CHAPTER 15

Homeostasis

 Explain the phenomenon of Osmoregulation in Plants.

Osmoregulation in Plants:-
Plants are distributed in different habitats of aquatic, moderate and severely dry
terrestrial nature, thus termed as hydrophytes, mesophytes and xerophytes,
respectively.
Hydrophytes:-The aquatic plants are called hydrophytes.
Adaptations:- These have the adaptations to remove the flooding of its cells in fresh
water.
 The surface area of leaves is very large to transpire water excessively.
 Extensive stomata are present on the upper surface facing the atmosphere to
promote loss of water.
Example:-Hydrilla
Mesophytes:-The plants living in moderate supply of water are called mesophytes.
Adaptations:-
 In sufficient supply of water stomata are kept open to promote loss of excess
water.
 in restricted supply stomata close to prevent the loss
Examples:-Brassica, rose, mango etc.
Xerophytes:-The plants living in severely dry terrestrial environment are called
xeroplhytes.
Adaptations:- Xerophytes have the adaptations for reduced rate of transpiration.
 Many xerophytes possess small, thick leaves to limit water loss by reducing
surface area proportional to the volume.
 Their cuticle is thick, waxy and leathery.
 Stomata are on lower surface of leaves and located in depression.
 Some as cacti, during the driest season, shed their leaves to restrict transpiration
completely, thus stems are the photosynthetic organs. In rainy season, stem stores
water for use in dry conditions.
Examples:-Cactus, Euphorbia
 Describe Osmoregulation of animals in different environments.
Or
 How Osmoregulation occurs in fresh and marine water animals?

Osmoregulation in Different Environments

Marine environment:-
Marine invertebrates:-Most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers.

Hag fishes:-Hagfishes are isotonic with the surrounding sea’s water

Cartilaginous fishes:-Most cartilaginous fishes maintain lower, internal salt

concentration than that of seawater. Their kidneys for osmoregulation excrete salts

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through gills and also possess salt excreting organs such as rectal glands. These
employ active transport mechanism to remove salt against osmotic gradient.
Urea retaining fishes:-Some fishes have relatively low salts in body fluids but have
rendered these hypertonic to that of seawater by retaining urea in adequate
concentration. Because urea in high concentration is damaging so these fishes retain
another chemical trimethylamine oxide(TMAO) for protection against urea
Bony fishes:-Bony fishes, the descendants of fresh water ancestors but later became
marine constantly lose water from their hypotonic body fluids to hypertonic
environments. These fishes have adapted themselves to drink large amount of seas
water and excrete concentrated urine resulting in maximum salt excretion and
minimum water loss.

Fresh water environment:-

Fresh water animals are constantly facing the osmotic flooding of body fluids and
loss of salts.
Protozoa:- Fresh water protozoa, Amoeba and Paramecium pump out excess water
by structures contractile vacuoles.
Fresh water fishes:-Many fresh water animals including fishes remove excess water
by producing large volumes of very dilute urine. The loss of salts is compensated by
preference of salt containing food and by active uptake of salts by gills and skin
Terrestrial environment:-
Problems in Terrestrial environment:-The evaporative loss of water leading to
dehydration is the major problem for terrestrial life.
Adaptations:-Arthropods and vertebrates have successfully adapted to terrestrial
mode of life.
Waxy exoskeleton and Keratinized skin:-Terrestrial animals are covered by body
surface, which prevents loss of water as the waxy exoskeletons of insects and multi-
layered dead, keratinized skin cells of most terrestrial vertebrates.
Compensatory diet:-Drinking and eating moist foods compensate the loss of water.
These animals also have metabolic and behavioral adaptations. Some desert mammals
e.g. kangaroo rat survives without drinking water by feeding on seeds of desert plants
containing more carbohydrates, which produce water of metabolism.
Concenterated urine:-Terrestrial animals produce concentrate urine in their kidneys
that reabsorb most filtered water in the process of excretion.
Anhydrobiosis:-Terrestrial animals can tolerate dehydration and it differs in various
animals. This characteristic is known as anhydrobiosis.

 Explain Excretion in plants.

Excretion in Plants:- All living things must undergo [Link] is one of the
essential properties of [Link] plants, oxygen could be looked upon as a waste product
of photosynthesis;carbon dioxide a waste product of respiration and water as the
waste product of both. Different mechanisms for the elimination of these gases are
present in plants. Water is lost through transpiration or just used for maintaining the
turgor in the cells.
Vacuoles:-Plant cells have large vacuoles; these can be used for either storage of
useful compounds, or the storage of waste substances. These may accumulate at the
concentrations that lead to crystal formation in the vacuoles.

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Leaves:-The leaves are the prominent organs for excretion. These leaves are destined
to fall off, as is the case of autumn leaves in plants or die off as happens in the leaves
and stalk of certain bulbs [Link], leaving the bulb underground.

This is the reason gardener find rotted autumn leaves a good source of minerals. The
falling of yellow leaves in autumn is the seasonal time for the plants to get rid of the
accumulated wastes and because of the reason leaves are said to be excretophore.

According to an explanation the change in color in these leaves is not due to removal
of chlorophyll as the microscopic examination of autumn leaves shows that leaves
are loaded with pigmented compounds prior to falling off and many toxic materials
like heavy metals increase sharply as the yellowing proceeds.
Old xylem:-Some trees deposit strange chemicals in their branches and trunks,
especially in old xylem which is no longer used for water transport. This takes place
in ebony which produces very black wood in the [Link] are considered to be,
waste materials by plant physiologists.
Roots:-Some plants will actively secrete waste compounds into the soil, occasionally
using them as chemical weapons against other competing plants e.g conifers.

 Discuss excretion in Planaria

Excretion in Planaria:-

Protonephridia:-Planaria the animals of the group of flatworms have simple tubular

excretory system called protonephridium. A protonephridium is a network of closed
tubules without internal openings
Flame cells:-Tubular system is spread throughout the body and branches are capped
by a cellular setup termed as flame cell. Each flame cell has a tuft of cilia, whose
beating propels interstitial fluid into the tubular system (The beating of cilia looks like
a flickering flame, therefore these cells are termed flame cells)
Nephridiopores:-The tubular system is drained into excretory ducts, which open to
the exterior through several nephridiopores.
Disposal of nitrogenous wastes:-Fresh water flatworms excrete very dilute urine.
The parasitic flatworms, which are isotonic to the host environment mainly function
in disposing nitrogenous wastes.

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 Account the excretory system in earthworm.

Excretion in Earthworm:-
Metanephridium:-Earthworm is an ideal example of another type of tubular
excretory system called as metanephridium. Each segment of earthworm has a pair of
metanephridia.
Nephrostome:-This system has an internal ciliated opening the nephrostome
immersed in coelomic fluid and enveloped by a network of capillaries. Nephrostome
collects coelomic fluid.
Formation of urine:-As fluid moves along the tubule, epithelium reabsorbs salt
from the lumen and sends to blood vessels surrounding the nephridium. The left over
appears as urine containing nitrogenous waste

Excretory system in Earthworm

 Discuss excretion in Cockroach.

Excretion in Cockroach:-
Malphigian tubules:-Terrestrial arthropods particularly in the insects, the excretory
structures are adapted to collect excretory products from hemolymph in sinuses
through suspended tubular structures called Malpighian tubules.
Mechanism of excretion:-The Malpighian tubules remove nitrogenous waste from
the hemolymph. These are the only excretory structures in animal kingdom that are
associated with digestive tract. The epithelial lining of the tubules transports solutes
including salts and nitrogenous waste from haemolymph into tubules lumen. Fluid
then passes to hind gut into the rectum.
Reabsorption in Rectum:- Rectum reabsorbs most of the salts and water, thus
nitrogenous wastes are excreted as solid excreta, in the form of uric acid crystals

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along the [Link] kind of adaptation in excretion is the success of these animals on
land with acute shortage of water.

 Highlight the role of liver as an excretory organ

Or
 Give four homeostatic functions of liver.

Liver:-
Pivotal to homeostasis:- Liver is the central station of metabolism and consequently
the body’s central metabolic clearing house. Due to this characteristic, liver functions
are pivotal to homeostasis and involve interaction with most of body’s organs systems.
Excretory role:-Liver supports the excretory role of the kidney by detoxifying
many chemical poisons and produce ammonia, urea and uric acids from the nitrogen
of amino acids.
Urea cycle:-Among the various nitrogenous wastes described earlier, urea is the
principal excretory product and liver form it from the waste nitrogen. The metabolic
pathways involved in the production of urea are termed as urea cycle.
 Two ammonia and one carbon dioxide molecules are shunted into the cycle to
generate one molecule of urea.
 One ammonia molecule combines with carbon dioxide and already available
precursor from previous cycle ornithine to form citrulline,
 Subsequently another ammonia combines to form arginine.
 The arginine is split by arginase to form urea and the precursor ornithine for next
cycle.
Liver is not only involved in the synthesis of nitrogenous wastes to assist kidney in
their disposal, but also has numerous crucial functions of homeostasis importance.
These functions belong to synthesis, storage, conversion, recycling and detoxification
categories.

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 Explain Urinary system of human.

Urinary System:-
Kidneys:-A pair of kidneys consists of millions of functional units, nephrons.
Extensive blood supply:-The nephrons have extensive blood supply via the renal
arteries, which leave each kidney via the renal vein. The function of kidney and blood
in clearing wastes is very evident from the fact that weight of kidneys accounts for
less than 1% of the total body weight while receive 20% of blood supplied with each
cardiac beat.
Pelvis:-Following filtration of blood and further processing through tubular system
urine is collected in a central cavity of the kidney, pelvis.
Ureter:-Urine leaves the kidney through a duct ureter.
Urinary bladder:-The ureters of both the kidneys drain into urinary bladder through
ureteral orifice.
Urethra:-Urine leaves the body, during urination, from the bladder through a tube
called the urethra, which empties near the vagina in females or through the penis in
males. Sphincter muscles near the junction of the urethra and the bladder control the
urine in bladder.

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 Human urinary system

 Describe structure and function of nephron.

Nephron:-
The functional units of human kidneys are nephrons.
Types of Nephrons:-The functional units, nephrons, in human kidneys are arranged
along two distinct regions, an outer cortex and an inner medulla
Cortical nephrons:-The nephrons arranged along the cortex are called as cortical
nephrons.
Juxtamedullary nephrons:- The nephrons arranged along the border of cortex and
medulla with their tubular system looping deep in inner medulla are juxtamedullary
nephrons These juxtamedullary nephrons are specifically instrumental in the
production of concentrated urine.
Bowman’s Capsule:-In each nephron inner end forms a cup-shaped swelling, called
Bowman’s capsule.
Glomerulus:-It is a ball of capillaries surrounded by Bowman’s capsule. Glomerulus
circulates blood through capsule as it arrives through afferent arteriole and leaves the
capsule by efferent arteriole.
Peritubular cappilaries:-The blood vessel subdivides again into another network of
capillaries, the peritubular capillaries.
Renal tubules:- Bowman’s capsule continues as extensively convoluted proximal
tubule, loop of Henle and the distal tubule, which empties into collecting tubules.
The collecting tubules open into pelvis. The filtrate from glomerulus passes through
these structures and is processed ultimately for urine formation.

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Vasa recta:-The peritubular capillaries intermingle with proximal and distal tubules
of the nephron. In juxtamedullary nephrons additional capillaries extend down to from
a loop of vessels, vasa recta.
Functions of Nephron:-
Filteration:-Blood passing through glomerulus is filtered into Bowman’s capsule. It
is specifically filtered here, unlike at the other parts of the vessels, because
glomerulus walls are porous, and the fraction of the blood pressure reaching here
provides the filtration pressure.
The filtrate appearing in Bowmans capsule is called as glomerular filtrate, which
contains numerous useful substances such as glucose, amino acids, salts etc in
aqueous solution.
Reabsorption:-All the useful constituents of the glomerular filterate are reabsorbed in
proximal tubules and when filtrate leaves proximal tubules, it mostly contains
nitrogenous wastes.
Secretion:- The tubular epithelium also secretes substances into the lumen, this
secretion is very selective and is mainly of hydrogen ions to balance pH value of the
filtrate passing through the tubule.

A nephron with vascular supply

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 Describe kidney as an Osmoregulatory organ.

Kidney as Osmoregulatory Organ:-

The production of varied concentrations of urine depending on the availability of
water exhibits clearly that kidney functions as an osmoregulatory organ along its
excretory role of nitrogenous wastes.
Concentration of Excretory Products:-
Limited supply of water:-In restricted supply of water, the conservation of water is
the principal function of the body. This is done by concentration of the filtrate by
counter current and hormonal mechanisms.
Excessive supply of water:-In the sufficient or excess supply of water, reabsorption
of water from the filtrate is reduced, specifically due to inhibition of release of
antidiuretic hormone in the presence of hyposomotic body fluids. The reduction in
reabsorption causes large volumes of diluted urine.
Mammalian kidney including human is adapted to conserve water by over 99.5%
reabsorption of glomerular filtrate.
There are two methods for making the urine concenterated. These are counter current
multiplier and hormonal method.
Counter current multiplier:-The interstitial fluid of the kidney is gradually
concentrated from cortical to medullary part, thus inner medulla is highly
concentrated with the presence of urea and through a mechanism of countercurrent
multiplier. This mechanism causes gradual osmotic outflow of water from the filtrate
back to kidney as it passes downward in the descending loop of Henle.
Furthermore, ascending loop of Henle does not allow outflow of water from its filtrate,
instead actively transport Na+ ions into kidney interstitium to sustain its high
concentration.
Hormones:-There are two hormones involved in this process.
Aldosterone:-The active uptake of sodium in the ascending limb or thick loop of
Henle is promoted by the action of aldosterone, the hormone secreted from adrenal
cortex.
Antidiuretic hormone(ADH):-. ADH released from posterior pituitary lobe acts to
actively transport water from filtrate in Distal tubules and collecting tubules back to
kidney.

A nephron with vascular supply

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 Discuss Kidney problems and their cures.
Or
 What is Renal failure ? Describe its cure

Kidney Problems and Cures :-

Unusual situations may arise in the function of kidney by factors originating within
kidney or outside. These cause serious kidney diseases.
Kidney Stones:-Stony materials are found in the kidney and these cause urinary
obstruction and are generally complicated by infections.
Chemical nature of kidney stones:- Kidney stones have specified chemical nature.
These are formed in metabolic [Link] salts are precipitated out during urine
formation and accumulate later to form stone
Hypercalcemia:- It is the high level of circulating calcium in blood because of other
diseases.
Calcium phosphate stones:-The incidence of calcium phosphate stones is 15%.
Hyperoxaluria:- It is the higher blood level of oxalates and it is another contributing
factor in the formation of calcium oxalate stones. Oxalates are present in green
vegetables and tomatoes therefore may be the source of hyperoxaluria.
Calcium oxalate stones:-The incidence of calcium oxalate type stones are 70% of all
the kidney stones.
Uric acid stones:- The incidence of uric acid stones is 10%.

Cure of Kidney stones:

Lithotripsy:-The kidney stones have been removed by kidney surgery. Presently
lithotripsy is used for non-surgical removal of kidney stone. It is the technique used
to break up stones that form in the kidney, ureter or gall bladder.

There are several ways to do it, although the most common is extracorporeal shock
wave lithotripsy. High concentrations of X-ray or ultrasound are directed from a
machine outside the body to the stone inside. The shock waves break the stone in tiny
pieces or into sand, which are passed out of the body in urine.

Renal Failure:-Various factors of pathological and chemical nature may

progressively destroy the nephron, particularly its glomerular part. This results in
increase in the plasma level of urea and other nitrogenous wastes. The rise in urea
causes complications of increase in blood pressure and anemia etc.
Cures of Renal Failure:-
Dialysis :-In chronic renal failure, the function of the kidney is completely lost and is
unable to remove nitrogenous waste. To remove nitrogenous waste, particularly the
urea, the blood of the patient is treated through dialysis. It cleans the blood either by
passing it through an artificial kidney or by filtering it within the abdomen. The
wastes and excess water are removed during the treatment as is done by the healthy
kidneys.
Types of Dialysis:-There are two types of dialysis: hemodialysis and peritoneal
dialysis.
Hemodialysis:-Hemodialysis means ‘cleaning the blood’.
In this procedure blood is circulated through a machine which contains a dialyzer
also called an artificial kidney. Dialyzer has two spaces separated by thin membrane.
Blood passes from one side of the membrane and dialysis fluid on the other. The

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wastes and excess water pass from the blood through the membrane into the dialysis
fluid.
Peritoneal dialysis:-Peritoneal dialysis work on the same principle except that
abdomen has a peritoneal cavity, lined by a thin epithelium called peritoneum.
Peritoneal cavity is filled with dialysis fluid that enters the body through a catheter.
Excess water and wastes pass through the peritoneum into the dialysis fluid. This
process is repeated several times a day.
Dialyzer is a kidney machine that works on the same principle as in a kidney for
removal of nitrogenous wastes and excess water from the blood. It is used after
kidney failure and dialysis is done again and again until a matching donor’s kidney is
transplanted.
Kidney Transplant:-Dialysis may be used as a temporary measure. In high degree
renal failure also called as uremia or end-stage renal disease, the dialysis can not be
done hence thus the surgical transplantation of a matching donor kidney is the only
option left for as the permanent treatment.
 Describe the adaptations in plants to low and high temperature
Or
 Describe the mechanism of thermoregulation in plants

Adaptations in Plants to Low and High Temperature:-

High Temperature :-
High temperature denatures the enzymes and damages the metabolism, therefore, it
harms or kills the plants.
Evaporative cooling:-Plants use evaporative cooling to manage with high
temperature. Hot and dry weather, however, causes water deficiency resulting in
closing of stomata, thus plants suffer in such conditions. Most plants have adapted to
survive in heat stress as the plants of temperate regions face the stress of 40°C and
above temperature.
Heat shock proteins:-The cells of these plants synthesize large quantities of special
proteins called heat-shock proteins. These proteins embrace enzymes and other
proteins thus help to prevent denaturation.
Low Temperature:-
In low temperature the fluidity of the cell membrane is altered, because lipids of the
membrane become locked into crystalline structures, which affects the transport of the
solutes. The structure of the membrane proteins is also affected.
Unsaturated fatty acids:-Plants respond to cold stress by increasing proportion of
unsaturated fatty acids, which help membrane to maintain structure at low
temperature by preventing crystal formation. This adaptation requires time because
of this reason rapid chilling of plants is more stressful than gradual drop in air
temperature.
Ice crystal formation:-Freezing temperature causes ice crystal formation. The
confinement of ice formation around cell wall does not affect as badly and plants
survive, however, formation of ice crystals within protoplasm perforates membranes
and organelles hence killing the cells.
Change in solute composition of cell:-The plants native to cold region such as oaks,
maples, roses and other plants have adapted to bring changes in solutes composition
of the cells, which causes cytosol to super cool without ice formation, although ice
crystals may form in the cell walls.

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 Describe the mechanism of thermoregulation in mammals
Or
 Discuss thermorehulatory strategies in human

THERMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS (HUMAN)

Regulatory Strategies:-Mammals including human maintain their high body

temperature within a narrow range of about 36-38 °C because of their endothermic
characteristics. The origin of endothermy in birds and mammals have provided the
opportunity to keep high metabolic rate and availability of energy round the clock,
thus has acquired greater ability to adaptations and has assisted in much of their wider
diversity and distribution in diversified regions of the earth.
Mechanism of Thermoregulation:-
These regulate the rate of metabolic heat production, balancing it with the rate at
which they gain or lose heat from the surroundings.
Shivering Thermogenesis:-The rate of heat production by increased muscle
contraction by movements or shivering so called as shivering thermogenesis.
Non Shivering Thermogenesis:-Hormones also trigger the heat production as do
thyroid hormones and are termed as non-shivering thermogenesis.
Brown Fat:-Some mammals possess brown fat, which is specialized for rapid heat
production.
Evaporative cooling:-In overproduction of heat it is dissipated through exposed
surfaces by increasing blood flow or the evaporative cooling. In mammals, it is
observed that skin has been adapted as the organ of thermoregulation.
In Cold Temperature :-
Mammals have various mechanisms that regulate heat exchange with their
environment.
Vasodilation and vasoconstriction:-Vasodilation and vasoconstriction effect heat
exchange and may contribute to regional temperature differences with in an animal.
On a cool day a human’s temperature may be several degrees lower in the arms and
legs than in the trunk, where the most vital glands are situated.
Furs:-Most land mammals respond to cold by raising their furs thereby trapping the
thicker layer of still air and it acts as good insulator between animal skin and the
surroundings.
Fats:-Human mostly rely on a layer of fat just insulating beneath the skin as
insulating material against heat loss.
Blubber:-Similarly marine mammals such as whales and seals inhabit much colder
water than their body temperature, have a very thick layer of insulating fat called as
blubber just under the skin.
In Warm Temperature :-
Heat loss by skin:-Marine mammals dispose off their excess heat into warm seas by
large number of blood vessels in the outer layer of the skin. This dissipates the heat
from the skin surface.
Sweat glands:-In terrestrial mammals, in contrast is the mechanism of evaporative
cooling. The sweat gland activity and the evaporative cooling is the one of the major
temperature reducing strategies.
Panting:-Panting, the evaporative cooling in the respiratory tract, is the other
mechanism as represented in the dogs. Bats etc use saliva and urine for evaporative
cooling.

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