia, Peer-to-Peer Applications

Module No – 016: TCP/IP Suite:

 • TCP/IP Protocol Stack: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) was proposed in 1973 to
ensure a reliable, end-to-end and error free transmission control.
o It was latter split into TCP and Internet Protocol (IP) layers with IP handling the
message routing and TCP performing the error control.
o Since 1981, TCP/IP is included in the operating systems.
o Consists of layers of protocols which paved the way for creating today’s internet.
These layers help in dividing a complex task into several smaller and simpler tasks:
▪ Physical Layer: Deals with transmission of bits into signals and
transmission of signals over the link.
▪ Data-link Layer: Creates the frames of data. Each frame contains the data
and is addressed with the MAC address of the receiving device and also
contains the MAC address of sending device.
▪ Network Layer: Is responsible for host to host communication through
their IP addresses and related protocols. No control for error and
congestion is performed. Packets are called datagrams.
▪ Transport Layer: Responsible for transporting a message from application
program running over source host to corresponding application program
on destination host. Works on port numbers on corresponding hosts. Main
protocols are:
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Provides flow control,
congestion control and error control as it is a connection oriented
protocol.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP): Is light weight and is not
connection oriented.
• TCP Message = segment
• UDP Message = datagram
▪ Application Layer: Consist of programs running on two hosts and
exchanging messages. Applications use these protocols for
communication:
• HTTP
• FTP
• SMTP

Module No – 017: IP Addressing:

• The identifier used in Network layer of TCP/IP suit is the address of the internet
connection of receiver and sender devices.
• IPv4 is a 32 bit universally unique address while IPv6 is the 128 bit universally unique
address.
o Total IPv4 addresses = 232
o Total IPv6 addresses = 2128
• The address is in fact of the connection and may change when the device is moved to
another network.
• A device can have two IP addresses if it has two connections with the internet.
• IP address is usually represented by dotted decimal numbers. For example: IP v4 address:
[Link]
• The IP addresses are allocated by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN) to ISPs and large organizations.
 • Smaller organizations can get IP addresses from ISPs.
• The IP address consists of a prefix part (the Network ID) and postfix part (the Host ID
or the Subnet).
• Classification of IPv4 addresses:
o Class A: 8 bits for Network ID
▪ Total networks 27
▪ Network id starts with ‘0’ binary
▪ First byte: 0 to 127
o Class B: 16 bits for Network ID
▪ Total networks 214
▪ Network id starts with ‘10’ binary
▪ First byte: 128 to 191
o Class C: 24 bits for Network ID
▪ Total networks 221
▪ Network id starts with ‘110’ binary
▪ First byte: 192 to 223
o Class D: Used for multicasting
▪ No prefix or Network ID
▪ First byte: 224 to 239
o Class E: Reserved for future use
▪ First byte: 240 to 255
• Address Masking:
o Classful addressing lead to depletion of IP addresses and/or unused addresses.
o Solution:
▪ Classless addresses with variable sized prefix according to the needs of
organizations
▪ A notation representing the length of prefix is added at the end of a
classless address with a slash ‘/’ to indicate the addresses in a classless
address block.

Module No – 018: IP Addressing:

• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is used to automatically assign IP

addresses from an acquired block of IP addresses.
• Organizations use private IP addressing for the LAN devices and can use Network
Address Translation (NAT) mechanism for having a single or a few registered global IP
address/es for internet communication.
• NAT enabled router replaces the local address of sending device with the registered global
IP address before sending the packets on internet.
• The mapping of incoming internet packets is done through NAT table which contains the
source device local address port number of the program along with corresponding IP
address of internet device.
• The internal network is supposed to initiate the internet communication in NAT
mechanism for mapping to take place.
• Anytime a host or a router needs to find the link-layer address of another host or router
in its network, it broadcasts an Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) request packet with
the destination IP address and its own IP and link level address.
• The destination device replies to the sender device with its link level address.
 • As compared to IPv4, the next generation IP protocol is IPv6. Some important changes
are:
o No more NAT (Network Address Translation)
o No more private address collisions
• As compared to IPv4, the next generation IP protocol is IPv6. Some important changes
are:
o Built-in authentication and privacy support
o Easier administration (no more DHCP required)
o Simplified routing
• There are three categories of IPv6 addresses:
o Unicast address: For a single connection
o Multicast address: For a set of interfaces, one message transmitted to all.
o Anycast address: For a group of interfaces, one message transmitted to a single
interface

Module No – 019: Ethernet:

• It is a popular LAN technology for data-link and physical layers.

• Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) developed an Ethernet standard
known as IEEE Standard 802.3
• TCP/IP does not specify any protocols for data-link and physical layers. It accepts all the
protocols working at these layers.
• Ethernet was developed in 1970s and since then it has gone through four generations. This
evolution is in fact the reason of vast implementation of Ethernet in the world.
• Data rate 10 Mbps
• Connectionless
• No flow control
• No error control
• No retransmission and acknowledgement
• Hence unreliable like IP and UDP
• Uses link-layer addresses (the 48 bit MAC address)
• CRC is present but corrupted frames are simply discarded by receiver
• Each frame is of 64-1518 bytes of length including 46-1500 bytes of data
• CSMA/CD is used
• Unicast address: Significant bit of first byte is 0
• Multicast address: Significant bit of first byte is 1
• Broadcast address: All 48 bits are 1s.
• Note: All devices on Ethernet receive all the messages but keep only those that are
addressed according to above.
• Standard Ethernet types:
o Bridged
o Switched
o Full duplex switches
• Fast Ethernet:
o Next generation of standard Ethernet
o Raised speed to 100 Mbps
o Downward compatible with standard Ethernet (speed is reduced for compatibility)
 o Same 48 bit addressing
o Frame format is same as of standard Ethernet
o Uses star topology for connecting three or more devices using switch or hub
• Gigabit Ethernet:
o 1Gbps speed
o Compatible with standard and fast Ethernet
o Star topology using hub or switch
o Up to 5 kilometers range
• 10 Gigabit Ethernet:
o 10 Gbps speed
o Compatible with standard and fast Ethernet
o Increases the range to tens of kilometers
o Possibility to interconnect LANs

Module No – 020: Wired LAN vs. Wireless LAN:

• Wired LAN:
o Medium: Wires
o Broadcasting and multicasting possible when required
o Physical connection to network
o Hosts are connected through link layer switch
o Connection to other networks through router
• Wireless LAN
o Medium: Air
o All devices are broadcasting
o No physical connection to network
o No link layer switch exists
o Connected to other networks through access point (a device that connects a
wireless and wired network)
• IEEE 802.11
o It is a wireless LAN standard by IEEE that covers physical and data-link layers
o Synonyms: WiFi, Wireless LAN
o Basic architecture consists of an access point (AP) and capable devices connected
to Access Point (AP
o In the absence of AP, the wireless devices connect to form adhoc network
o Multiple overlapping APs are used to cover a larger area
o A device is connected to only one of the nearest APs
o CSMA/CA is used. The sender sends a Request To Send (RTS) packet, the receiver
sends Clear To Send (CTS) packet, the sender sends data after receiving CTS, the
receiver sends acknowledgement, the other senders can send now.
o If no CTS is received, the sender marks it as a collision
o 802.11 a, b, g, n
o 802.11a: 50 feet, 22 Mbps
o 802.11b: 100 feet, 11 Mbps
o 802.11g: 100 feet, 54 Mbps
o 802.11n: 50 feet, 700 Mbps (to be implemented)

Module No – 021: Bluetooth:

 • It is a wireless LAN technology that provides short distance connectivity to devices which
have different functionalities for example, mobile phones, headsets, notebooks, desktops,
computer peripheral devices, cameras and even the home appliances.
• Multiple devices can be connected through Bluetooth to form a piconet
• Bluetooth supports:
o Voice and data transmission
o Adhoc networking for up to 10 meters
• Multiple devices can be connected through Bluetooth to form a piconet
• IEEE standard 802.15 covers the Personal Area Network (PAN) using Bluetooth for an
area covering a room
• Versions:
o 1.x: up to 1Mbps, obsolete
o 2.x: up to 3 Mbps, improved pairing capability between devices from different
manufacturers
o 3.x: up to 24 Mbps using WiFi 802.11
o 4.x: Up to 24 Mbps, works seamlessly with 4G, works with data collection from
sensors an internet of things (IoT)

Module No – 022: WiMAX:

• WiMax stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access

• Provides wireless access to Internet for: Homes and offices when the wired access is either
not available or is expensive (fixed WiMAX)
• Mobile phones (mobile WiMAX)
• Fixed WiMAX requires the installation of antennas at the premises of the subscriber to
receive and send the data from the base station of Internet provider.
• Mobile WiMAX users move from one place to another while connected to the base station
of Internet provider .
• WiMAX is the result of IEEE 802.16 project. It is a standard for wireless WAN (or MAN).
The subscriber station may be tens of kilometers away from the base station of the
provider.
• Remember that 802.11 is the standard for wireless LAN.
• Uses 48-bit MAC address of subscriber station and base station at Data-link layer
• Connection oriented protocol. Each connection has a unique id and hence there is no
address field in the frame of WiMAX
• Full duplex communication

Module No – 023: Evolution of Cellular Networks:

• Cellular network or telephony is a radio-based technology

• Radio waves are electromagnetic waves propagated by antennas
• Note: Antenna is a transducer device which converts the altering current into radio waves
and vice versa
• 7 billion mobile connections
• 25 billion interconnected devices count predicted in 2020
• Over 100 billion downloads completed in 2013, 270 billion expected in 2017
• The base stations receive from and transmit to cellular phones.
• Cellular Networks have evolved from first generation (1G) to fifth generation (5G). Let us
briefly look at these generations:
o 1G
▪ Invented around 1980.
▪ First implementation in Tokyo (Japan)
▪ Based upon analog technology
▪ Expanded to cover all the population of Japan in few years
▪ Not secure
▪ Anyone with an all-band radio can listen to calls and get the phone number
of the subscriber
▪ Analog mobiles were larger in size and heavy in weight
o 2G
▪ Invented in 1991, implemented first time in Finland
▪ Technologies: Global System for Mobile (GSM) Communication, General
Packet Radio Service (GPRS), Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA) [digital signal] and Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution
(EDGE)
▪ Short Messaging Service (SMS), Multi-Media Messaging Service (MMS
▪ Typical data rate: 100 Kbps
▪ Email, Web browsing, Camera phones
▪ Signal strength decay problem, performance degrades with the rise in
number of users in a cell (area maintained by a base station)
o 3G
▪ From 2000 to 2010
▪ Technologies: CDMA, WLAN, Bluetooth, Universal Mobile
telecommunication Systems (UMTS), High Speed Downlink Packet
Access (HSDPA)
▪ Features: Global Roaming Clarity in voice calls, Fast Communication,
Internet, Mobile T.V, Video Conferencing, Video Calls, Multi
Media Messaging Service (MMS), 3D gaming and Multiplayer-
Gaming, smart phones
▪ Typical data rate: Up to a few Mbps
▪ Expensive mobile phones, battery life issue
o 4G
▪ Since 2010
▪ Technologies: Long Term Evolution (LTE) Standard based on the
GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA, Multiple In Multiple Output
(MIMO) smart antenna technology, Orthogonal Frequency Digital
Multiplexing (OFDM), WiMAX
▪ Typical data rate: Up to a few tens of Mbps
▪ MAGIC: Mobile multimedia–Anytime anywhere–Global mobile support–
Integrated wireless solutions–Customized personal service
▪ Maintaining data rate is an issue, not fully implemented in all the world,
battery consumption is a bigger problem than 3G
o 5G
▪ To be implemented
▪ Technologies: New releases of LTE
▪ Faster data rate than 4G (> 1Gbps), higher data rate at cell edges
▪ Research is still in progress
Module No – 024: Connecting Devices:

• These are the devices used to connect:

o Hosts to form LANs
o LANSs to implements WANs and Internet
• The class of each device depends upon the layer/s on which it operates. That is:
o Hub: Physical layer
o Link-layer Switch: Physical layer, Data-link layer
o Router: Network layer, Data-link layer, Physical layer
• Hub
o It is a multiport repeater device used in star topology.
o A repeater device regenerates the signal before it become too weak or corrupted.
o The hub repeats the signal received from any port ‘A’ to all the other ports except
the port ‘A’ (broadcasting)
o This is because the hub is a physical layer device. It does not has its own MAC
address and can not access the data-link layer address (MAC address) of the data
frames.
• Switch
o It is a multiport bridge device.
o A bridge joins two logical segments of the same network and intelligently forwards
the packets from one segment to other on the basis of destination MAC address
and forwarding table.
o It is a two layer device. It performs functionality on data-link layer as well as it
regenerates the signals it receives.
o A data-link layer switch works by maintaining a switching table and forwarding the
packets received from a port ‘A’ only to the destination port ‘B’.
o Switching table consists of MAC address of the hosts arranged according to the
port numbers to which they are attached. It is consulted before forwarding a
packet.
o Switches perform learning to fill the switching table by reading the MAC address
of sending device for each port.
o Broadcast packets are forwarded to all ports
o In a situation when two LANs are connected through more than one switch then
the looping problem can arise.
• Looping
o The frame/s sent by one host ‘X’ in LAN1 to a host ‘Y’ in LAN2 will go through
multiple switches and get duplicated when reaching the destination host.
o Reason: The switches generically forward the frame received for an unregistered
MAC to all the ports (except the sender’s port).
• Advantages of Switch
o Collision elimination
o Connecting heterogeneous devices (in terms of data rate capacity)
• Router
o It is a three layer device:
o Physical (regenerating the signals)
o Data-link layer(checking the MAC addresses of source and destination)
o It is a three layer device:
▪ Network layer (checks the IP addresses of source and destination, connects
multiple networks to form bigger networks)
 o Has multiple interfaces. Each interface has a MAC address and IP address.
o A router:
o Only processes those packets which are addressed to the interface at which they
arrive.
o Has multiple interfaces. Each interface has a MAC address and IP address.
o A router changes the source and destination MAC address when it forwards the
packets.
• Virtual LAN (VLAN):
o A logical (not physical) segment of a physical LAN.
o VLANs are defined by software. Each VLAN is a work group in an organization,
has a VLAN ID and receives the broadcast messages addressed to its own ID.
o A VLAN may span over multiple switches in a LAN.
o No need to update the physical topology to relocate a person from one VLAN to
other, just the software configuration is to be updated.

Module No – 025: Routing:

• In a physical network, multiple LANs and WANs are joined together by the routers.
• Hence there can be more than one route between two hosts.
• Routing is a service of Network layer to find the best route.
• Routing is performed by applying routing protocols and using the decision tables called
routing tables in each router.
• Forwarding is the action performed by a router on the basis of routing protocol and routing
table according to the destination address of each packet received at any interface.
• At network layer, each message from higher layer is broken down into packets.
• A router performs packet switching.
• Types of routing:
o Unicast routing: A router forwards the packet to only one of the attached networks.
o Multicast routing: A packet is forwarded to multiple attached networks.
• Routing a packet from a source host to destination host can also be defined as routing a
packet from a source router (the default router of the source host) to a destination router
(the router connected to the destination network) through the intermediate routers using
routing algorithms.
• Types of routing:
o Connectionless routing: All packets of the same message are treated independently and
may or may not follow the same route.
o Connection oriented routing: All the packets of same message are labeled and routed
through a virtual circuit or a fixed route.
• An internet can be considered as a graph with each network as an edge and each router as
a node.
• In a weighted graph, each edge has a weight or cost.
• Least cost routing can be performed. Example algorithms: Distance-Vector routing, Link-
State routing

Lesson No. 07
ADVANCED TOPICS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
Module No – 026: Broadband Networks & Internet:

• All clouds are inherently dependent upon internetworking or Internet for ubiquitously
remote provisioning of IT resources.
• The cloud providers and consumers connect to Internet through ISPs.
• The largest backbone networks of the Internet are strategically interconnected by core
routers.
• The core-routers connect the international networks.
• The Internet has become a dynamic and complex aggregate of ISPs.
• There is a hierarchical topology for worldwide interconnectivity composed of tiers.
• There are three tiers of worldwide connectivity:
o Tier 1 consists of large-scale international connectivity providers.
o Tier 2 consists of large regional ISPs connected to tier 1.
o Tier 3 consists of local ISP providers connected to tier 2.
• The cloud providers and users connect directly to tier 3 providers.

Module No – 027: Internet Architecture & Cloud Deployment:

• Internet supports the remote provisioning of IT resources.

• Cloud relies heavily upon Internet.
• The connectivity of end-users of cloud depends upon how the centralized resources of
cloud are deployed.
• The cloud resources deployment can be either on-premises or Internet based.
• In cloud deployment using the on-premises, the provider sets up a fully controlled
corporate network and a corporate Internet connection for the deployment of IT solutions
and applications.
• In the on-premises deployment, the internal users access the cloud through corporate
network. The remote users connect through internet by using virtual private network
(VPN).
• A VPN creates a secure connection between a remote device and the corporate servers
over the internet as if the device is inside the LAN.
• For the internet based deployment, the cloud provider has an Internet connection and al
the internal and external users access the cloud resources through cloud provider’s internet
connection.
• In this deployment, there is an extra charge for internet connectivity.

Module No – 028: Scalable Computing over Internet:

• Scalable computing may refer to the dynamic resizing of the available computing resources
(processing, memory, bandwidth, storage etc.) with demand.
• The growth of users and user demands for scalable computing over internet has been
accompanied with matching growth in network, computing and resource management
technologies.
• The computing platforms have evolved as follows
o Mainframes (1950-70)
 o Minicomputers (1960-1980)
o Personal computers (1970-1990)
o Portable computers (1980-2000)
• Since 1990, the High Performance Computing (HPC) and High Throughput Computing
(HTC) have been relying upon clusters, grids and the Internet clouds.
• The speed for HPC systems (supercomputers) has increased from Gflops in early 1990s
to now Pflops in 2010.
• The network bandwidth has been doubling each year in the recent past (Gilder’s law).
• Processor speed has been doubling every 18 months (Moore’s law).
• Means that there has been a steady growth in these technologies.
• Fine grain (instruction level) parallelism and coarse grain (job level) parallelism are
available.
• Ubiquitous computing is what refers to computing at any place and time using pervasive
devices and wired or wireless communications.
• Utility computing works upon a business model in which the customers pay for
computational resources from a provider.
• Cloud computing provides ubiquitous utility computing.

Module No – 029: Technologies for Network based Systems:

• The processor speed and network bandwidth have shown a remarkable growth in last few
decades.
• The processor clock rate has risen from 10 MHz in 1970s to over 4GHz in 2010s.
• The network band has increased from 10 Mbps to over 100,000 Mbps
• The excessive heat generation from single processor core with high frequency has limited
the maximum speed unless the chip technology matured.
• This has lead to the multi-core architecture of CPUs with dual, quad, six or more cores.
• The graphical processing unit (GPU) development has adopted a many-core architecture
with hundreds to thousands of cores.
• Modern architecture of CPUs and GPUs have enhanced the instruction level parallelism
(ILP) and the volume of millions of instructions per second (MIPS).
• Sun’s Niagara CPU can provide 64 count for ILP.
• Intel’s Core i7 990x can provide 159,000 MIPS execution rate
• The CPUs and GPUs are multithreaded, which means that each core can execute multiple
processes or threads concurrently.
• A GPU unit has far more (but slower) cores than a multi-core CPU
• The DRAM memory chip capacity has increased from 16 KB in 1976 to 64 GB in 2011.
• The hard disk capacity has increased from 260 MB in 1981 to 3TB a few years ago.
• The flash memory and solid-state drives are rapidly evolving.
• Disk arrays are being utilized to enhance the storage.
• Servers can be connected to network storage such as disk arrays through storage area
network (SAN)
• A disk array can be connected to client hosts through network attached storage (NAS)
• The high bandwidth networks in WAN scope can connect the host computers to network
storage.
 • A single host can be shared among multiple instances of operating systems through
virtualization technology. More on this latter.

Module No – 030: Web 2.0

• It is the second generation of world wide web.

• Lets people collaborate and share comments, media and information online.
• The web pages progressed from static to dynamic and interactive.
• Through Asynchronous Javascript and XML or Ajax, the web applications can send and
receive data from a web server without interfering with the display and behavior of the
existing page.
• Social networking and community oriented sites have emerged
• For example [Link], [Link], [Link] etc.
• Users can contribute in web based blogs, wikis, online training, online education etc.
• Really Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds continuously keep the subscribers informed about
news, follow up updates and products.
• Users can do online chatting and share files through messenger tools such as Yahoo
messenger, Skype, WhatsApp etc.

Module No – 031: Virtual Private Network (VPN):

• A VPN extends a private network over public network and enables the users to
communicate as if their devices are directly connected to the private network.
• A VPN creates a secured and encrypted network over a less secured network such as the
Internet.
• Normally a VPN is provided and managed by a service provider.
• VPN allows the corporate employees to securely access the applications hosted over
enterprise LAN.
• VPN is based upon IP tunneling.
• IP tunneling, or port forwarding is the transmission of private network packets over a
public network (Internet) as the payload of public network packets such that the routing
devices do not come to know about this.
• There are many protocols for VPN establishment and encryption: IP Security (IPSec),
Secure Socket Layer(SSL), Point-To-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP), Multiprotocol
Label Switching (MPLS) etc.
• VPN although provide secured connectivity to extend a private network but the
implementation may have performance issues.
• VPN is implementable over Layer 1-3.
• Types of VPN:
o Remote-access VPN: A VPN client on user’s device connected to VPN gateway
of the enterprise.
o Site-to-site VPN: Establishes a VPN between two networks over the Internet by
using VPN gateway.
• VPN technology provides access to cloud resources. The VPN gateway exists in the cloud
with a secure link provided by the cloud provider.
Module No – 032: Networking Structure of Cloud Hosting Data center:

• At the core of a cloud is a cluster of VMs/ physical servers.

• There can be tens of thousands of physical servers in a data center.
• With each physical server hosting multiple VMs, the cloud hosting networking structure
becomes a little complicated.
• The cluster nodes are used for computations. Some nodes are used for workload allocation,
some for monitoring and some for load balancing.
• Some node called gateway nodes provide the interface of cloud service/s to the outside world
(through internet).
• Cloud hosting data center has a layered architecture for the Internet access.
• The servers are physically connected to layer 2 switches. There is a top of rack (TOR) in
each rack. One server is connected to only one TOR switch.
• The TORs are connected to aggregate switches (AGS).
• The AGSs provide the cross rack inter VM connectivity.
• There are a few access routers (AR) and border routers (BR) at layer 3.
• The layer 2 AGSs are connected to BR through AR.
• The BRs are connected to Internet.
• Some problems solved by the hypervisor solutions:
o The VMs hosted on one server may belong to different vLANs.
o A single vLAN may span over multiple data centers.
o A company may own multiple data centers and may want to migrate the VMs
across data centers.
 Lesson No. 08
VIRTUALIZATION
Module No – 033:

• Virtualization is a technology used to enhance the utilization of computing resources.

• A single hardware machine is multiplexed among multiple virtual machines (VMs).
• A software based virtual machine monitor/manager (VMM) or hypervisor is a program
that manages the hardware resources for the VMs and also keeps each VM from disrupting
other VMs.
• Virtualization imple3entation levels:
o Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) level: Executing legacy code over new machines
using ISA emulator tool such as an interpreter which translate one instruction of
source code into corresponding instruction of the target machine.
o Hardware Abstraction level: The hardware components (CPU, RAM, Disk, NIC)
of a physical system are virtualized and shared among virtual machines using
Virtual Machine Monitor (VMM) tool or hypervisor which performs as abstraction
layer.
 o Operating System Level: The OS running over a server accommodates multiple
containers or VMs. The host operating system acts as the abstraction layer between
hardware and the containers.
o Library support level: The API calls for hardware acceleration such as vCUDA
stubs for graphic processing units (GPUs) are available at VM level.
o Application level: An application acts as a VM through wrapping of application in
an abstraction layer which isolates it from OS and other applications. Another type
is using virtualization layer as programming environment e.g; Java Virtual Machine
(JVM).

Module No – 034: Virtualization Structures:

• We know that the virtualization layer transforms the physical hardware into virtual hardware.
There are three classes of VM architectures.
o Hypervisor Architecture:
▪ It is the hardware level virtualization. Also called the bare-metal
virtualization
▪ The hypervisor sits between the hardware and the VMs and manages the
VMs.
▪ Example: Xen, VMware
o Full-virtualization Architecture:
▪ The guest operating system (OS) or the VM’s OS does not know that it is
installed on a VM.
▪ The Virtualization layer manages the hardware acceleration. For example
VMware
▪ The virtualization layer can be installed on hardware or on host’s OS.
▪ Some of the instructions of a gust VM are directly run on hardware to
enhance the performance.
o Para-virtualization Architecture:
▪ The guest OS is modified to comply with virtualization layer. All calls for
hardware acceleration are handled by virtualization layer.
▪ For example: KVM

Module No – 035: Virtualization Architectures:

• Hypervisor transforms the physical hardware into virtual hardware.

• Virtualization Architectures:

o Generic:
o Monolithic:

o Microkernel:

o Full Virtualization:
o Para Virtualization:

o Native Virtualization Architecture:

o Hosted Virtualization Architecture:

Module No – 035: Virtualization of CPU, Memory and I/O Devices:

• To support virtualization, processors such as x86 architecture use a special mode and
instructions known as hardware-assisted virtualization.
• In this way, the hypervisor is able to trap the sensitive instructions of the guest OS and its
applications.
• The modern processors allow multiple processes to run simultaneously. Any process can
execute a critical instruction to crash the whole system.
• Therefore, the critical instructions are executed in privileged or supervisor mode of the
processor. The OS controls this mode on behalf of the processes being executed.
• The second type of instructions are non-privileged or non-critical instructions which are
run in user-mode of the processor.
• CPU Virtualization: A CPU is virtualizable if it is able to run the privileged and un-
privileged instructions of a VM in user mode and the hypervisor running in supervisor
mode.
• Memory Virtualization: Traditionally, the OS performs the mapping of virtual memory to
machine memory by using page tables.
• The modern x86 CPUs include the memory management unit (MMU) and translation lookaside
buffer (TLB) to optimize virtual memory performance.
• However, in virtualization environment, the memory virtualization involves the sharing
and dynamic allocation of physical memory of the system to the physical memory of the
VMs.
• The guest OS performs the virtual to physical memory mapping of the VM, while the
hypervisor performs mapping of physical memory to machine memory.
• I/O Virtualization:
o It is done in either of the three ways:
▪ Full device emulation: The device is emulated in software located in
hypervisor. The hypervisor interacts with the real device. The VM interacts
with the virtual device.
▪ Para-virtualization based I/O: The guest OS interacts with the device
through its frontend driver. The frontend driver interacts with a backend
driver of the device. The backend driver interacts with the device.
▪ Direct I/O virtualization: This type of I/O virtualization allows the VMs
to directly access the device.
Module No – 036: Virtual Clusters:

• A virtual cluster consists of several VMs hosted on a physical cluster.

• The VMs are interconnected through a virtual network across multiple physical networks.
• The nodes can be physical or virtual machines and can grow or shrink dynamically.
• The failure of a host can make the hosted VMs unavailable but the virtual cluster does not
collapse.
• The failure of a VM does not fails the host.
• A physical cluster may host multiple virtual clusters.
• A virtual cluster may span over multiple physical cluster.
• In order to deploy a virtual cluster, several VMs with installed OS and application software
are required.
• The deployment time is to be as quick as possible.
• Templates can be used to deploy the VMs from.
• A template is a disk image with preinstalled OS with or without certain applications.
• A suitable template can be copied as disk image of a VM. This saves time of installing and
configuring.
• When the VM is ready and up, it is deployed to a suitable host.
• The VM then joins a virtual cluster.
• All of the above can be done manually as well as full or partially automated.
• Reasons of virtualization:
o Sharing of resources
o Isolation of users of shared resource
o Aggregation of smaller resources into a single big virtual resource (e.g., Storage)
o Dynamic relocation/provisioning of virtual resources is easier than physical
resources
o Easier management of virtual resources/devices/machines.

Module No – 037: Virtual Machine (VM) Migration:

• VMs can be migrated from one host to another for:

o Server Load balancing
o Server consolidation
o Remedy for failover hosts and VMs
o Remedy for resource shortage for a VM
• A VM can be in any of the following states:
o Powered-off
o Suspended
o Paused
o Powered-on
• The following options are available for VM migration:
o Cold migration: The VM has to be powered-off before migration.
o Warm migration: Suspended VM migration.
o Live migration: For powered-on VM with zero downtime and full availability.
• A VM is made of two basic components:
o VM state: The processor and RAM contents
 o Virtual hard disk: Residing on network storage or on host’s hard disk
• Live migration of VM means zero downtime of OS, connectivity and applications running
on the VM.
• For live migration, the VM state is to be copied from source to destination host. The virtual
disk can also be migrated through live storage migration feature of the hypervisor.
• Modern day hypervisors provide unbroken network connectivity of the VM during live
migration.
• During the live migration, the state and storage of the VM keeps on working on source
host to avoid down-time.
• For live migration of a VM with the virtual hard disk on network accessed shared storage,
the virtual hard disk need not to be copied if the destination host can access that network
based storage.
• Migrating the virtual hard disk is time consuming as well as network bandwidth consuming
due to multi-Gigabyte migration.
• A better solution is to use the network storage.

Module No – 038 Virtualization for Data Center Automation:

• A data center is a facility with networked computers and is used by businesses and other
organizations to process, store and share large amounts of data.
• Companies like Google, Yahoo, Amazon, Microsoft, IBM, HP, Apple etc. have invested
billions of dollars for constructing the data centers.
• Data center automation refers to the dynamic provisioning of hardware and software
resources to millions of users simultaneously.
• Data centers can host Clouds.
• Data center automation is triggered by the growth of virtualization products.
• The data center owner has three major considerations:
o Assuring Performance and QoS
o Increase resource utilization
o Saving costs
• Enhanced resource allocation (to jobs and/or VMs) may be performed in data centers to
assure performance and QoS.
• The over allocation of computing resources may result in decrease in average utilization of
these resources.
• This also leads to increased costs due to power consumption.
• Example: A VM hosted on a server with 1.5 GHz *4 cores and 16 GB of RAM is allocated
1.5GHz * 2 vCPUS, 4 GB vRAM (half of the processing and 1/4th RAM).
• Suppose if there are two such VMs. But the overall average workload of the hosted VMs
keeps the physical utilization to less than 50%. This is a resource wastage as 50% of the
resources remain idle.
• Server consolidation is a technique by which more VMs are aggregated on a single server (by
migrating jobs/VMs to it) while assuring performance and QoS.
o This increases the resource utilization across data center.
o More servers are available to take more workload. . Otherwise, the idle servers can
be shut down to save power.
• Virtualization technology also helps in setting of virtual storage (over VMs) to offer virtual
disks to other VMs.
 • Virtualization can synchronize with cloud management systems to dynamically provision
cloud services and billing systems.
• Hence, virtualization is essential for Cloud computing.

Module No – 040: Network Virtualization:

• Multiple virtual Network Interface Cards (vNIC) are linked to physical NIC or pNIC
through a virtual Switch (vSwitch) inside a hypervisor.

VM 1 VM 2 VM 3

vNIC vNIC vNIC

vSwitch

pNIC
Network Virtualization

• A virtual network consists of virtual nodes and virtual links.

• Network virtualization establishes the coexistence of multiple virtual networks.
• Network virtualization proposes the decoupling of traditional ISP functionalities such as
infrastructure setup and management from the creation and management of virtual networks.
• It is possible to use physical infrastructures of multiple providers to dynamically compose
virtual network/s.
• Network virtualization technologies:
o Virtual Local Area Network (VLAN): Logically grouping the hosts with common
interest into a single broadcasting domain.
o Virtual Private Networks (VPN): A dedicated communications network of
enterprise/s and user/s by using tunneling over public networks (Internet).

Lesson No. 09
ESSENTIAL CHARATERISTICS OF CLOUD COMPUTING
Module No – 041:
 • On-demand self-service: The user can automatically be allocated the computing resources
without any manual operations (except the initial signing up process). The cloud
management software handles the resource management and provisioning.
• Broad Network Access: The cloud resources can be accessed through network through
broad range of wired and wireless devices. Various connectivity technologies are available.
• Resource pooling: Resources (Computing, memory, storage, network) are available in
volumes and therefore can be pooled. The resources can be physical or virtual. Multiple
users can simultaneously share these resources through dynamic allocation and
reallocation.
• Rapid elasticity: The cloud resources are virtually unlimited. So much so, the provisioning
of these resources can shrink and expand elastically according to demand.
• Measured Service: The resource usage is charged by the provider from users, according to
usage.
Module No – 042: Revisiting NIST Definition of Cloud Computing

“Cloud computing is a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand

network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g.,
networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly
provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider
interaction.”

National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST) USA

• Cloud computing can fulfill the business drivers such as
o IT Capacity Planning
o Cost Reduction
o Organizational Agility

Module No – 043: Some key terms about Cloud Computing:

• Some key terms and concepts essential for understanding Cloud Computing course:
o IT Resources
o On-premises
o Cloud Consumers
o Cloud Providers
• Cloud IT Resources: Can be physical or virtual resources (virtual resources are
implemented in software):
o Physical/Virtual machines/servers
o Physical/virtual storage
• On-premises: An IT resource which is hosted/located at the enterprise's premises.
o It is different from a Cloud resource since a Cloud resource is hosted on Cloud.
o An on-premises IT resource can be connected to a Cloud resource and/or can be
moved to a Cloud.
o However the distinction is difficult for private clouds.
• Cloud Providers: The party providing the cloud-based IT resources.
• Cloud Consumer: The user of cloud-based IT resources is called cloud consumer.