CHAPTER # 24

Evolution
 How did eukaryotes evolve from prokaryotes?
 Explain Endosymbiont hypothesis for the origin of eukaryotic cells.
 Explain membrane invagination theory for evolution of eukaryotic cells.

EVOLUTION FROM PROKARYOTES TO EUKARYOTES

Hydrothermal vents: One of the speculations trying to explain the origin of life is that it may have begun deep
in the oceans, in underwater hot springs called hydrothermal vents. These vents could have supplied the energy
and raw materials (for the origin and survival of early life forms. A group of bacteria, called archaeobacteria
that tolerate temperatures up to 120°C and seem to have undergone less evolutionary change than any other
living species supports this vent hypothesis.
Evolution of photosynthetic mode: The nutrients produced in the primitive environment would have limited
early life., If life were to continue, another source of nutrients was needed. Photosynthesis, probably freed
living organisms from a dwindling supply of nutrients. The first photosynthetic organisms probably used
hydrogen sulfide as a source of hydrogen for reducing carbon dioxide to sugars.
Evolution of aerobic bacteria: Later, water served as a source of hydrogen, and oxygen liberated by
photosynthetic reactions began to accumulate in the atmosphere. Earth and its atmosphere slowly began to
[Link] in the upper atmosphere began to filter ultraviolet radiation from the sun, the reducing
atmosphere slowly became an oxidizing atmosphere, and at least some living organisms began to utilize oxygen.
About 420 million years ago, enough protective ozone had built up to make life on land possible. Ironically, the
change from a reducing atmosphere to an oxidizing atmosphere also meant that life could no longer arise
abiotically .
Hypothesis about evolution of eukaryotes
The first cells were most likely very simple prokaryotic forms. The prokaryotes may have arisen more than 3.5
billion years ago. Eukaryotes are thought to have first appeared about 1.5 billion years ago.
Endosymbiont hypothesis
The eukaryotic cell might have evolved when a large anaerobic (living without oxygen) amoeboid prokaryote
ingested small aerobic (living with oxygen) bacteria and stabilized them instead of digesting them. This idea is
known as the endosymbiont hypothesis and was first proposed by Lynn Margulis.
Development of mitochondria: According to this hypothesis, the aerobic bacteria developed into mitochondria,
which are the sites of aerobic respiration and most energy conversion in eukaryotic cells. The possession of
these mitochondria like endosymbionts brought the advantage of aerobic respiration to the host.
Development of flagella and chloroplast: Flagella (whiplike structures) may have arisen through the ingestion
of prokaryotes similar to spiral-shaped bacteria called spirochetes. Ingestion of prokaryotes that resembled
present-day cyanobacteria could have led to the endosymbiotic development of chloroplasts in plants.
Membrane invagination hypothesis
Another hypothesis for the evolution of eukaryotic cells proposes that the prokaryotic cell membrane
invaginated (folded inward) to enclose copies of its genetic material .This invagination resulted in the formation
of several double membranebound entities (organelles) in a single cell. These entities could then have evolved
into the eukaryotic mitochondrion, nucleus, chloroplast etc.
Diversity of life forms:Whatever the exact mechanism for the evolution of the eukaryotic cell might be, the
formation of the eukaryotic cell led to a dramatic increase in the complexity and diversity of life-forms on the
earth. At first, these newly formed eukaryotic cells existed only by themselves. Later, however, some probably
evolved into multicellular organisms in which various cells became specialized into tissues, which, in turn,
formed organs for many different functions. These multicellular forms then adapted themselves to life in a great
variety of environments.

Two hypothesies on the evolution of the eukaryotic cell. (a) Endosymbiont hypothesis, (b) Membrane
invagination hypothesis.

 Describe the inheritance of acquired characteristics.

 Write an essay on Lamarckism.

INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS

Jean Baptiste Lamarck : Toward the end of the eighteenth century, several naturalists suggested that life had
evolved along with the evolution of earth. But only one of Darwin’s predecessors developed a comprehensive
model that attempted to explain how life evolves. Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) published his theory of
evolution in 1809, the year Darwin was bom. Lamarck was in-charge of invertebrate collection at the Natural
History Museum in Paris. He presented a mechanism to explain how specific adaptations evolve.
Use and disuse of organs:Lamarck argued that those parts of the body used extensively to cope with the
environment become larger and stronger, while those that are not used [Link] the examples
Lamarck cited were the blacksmith developing a bigger bicep in the arm that works the hammer and giraffe
stretching its neck to new lengths in pursuit of leaves to eat.
Inheritance of acquired characters:The second idea Lamarck adopted, was called the inheritance of acquired
characteristics. In this concept of heredity, the modifications an organism acquires during its lifetime can be
passed along to its offspring's e.g. the long neck of the giraffe, Lamarck reasoned, evolved gradually as the
cumulative product of a great many generations of ancestors stretching higher and higher. However, now we
know that acquired characteristics cannot be inherited.

 Explain the main points of Darwin’s theory of natural selection.

Formulation of theory of natural selection

Essay on evolution: By the early 1840s, Darwin had worked out the major features of his theory of natural
selection as the mechanism of evolution. In 1844, Darwin wrote a long essay on the origin of species and
natural selection. But before it could be published Alfred Wallace, a young naturalist working in the East
Indies developed a theory of natural selection essentially identical to Darwin’s. Wallace’s paper, along with
extracts from Darwin’s unpublished 1844 essay, were presented to the Linnaean Society of London on July 1,
1858. Darwin quickly finished The Origin of Species and published it the next year. In this book Darwin
developed two main points:
1. Descent with Modification : Darwin believed in perceived unity in life, with all organisms related through
descent from some common ancestor that lived in the remote past. In the Darwinian view, the history of life is
like a tree, with multiple branching and re-branching from a common trunk all the way to the tips of the living
twigs, symbolic of the current diversity of organisms. At each fork of the evolutionary tree is an ancestor
common to all lines of evolution branching from that fork.
2. Natural Selection and Adaptation
Darwin suggested that populations of individual species become better adapted to their local environments
through natural selection. Darwin’s theory of natural selection was based on the following observations.
1. Over production: Production of more individuals than the environment can support, leads to a struggle for
existence among individuals of a population, with only a fraction of offspring surviving each generation.
2. Struggle for existence: Survival in the struggle for existence is not random,, but depends in part on the
hereditary constitution of the surviving individuals. Those individuals whose inherited characteristics fit them
best to their environment are likely to leave more offspring than the less fit individuals.
3. Evolution of new species: This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to a gradual
change in a population, with favourable characteristics accumulating over the generations thus leading to the
evolution of a new species.
 Write a short note on Neo-darwinism.

Neo-Darwinism - The modern evolutionary synthesis

The Origin of Species convinced most biologists that species are products of evolution. But some ambiguities
were still present.
Population genetics:An important turning point for evolutionary theory was the birth of population genetics,
which emphasizes the extensive genetic variation within populations and recognizes the importance of
quantitative characters.
Modern synthesis:With progress in population genetics in the 1930s, Mendelism and Darwinism were
reconciled, and the genetic basis of variation and natural selection was worked out. Thus, a comprehensive
theory of evolution that became known as the modern synthesis or Neo-Darwinism was developed in the early
1940s. It is called a synthesis because it integrated discoveries and ideas from many different fields, including
paleontology, taxonomy, biogeography, of course, population genetics.

 Discuss fossil record in favour of evolution.

The Fossil Record

Fossils: Fossils are either the actual remains or - traces of organisms that lived in ancient geological times. The
organism may be embedded in sand, resin or ice, or an impression or cast is made of the body parts, the tissue
being replaced or petrified by silica or calcium carbonate minerals. Most fossils are found in sedimentary rocks.
The succession of fossil forms is a strong evidence in favour of evolution. It provides a visual record in a
complete series showing the evolution of an organism.
Examples: Following examples show evidences of evolution from fossil record.
 Evidence from biochemistry, molecular biology, and cell biology places prokaryotes as the ancestors of all
life, and predicts that bacteria should precede all eukaryotic life in the fossil record. Indeed, the oldest
known fossils are prokaryotes.
 Another example is the chronological appearance of the different classes of vertebrate animals in the fossil
record. Fossil fishes, the earliest vertebrates, with amphibians next, followed by reptiles, then mammals and
birds. This sequence is consistent with the history of vertebrate descent. The evolution of horse provides an
example of such a history.
 Describe the evidence of evolution from comparative anatomy.

Comparative Anatomy
Anatomical similarities between species grouped in the same taxonomic category bring another support to the
theory of the Descent with modification.
Homologous organs: Homologous organs are functionally different but structurally alike e.g. Fore limbs of
man, bat, horse, whale etc. are example of divergent [Link] in characteristics resulting from
common ancestry is known as homology, and such anatomical signs of evolution are called homologous
structures. For example, the same skeletal elements make up the forelimbs of human, cats, whales, bats, and all
other mammals, although these appendages have very different functions.
The basic similarity of these forelimbs is the consequence of mammals from a common ancestor. The arms,
wings, flippers, and forelegs of different mammals are variations on a common anatomical theme that has been
modified for divergent functions. Comparative anatomy supports that evolution is a remodeling process in
which ancestral structures that functioned in one capacity become modified as they tale on new functions. The
flower parts of a flowering plant are homologous. They are considered to have evolved from leaves, to form
sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.
Analogous organs:Analogous organs are functionally alike but structurally different e.g. wings of bat, birds
and insects etc. are examples of convergent evolution.
Vestigial structures: Vestigial organs are historical remnants of structures that had important functions in
ancestors but are no longer essential presently. The oldest homologous structures are vestigial organs,
rudimentary structures of marginal, if any, use to the organism.
Examples:The skeletons of whales and some snakes retain vestiges of the pelvis and leg bones of walking
ancestors, vermiform appendix in carnivores, ear muscles in man etc.

Vestigial organs in man showing evidence of evolution

 Describe comparative embryology and and molecular biology as an evidence of
evolution.

Comparative Embryology
Closely related organisms go through similar stages in their embryonic development.
Gill pouches: All vertebrate embryos go through a stage in which they have gill pouches on the sides of their
throats. At embryonic stage of development, similarities between fishes, frogs, snakes, birds, humans, and all
other vertebrates are much more apparent than differences . As development progresses, the various vertebrates
diverge more and more, taking on the distinctive characteristics of their classes.
 In fish, for example, the gill pouches develop into gills;
 In terrestrial vertebrates, these-embryonic structures become modified for other functions, such as the
eustachian tubes that connect the middle ear with the throat in humans.
Comparative embryology can often establish homology among structures, such as gill pouches, that become so
altered in later development that their common origin would not be apparent by comparing their fully developed
forms.
Molecular Biology
Evolutionary relationships among species are reflected in their DNA and proteins—in their genes and gene
products. If two species have genes and proteins with sequences of monomers that match closely, the sequences
must have been copied from a common ancestor.
Genetic code:A common genetic code brings evidence that all life is related. Molecular biology has thus
provided strong evidence in support of evolution as the basis for the unity and diversity of life.
Cytochrome c: Similarly, taxonomically remote organisms, such as humans and bacteria, have some proteins
in common. For instance, cytochrome c, a respiratory protein is found in all aerobic species.
 Write a short note on natural selection and artificial selection.

NATURAL SELECTION AND ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

Artificialm selection:Humans have modified other species over many generation by selecting individuals with
the desired traits as breeding stock. The plants and animals we grow for food bear little resemblance to their
wild ancestors. Darwin found evidence in artificial selection, the breeding of domesticated plants and
[Link] the changes achieved by artificial selection within a relatively short period of time, Darwin
postulated that natural selection operating over vast spans of time could account for the entire diversity of life.
Natural selectioin: Natural selection occurs through an interaction between the environment and the variability
inherent in any population. Natural selection can amplify or diminish only those variations that are heritable. It
is noteworthy to say that adaptations that an organism acquires by its own actions are not heritable.
Population: Population is a group of inter-breeding individuals belonging to a particular species and sharing a
common geographic area.
Specifics of natural selection:The specifics of natural selection are regional and timely; environmental factors
vary from place to place and from time to time. An adaptation in one situation may be useless or even
detrimental in other circumstances. An example of natural selection in action is the evolution of antibiotic
resistance in bacteria.

 Describe Hardy- Weinberg theorem.

Hardy-Weinberg Theorem
Statement:It states that the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population’s gene pool remain constant
over the generations unless acted upon by agents other than sexual recombination.
Application of Hardy_Weinberg theorem: Hardy-Weinberg theorem is named for the two scientists who
derived the principle independently in [Link] frequencies of genotypes of non evolving populations are
described by Hardy_Weinberg theorem. Shuffling of alleles due to meiosis and random fertilization has no
effect on the overall genetic structure of a population.
Hardy_Weinberg equation:A general formula, called the Hardy- Weinberg equation is used for calculating the
frequencies of alleles and genotypes in populations at equilibrium.
Allelic frequency: For a gene locus where only two alleles occur in a population, population geneticists
use the letter p to represent the frequency of one allele and the letter q to represent the frequency of the other
allele. In the imaginary wildflower population, p=0.8 and q=0.2. Note that p+q= 1; the combined frequencies of
all possible alleles must account for 100% of the genes for that locus in the population. If there are only two
alleles and we know the frequency of one, the frequency of other can be calculated:
p + q=1, then 1-p = q, or l-q = p
Genotypic frequency:When gametes combine their alleles to form zygotes, the probability of generating
an AA genotype is p2. In the wildflower population, p=0.8, and p2=0.64, the probability of an A sperm
fertilizing an A ovum to produce an AA zygote. The frequency of individuals homozygous for the other allele
(aa) is q2, or 0.2x0.2=0.04 for the wildflower population. There are two ways in which an Aa genotype can arise,
depending on which parent contributes the dominant allele. Therefore, the frequency of heterozygous
individuals in the population is 2pq (2x0.8x0.2=0.32, in our example). If we have calculated the frequencies of
all possible genotypes correctly, they should add up to 1:

P2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
 P Frequency of AA
2=

 2pq=Frequency of Aa plus aA

 q2=Frequency of aa

For our wildflowers,this is 0.64 + 0.32 + 0.04=[Link] fact the Hardy-Weinberg equation is a binomial expansion:
(p+q)2 or p2+2pq+q2.
 Describe factors affecting gene frequency.

Factors affecting gene frequency

Many factors can alter gene frequency. Out of these five affect the proportion of homozygotes and
heterozygotes enough to produce significant deviations form the proportion claimed by Hardy_Weinberg
principle. These factors are described below.
Mutation: The ultimate source of all changes; individual mutations occur so rarely that mutation alone does not
change allele frequency much.
Migration: A very potent agent of change, migration locally acts to prevent evolutionary changes by preventing
populations that exchange members from diverging from one another. Emigration and immigration of members
of a population, cause disturbance in the gene pool
Genetic drift: It is the change in frequency of alleles at a locus that occurs by chance. In small populations,
such fluctuations may lead to the loss of particular alleles. This may occur in a small population when a few
individual fail to reproduce and then genes are lost from the population.
Non-random mating: Inbreeding is the most common form; it does not alter allele frequency, but lessens the
proportion of heterozyote individuals. Individuals with certain genotypes sometimes mate with one another
more commonly than would be expected on a random basis. This is called non-random mating, causing the
frequencies of particular genotypes to differ greatly from those predicted by the Hardy_Weinberg principle.
Selection: Some individuals leave behind more progeny than others, and the rate at which they do so is affected
by their inherited characteristics. This is called selection. Selection can be artificial selection or natural
selection. In artificial selection, the breeders select for the desired characters. In natural selection, the
environment plays this role, thus affecting the proportions of gene in a population.
 What are endangered species? Explain methods of their conservation.
Endangered species:A specie that is in imminent danger of extinction throughout its range (where it lives) is
called an endangered specie.
Threatened species: A specie that is likely to become endangered in the near future is called threatened specie.
Reasons of the extinction of species
Extinction has been the fate of most plant and animal species. It is a natural process that will continue. In recent
years, however, the threat to the welfare of wild plants and animals has increased dramatically.
Habitat destruction: Most of the extinction is the result of habitat [Link] rain forests, the most
threatened areas on the earth, have been reduced to 44% of their original extent. In certain areas, such as
Ecuador, forest coverage has been reduced by 95%. This decrease in habitat has resulted in- tens of thousands
of extinctions. Accurately estimating the number of extinctions is impossible in areas like rain forests, where
taxonomists have not even described most species. We are losing species -that we do not know exist and we are
losing resources that could lead to new medicines, foods, and textiles.
Climate change and pollution: Other causes of extinction include climate change, pollution, and invasions
from foreign species. Habitats other than rain forest—grasslands,’marshes, deserts, and coral reefs—are also
being seriously threatened.
Measures for conservation of endangered species
Saving species requires more than preserving a few remnant individuals. It requires a large diversity of genes
within species groups to promote species survival in changing environments. This genetic diversity requires
large populations of plants and animals.
Preservation of endangered species depends on a multifaceted conservation plan that includes the following
components:
1. National parks:A global system of national parks to protect large tracts of land and wildlife corridors that
allow movement between natural areas.
2. Protected landscapes: Protected landscapes and multiple-use areas that allow controlled private activity but
also retain value as a wildlife habitat.
3. Zoos and botanical gardens: Zoos and botanical gardens to save species whose extinction is imminent.
Endangered species in Pakistan
Extinct species in Pakistan:In Pakistan. Cheetah. Tiger. Asian lion. Indian rhino. Cheer pheasant. Crocodile
and Gavial have been declared extinct.
Endangered species in Pakistan: Indus dolphin. Blackbuck, Common leopard. Great Indian bustard. Houbara
bustard. White-headed duck and Marbled teal are among the animal near to extinction.
Deserts, Sub-mountainous tract and Wetlands are habitats in peril. We must protect them rapidly. Endangered
species of plants have been recorded to more than 500.

Solution of Textbook Exercise

Q1. Fill in the blanks.
1. Archaebacteria can tolerate high temperature up to120o
2. The first eukaryote appeared about 1.5 billions years ago.
3. Darwin presented the theory of the origin of species by means of Natural Selection.
4. Alfred Wallace developed a theory of natural selection essentially identical to Darwin’s.
5. Prokaryotes are considered to be the ancestors of all life.
6. A respiratory protein called Cytochrome c is found in all aerobic organisms.
7. Total aggregate of genes in a population at any time is called its gene pool.
8. Hardy Weinberg theorem describes a non-evolving population.
[Link] is a series of changes in the genetic composition of a population over time.
10. Level of classification between species and family is called genus.
11. Hardy Weinberg equation is binomial expansion of (p+q)2 or p2+2pq+q2..
12. An endangered species is in imminent danger of extinction throughout its range.
13. A Population is a localized group of individuals belonging to the same species.
14. The first photosynthetic organisms used hydrogen sulphide as source of hydrogen for reducing carbon
dioxide to sugars.
[Link] published an essay on The Principle of Population’

Q.2. Each question has four options. Encircle the correct answer.
(i).The gill pouches of mammals and birds are:
(a) Supportive “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”
(b) Homologous structure
(c) Used by embryos to breathe
(d) Evidence for the degeneration of unused body parts.
(ii) Darwin’s theory, as presented in “The origin of species” mainly convened
(a) How new species arise (b) The origin of life
(c) How adaptations evolve (d) How extinctions occur
(e) The genetics of evolution
(iii) The smallest biological unit that can evolve over time is
(a) A particular cell (b) An individual organism
(c) A population (d) A species
(e) An ecosystem
(iv) A gene pool consists of
(a) All the genes exposed to natural selection
(b) The total of all the alleles present in a population
(c) The entire genome of reproducing individual
(d) The frequencies of the alleles for a gene locus within a population
(e) All the gametes in a population
(v) In a population with two alleles for a particular locus, B and b, the allele frequency of B is 0.7. What
would be the frequency of heterozygote if the population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
(a) 0.7 (b) 0.42 (c) 0.49 (d) 0.09 (e) 0.21
(vi).In a population that is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, 16% of the individuals show the recessive
trait. What is the frequency of the dominant allele in the population?
(a) 0.84 (b) 0.36 (c) 0.6 (d) 0.4 (e) 0.48
(vii) Selection acts directly on
(a) Phenotype (b) Genotype (c) The entire genome
(d) Each allele (e) The entire gene pool
Q.3. Short questions.
1. What are hydrothermal vents?
Hot springs underwater are called hydrothermal vents. These vents could have supplied the energy and raw
materials for the origin and survival of early life forms.
2. State Endosymbiont hypothesis.
Endosymbiont hypothesis is about the evolution of eukaryotes from prokaryotes. According to this hypothesis,
large anaerobic amoeboid prokaryotes ingested small aerobic (living with oxygen) bacteria and stabilized them
instead of digesting them. e.g. aerobic bacteria developed into mitochondria. This hypothesis was first
proposed by Lynn Margulis.
3. Define population genetics.
The study of genetic variations within a population is called population genetics. Progress in population
genetics played a vital role in reconciliation of Mendelism and Darwinism. Population genetics recognizes the
importance of quantitative characters.
4. How does fossil record provide evidence of evolution?
Fossils are the actual remains or traces of organisms that lived in ancient geological times. The organisms may
be embeded in sand, resins, made of the body parts, the tissue being replaced or petrified by silica or calcium
carbonate minerals. Most of the fossils are found in sedimentary rocks.
5. Explain the term homology with a suitable example.
Similarity in characteristics resulting from common ancestory is known as homology. This similarity in the
organs of different species denotes their derivation from a common ancestor. Homology describes structures
that have common evolutionary origin.
6. What are vestigial organs? Give two examples.
The remnants of structures that had important functions in ancestors but are no longer essential are called
vestigial organs.
Examples: Pelvic and leg bones in whales, vermiform appendix in carnivores.
7. How are evolutionary relationships reflected in DNA and proteins?
Evolutionary relationships among species are reflected in their DNA and proteins, in their genes and genes
products. If two species have genes and proteins sequences of monomers that match closely, the sequence must
have been copied from a common ancestor. For example, a common genetic code brings evidence that all life is
related. Similarly humans, bacteria have some common proteins like cytochrome c i.e. a respiratory protein
found in all aerobic species.
8. State Hardy Weinberg theorem.
Hardy-Weinberg states that “The frequencies of alleles and genotypes in gene pool of a population remains
constant generation after generation unless acted upon by some factors other than sexual recombination.”
Its equation is (p+q)2 = p2 + 2pq+q2
9. What is the difference between endangered species and threatened species?
Endangered Species Threatened Species

 A specie which is in imminent danger  A specie which is likely to be

of its extinction throughout its range endangered in near future is called
is called endangered specie. threatened specie.
Examples: Marco polo Sheep, Houbara, Example: Bald Eagle, Gray Wolf etc.
Bustard etc.

10. Name any five species, declared extinct in Pakistan.

The species declared extinct in Pakistan are:
 Cheetah
 Tiger
 Asian lion
 Indian Rhino
 Cheer Pheasant
 Crocodile
 Gavial