204 4 Water Quality Management Strategies

Table 4-10 (Continued)

Factor Comment
Security Secure water treatment plants are vital to protect the public from attack. Can
the process be readily protected from intentional upset? What steps or
facilities are required to protect the overall plant?
Treatment residuals The types and amounts of solid, liquid, and gaseous residuals produced must
be known or estimated.

Source: Adapted from Tchobanoglous et al. (2003).

wealth of material gathered from a number of sources on specific topics.

The AWWA handbook on Water Quality and Treatment (AWWA, 2011), is
also useful. A popular reference for treatment plant design used primarily
in the mid and eastern United States is the Recommended Standards for Water
Works, which is also known as the Ten State Standards (Great Lakes Upper
Mississippi River Board, 2003). The book Integrated Design and Operation
of Water Treatment Facilities (Kawamura, 2000) is an excellent all-round
reference on design and operation. The book Pump Station Design (Jones
et al., 2008) is comprehensive with respect to the design of pumping
facilities. Ancillary equipment such as chemical feed systems is generally
not addressed in typical water treatment plant references but is covered
in specialty references and brouchers supplied by manufacturers. The U.S.
EPA has published many manuals and reports, including documents for
optimizing water treatment plants using the comprehensive performance
evaluation/composite correction program (CPE/CCP).

TYPICAL TREATMENT PROCESSES FOR SURFACE WATER

Depending on the quality of the surface water, a number of alternative
treatment trains (described on process flow diagrams) can be used. Four
common treatment trains for treating surface water are identified below.
Each of these treatment trains is illustrated and described in the following
discussion:
❑ Conventional water treatment
❑ Direct- and in-line filtration treatment
❑ Membrane filtration treatment
❑ Reverse osmosis treatment

Conventional water treatment

Conventional treatment trains are typically used to treat surface waters with
water quality issues such as high turbidity (typically >20 NTU), high color
(>20 c.u.), or high TOC (>4 mg/L). A conventional process treatment
train consists of coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, granular media
filtration, and disinfection, as shown on Fig. 4-4. In general, conventional
 4-5 Development of Systems for Water Treatment 205

plants have more operational flexibility, are hydraulically stable, and require
somewhat less operator attention than other types of water treatment plants.
Another consideration when selecting a conventional process train is land
availability as surface loading rates are typically low, resulting in large
process surface area requirements.

Direct and in-line (contact) filtration

Direct- and in-line filtration treatment trains are typically used to treat
higher quality surface waters with low turbidity (typically ≤15 NTU), mod-
erate to low color (≤20 c.u.), and low TOC (<4 mg/L). As shown on
Fig. 4-5, a direct-filtration process treatment train consists of flash mixing,
flocculation, granular media filtration, and disinfection. Coarse deep-bed
monomedia filters (or dual-media filters consisting of a deep layer of
anthracite over a shallow lower layer of coarse sand) are commonly used
in direct-filtration plants as a deep coarse filter can store more suspended
solids than a conventional filter. The coagulation and flocculation pro-
cesses are very important and must be able to form a small, tough floc,
as a large floc will readily blind the filters, resulting in shortened filter
run times.
An in-line filtration process treatment train is the same as a direct-
filtration process treatment train, except flocculation is incidental, meaning
flocculation occurs in conveyance structures between the coagulation pro-
cess and the filters and above the filter media instead of in a flocculation
basin. In-line filtration treatment trains are used to treat high to excellent
quality surface waters, meaning very low turbidity (typically ≤5 NTU), low
color (<10 c.u.), and low TOC (<4 mg/L). Coagulation and filter designs
for in-line process trains are similar to that for direct-filtration process
trains. Granular filtration is considered in detail in Chap. 11.

Membrane filtration
A membrane filtration process treatment train consists of a screening
system, low-pressure membranes, and disinfection, as shown on Fig. 4-6.
The screening system consists of cartridge filters or microscreens and may
include coarse screens at the raw-water source if needed. Membrane fil-
tration process trains as configured on Fig. 4-6 are typically used to treat
good-quality surface waters with low turbidity (typically ≤10 NTU) and
moderate to low color (<10 c.u.) and TOC (<4 mg/L). However, mem-
brane filters can be used to treat water of any quality when combined with
other processes by replacing the granular filters with membrane filters in
the conventional water treatment process described earlier. Filtration mem-
branes are configured in modules, which may be stacked, and membrane
plants may be readily automated, making membrane plants ideal for small,
remote plants on constrained sites. Membrane filtration is considered in
detail in Chap. 12.
206
Oxidant/ Flash mix
disinfectant Flocculation Granular
Coagulant Sedimentation Clearwell
pH Polymer filtration Disinfectant storage
Raw water Screen
from surface control
water source
Treated water
to distribution
system

Filter backwash water Liquid processing

Residuals processing
Solids to Water return from and management
waste washwater Solids to Waste washwater Filter-to-waste
disposal to water recovery water to recycle
recovery system and dewatering
solids dewatering system or disposal to head of plant

Figure 4-4
Typical process train for treatment of surface water by conventional treatment.

Oxidant/
Flash mix
disinfectant Granular
Coagulant Flocculation Clearwell
pH filtration Disinfectant
Raw water Screen Polymer storage
from surface control
water source
Treated water
to distribution
system

In-line filtration
Filter backwash water Liquid processing
Residuals processing
Solids to Water return from and management
waste washwater Waste washwater Filter-to-waste
disposal to water recovery water to recycle
recovery system and
solids dewatering system or disposal to head of plant

Figure 4-5
Typical process train for treatment of surface water by direct and in-line filtration.
 4-5 Development of Systems for Water Treatment 207

Reverse osmosis treatment

A reverse osmosis (RO) process treatment train consists of a screening sys-
tem, RO membranes, and disinfection, as shown on Fig. 4-7. The screening
system typically consists of cartridge filters or microscreens and may include
coarse screens at the raw-water source and other processes for pretreatment
if needed. Reverse osmosis is mainly used for desalination of seawater or
brackish water and may be used for specific contaminant removal such as
arsenic. Reverse osmosis is considered in detail in Chap. 17.

TYPICAL TREATMENT PROCESSES FOR GROUNDWATER

As with surface water, a number of alternative treatment trains can be used
depending on the quality of the groundwater. Four common treatment
trains for treating groundwater are identified and described in the following
discussion:
❑ Conventional lime-softening treatment
❑ Membrane water softening
❑ Gas removal treatment
❑ Iron and manganese treatment

Conventional lime softening

Conventional lime softening is used to remove hardness from groundwater.
Water is generally considered hard when total hardness (the sum of
carbonate and noncarbonate hardness) is greater than 150 or 180 mg/L
(see discussion in Chap. 2), but many utilities do not provide softening
unless the hardness is much higher or there is public and political support
for water softening. When hardness is mainly from calcium and magnesium
hardness is low (<40 mg/L), lime is added in a single-stage softening
process, as shown on Fig. 4-8. Adding soda ash increases alkalinity, which
removes noncarbonate hardness. Frequently the coagulation, flocculation,
and sedimentation steps occur in one basin, called a reactor-clarifier with
sludge recirculation, as shown on Fig. 4-8. A more complete discussion of
the softening process may be found in Sec. 20-4.

Membrane softening
An alternative to lime softening for the removal of hardness from ground-
water involves the use of membranes, as shown on Fig. 4-9. Membrane
products that have been used for the softening and removal of other con-
stituents such as color, TOC, and DBP precursors include nanofiltration
(NF) and RO membranes. The difference between NF and RO is the size of
ion removed, with NF removing divalent ions and RO removing monovalent
ions (see Fig. 12-2). A major consideration when siting a membrane soft-
ening plant is concentrate disposal, which may be a regulatory stumbling
block. Reverse osmosis membranes are configured in modules, which may
be stacked, and membrane plants may be readily automated, making RO
membrane plants ideal for small, remote plants on constrained sites.
208
Disinfectant
Membrane Clearwell
Cartridge filters or pH
Raw water Screen filtration storage
from surface microscreens control
water source
Treated water
to distribution
system

Liquid processing
Residuals processing
Solids to Water return Waste washwater Filter backwash water and management
disposal from washwater to water recovery from clearwell or
recovery system system or disposal aternate source

Figure 4-6
Typical process train for treatment of surface water by membrane filtration.

Disinfectant
Membrane Reverse
Cartridge filters or filtration osmosis pH Clearwell
Raw water Screen
microscreens control storage
from saline
water source
Treated water
to distribution
system

Liquid processing
Residuals processing
Solids to Water return and management
from washwater Waste washwater Filter backwash Concentrate
disposal to water recovery water from clearwell (waste stream)
recovery system
system or disposal or aternate source to disposal

Figure 4-7
Typical process train for treatment of saline water by reverse osmosis.
 Flocculation/clarification
Lime and/or
soda ash Granular Clearwell
CO2 Recarb-
Raw water onation Polymer filtration Disinfectant storage
from ground-
water source
Treated water
to distribution
system

Recycle
Filter backwash water
Liquid processing
Residuals processing
Water return from and management
Solids to Solids to Waste washwater Filter-to-waste
waste washwater dewatering dewatering to water recovery water to recycle
recovery system, system or disposal to head of plant
solids dewatering,
and filter-to-waste
Figure 4-8
Typical process train for removal of hardness (calcium and magnesium) from groundwater with lime–soda softening process.

Oxidant/
disinfectant
Nanofiltration
pH Anti- Clearwell
modules
Raw water control scalant Cartridge filters or Disinfectant storage
from ground- microscreens
water source
Treated water
to distribution
system

Liquid processing
Residuals processing
Water return from Concentrate and management
waste washwater (waste stream)
recovery system, to disposal
solids dewatering,
and filter-to-waste

Figure 4-9
Typical process train for treatment of groundwater with nanofiltration softening process.

209
210 4 Water Quality Management Strategies

Air stripping
Air stripping is used to treat groundwater containing undesirable gases
such as hydrogen sulfide or VOCs at levels above the MCL. An air-stripping
process treatment train consists of a stripping tower followed by pressurized
granular media filtration and disinfection, as shown on Fig. 4-10. In some
cases the use of conditioning chemicals and/or acid addition may be nec-
essary to prevent the formation of precipitates. A consideration when using
air stripping is treating the off-gas from the stripping tower. One method
for treatment of the off-gas is carbon adsorption, as shown on Fig. 4-10.

Iron and manganese treatment

Oxidation and precipitation on pressure filters is the process used most
commonly for the removal of inorganic iron and manganese typically found
in groundwaters with low dissolved oxygen, as shown on Fig. 4-11. Oxidants
that are used include chlorine, potassium permanganate (KMnO4 ), oxygen,

Stripping Pressurized
Air tower granular media
filtration Disinfectant Clearwell
storage
Raw water
from ground-
water source
Treated water
to distribution
system

Filter backwash water Liquid processing

Figure 4-10 Residuals processing

Water return from and management
Typical process train waste washwater
Off-gas to Waste wash- Filter-to-waste
for removal of dissolved activated water to water water to recycle
recovery system,
carbon ad- recovery system to head of plant
gases and/or volatile solids dewatering,
sorption or or disposal
constituents from and filter-to-waste
other control
groundwater. strategy

pH Pressurized
adjustment greensand media
filtration Disinfectant Clearwell
storage
Raw water
from ground-
water source Treated water
to distribution
system

Filter washwater Liquid processing

Figure 4-11 Residuals processing

Water return from and management
Typical process train
waste washwater Waste washwater Filter-to-waste
for removal of iron and recovery system, to water recovery water to recycle
manganese from solids dewatering, system or disposal to head of plant
groundwater. and filter-to-waste
 4-5 Development of Systems for Water Treatment 211

and ozone. Chorine is used when the concentration of iron is less than
2 mg/L and little or no manganese is present. In many cases chlorine
is not effective for the removal of iron because iron can be complexed
with NOM. Consequently, the use of chlorine must be assessed with bench
and pilot tests. In addition, the impact of chlorine on DBP formation
must be considered before choosing chlorine as an oxidant. Potassium
permanganate and ozone are used when both iron and manganese are
present. Oxygen can be effective for oxidizing iron but is not able to break
the NOM–iron complex. Pressure filters may use manganese greensand
media, which is the name commonly used for sand having a high percentage
of glauconite, as shown on Fig. 4-11.

In the treatment processes presented on Figs. 4-4 through 4-11, the primary Treatment
objective is to remove certain impurities from the water. Impurities removed Processes for
during treatment, along with the added materials and transport water, Residuals
are referred to as residuals and consist of liquid-, semisolid-, solid-, and Management
gaseous-phase products. Typically, these residuals are comprised of the
turbidity-causing materials in raw water, organic and inorganic solids,
algae, bacteria, viruses, protozoa, colloids, precipitates from the raw water
and those added in treatment, and dissolved salts. Sludge is the term used to
refer to the solid, or liquid–solid, portion of some types of water treatment
plant residuals, such as the underflow from sedimentation basins.
The planning, design, and operation of facilities to reuse or dispose of
water treatment residuals is known as residuals management. The principal
objective in residuals management is usually to minimize the amount of
material that must ultimately be disposed by recovering recyclable materials
and reducing the water content of the residuals. Typical residual manage-
ment options are illustrated on Fig. 4-12. Residuals management can have
an important impact on the design and operation of many water treatment
plants. For existing plants, residuals management systems may limit overall
plant capacity if not designed and operated properly. Frequently, residuals
are stored temporarily in the process train before removal for treatment,
recycle, and/or disposal. Residual removal must be optimized for the
process train and coordinated with the residuals management systems to
maintain water quality in the process train. Common unit processes used
for residuals management are given in Table 4-11. The subject of residuals
management is considered in detail in Chap. 21.

Along with selection of the treatment processes to achieve a specific Hydraulic Sizing
treatment goal or goals, it is equally important to understand how large or of Treatment
of what capacity the individual treatment processes must be to meet the Facilities and
treated water requirements. General guidance on the hydraulic sizing of Processes
treatment processes is presented in Table 4-12. As reported in Table 4-12,
the sizing of most treatment units in a water treatment facility is based on
the peak-day demand at the end of the design period, with the hydraulic