Lecture Note on semi-conductors, Diodes and Transistors.

Course Code/ Course Title:

CUL-CSC178: BASIC ELECTRONICS

Lecturer: [Engr. Oluwadamilare, Omoniyi Joseph]

Number of Units: (2 UNITS) (LH.30, PH.30)
100 LEVEL/COMPULSORY (C)

Semiconductors, Diodes, and Transistors

This lesson note provides a detailed overview of three fundamental components in electronics:
Semiconductors, Diodes, and Transistors. Understanding these components is crucial for anyone
studying electronics, as they form the basis of almost all modern electronic devices.
1. Semiconductors
Lesson Note: What are Semiconductors?
Semiconductors are a class of materials that have electrical conductivity between that of a
conductor (like copper) and an insulator (like glass). Their unique characteristic lies in their
ability to control their conductivity, which is a direct result of their atomic structure and the way
electrons are arranged within them.
The most common semiconductor materials are Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge). These
elements belong to Group 14 of the periodic table and have four valence electrons, allowing
them to form covalent bonds with four neighboring atoms in a crystal lattice structure. In their
pure (intrinsic) state, semiconductors behave largely as insulators at low temperatures because all
valence electrons are involved in bonding, leaving no free electrons to conduct electricity.
However, as temperature increases, some electrons gain enough thermal energy to break free
from their covalent bonds, becoming free electrons and leaving behind a "hole" (a vacant
electron position). Both free electrons and holes can act as charge carriers, allowing a small
amount of current to flow.
The real power of semiconductors comes from doping. Doping is the process of intentionally
introducing impurities into an intrinsic semiconductor to alter its electrical properties.

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 N-type semiconductor: Created by doping a pure semiconductor with pentavalent
impurities (e.g., Phosphorus, Arsenic) from Group 15, which have five valence electrons. Four
valence electrons form covalent bonds, leaving one extra free electron. These excess electrons
are the majority carriers, while holes are minority carriers. The 'N' stands for negative, as
electrons carry a negative charge.
 P-type semiconductor: Created by doping a pure semiconductor with trivalent
impurities (e.g., Boron, Gallium) from Group 13, which have three valence electrons. These
impurities create a "hole" in the crystal lattice, as they can only form three covalent bonds. These
holes are the majority carriers, while free electrons are minority carriers. The 'P' stands for
positive, as holes behave like positive charge carriers.
The ability to precisely control conductivity through doping is what makes semiconductors
indispensable for building electronic devices like diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits.
5 Key Takeaways on Semiconductors:
1. Intermediate Conductivity: Semiconductors possess electrical conductivity between
conductors and insulators, making them unique for controlled electrical flow.
2. Silicon and Germanium: Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are the most widely used
semiconductor materials, forming crystal lattices with four valence electrons.
3. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic: Intrinsic semiconductors are pure and poor conductors, while
extrinsic semiconductors are doped to enhance conductivity.
4. Doping for Control: Doping with impurities (pentavalent for N-type, trivalent for P-
type) creates excess electrons (N-type) or holes (P-type), allowing precise control over their
electrical properties.
5. Foundation of Electronics: The ability to manipulate charge carriers in semiconductors
through doping is the fundamental principle behind all modern electronic components and
integrated circuits.
Questions on Semiconductors:
Objective Questions:
1. Which of the following materials is typically considered a semiconductor? a) Copper b)
Glass c) Silicon d) Gold
Answer: c) Silicon

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2. In an intrinsic semiconductor, what happens to conductivity as temperature increases? a)
It decreases b) It remains constant c) It increases d) It first decreases then increases
Answer: c) It increases
3. What type of impurity is added to create an N-type semiconductor? a) Trivalent b)
Divalent c) Pentavalent d) Tetravalent
Answer: c) Pentavalent
4. In a P-type semiconductor, what are the majority charge carriers? a) Free electrons b)
Holes c) Ions d) Protons
Answer: b) Holes
5. The process of intentionally adding impurities to a semiconductor to alter its electrical
properties is known as: a) Refining b) Etching c) Doping d) Annealing
Answer: c) Doping
Theory Questions:
1. Describe the atomic structure of Silicon and explain how this structure influences its
classification as a semiconductor.
Answer: Silicon (Si) is a Group 14 element, meaning it has four valence electrons. In its crystal
lattice structure, each Silicon atom forms four covalent bonds with four neighboring Silicon
atoms, sharing its valence electrons. At low temperatures, all valence electrons are tightly bound
in these covalent bonds, leaving no free electrons for conduction, hence it behaves like an
insulator. As temperature increases, some electrons gain enough thermal energy to break these
bonds, becoming free and creating "holes," which then act as charge carriers, giving it a
conductivity between that of conductors and insulators.
2. Elaborate on the process of doping and explain how it leads to the formation of N-type
and P-type semiconductors, highlighting the role of majority and minority carriers in each.
Answer: Doping is the intentional introduction of impurities into an intrinsic (pure)
semiconductor to modify its electrical conductivity.
o N-type semiconductors are formed by doping with pentavalent impurities (e.g.,
Phosphorus, Arsenic) from Group 15. These impurities have five valence electrons; four form
covalent bonds with surrounding silicon atoms, and the fifth electron is loosely bound and easily
becomes a free electron. Thus, electrons become the majority carriers, and holes are the
minority carriers.

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o P-type semiconductors are formed by doping with trivalent impurities (e.g.,
Boron, Gallium) from Group 13. These impurities have three valence electrons, which form three
covalent bonds. This leaves one "hole" (a missing electron) in the crystal structure for every
impurity atom. These holes can accept electrons and thus act as positive charge carriers. Here,
holes are the majority carriers, and electrons are the minority carriers. Doping precisely
controls the number and type of charge carriers, making semiconductors useful for electronic
devices.
2. Diodes
Lesson Note: What are Diodes?
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that primarily conducts current in one direction
(unidirectional current flow). It is essentially a semiconductor device formed by joining a P-type
semiconductor with an N-type semiconductor, creating what is known as a P-N junction.
When a P-type and an N-type material are joined, a depletion region forms at the junction. In
this region, free electrons from the N-side diffuse to the P-side and combine with holes, and
holes from the P-side diffuse to the N-side and combine with electrons. This recombination
leaves behind immobile positive ions on the N-side and negative ions on the P-side, creating an
electric field and a potential barrier (called the barrier potential or cut-in voltage, typically
around 0.7V for Silicon diodes and 0.3V for Germanium diodes) that prevents further diffusion
of charge carriers.
The behavior of a diode depends on the voltage applied across its terminals:
 Forward Bias: When the positive terminal of a voltage source is connected to the P-side
and the negative terminal to the N-side, the external voltage opposes the built-in barrier potential.
If the applied voltage exceeds the barrier potential, the depletion region narrows, and majority
carriers (holes from P-side, electrons from N-side) cross the junction, resulting in a significant
current flow.
 Reverse Bias: When the negative terminal of a voltage source is connected to the P-side
and the positive terminal to the N-side, the external voltage adds to the built-in barrier potential.
This causes the depletion region to widen, preventing majority carriers from crossing the
junction. Only a very small leakage current (due to minority carriers) flows. If the reverse
voltage increases beyond a certain limit, called the breakdown voltage, the diode's structure can
be permanently damaged, leading to a sudden, large increase in reverse current.

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The primary application of diodes is rectification, which is the process of converting alternating
current (AC) into direct current (DC). Diodes are also used in voltage regulation (Zener diodes),
signal modulation, and various switching applications.
5 Key Takeaways on Diodes:
1. Unidirectional Current Flow: Diodes are semiconductor devices that allow current to
flow predominantly in one direction.
2. P-N Junction Formation: A diode is created by joining a P-type and an N-type
semiconductor, forming a depletion region at their interface.
3. Forward Bias Conduction: In forward bias, an external voltage overcomes the diode's
barrier potential (e.g., 0.7V for Silicon), allowing significant current to flow.
4. Reverse Bias Blocking: In reverse bias, the diode blocks current flow (except for a small
leakage current) by widening the depletion region.
5. Rectification: The most common application of diodes is in rectification circuits,
converting AC electricity into DC.
Questions on Diodes:
Objective Questions:
1. A diode primarily conducts current in which direction? a) Bidirectional b) Unidirectional
c) Only AC d) Only DC
Answer: b) Unidirectional
2. The potential barrier across a P-N junction is typically around what voltage for a Silicon
diode? a) 0.3V b) 0.5V c) 0.7V d) 1.0V
Answer: c) 0.7V
3. When a diode is forward-biased, what happens to the depletion region? a) It widens b) It
narrows c) It disappears d) It remains unchanged
Answer: b) It narrows
4. What is the main application of diodes in power supply circuits? a) Amplification b)
Oscillation c) Rectification d) Modulation
Answer: c) Rectification
5. If the reverse voltage across a diode increases beyond a certain limit, what is that limit
called? a) Forward voltage b) Breakdown voltage c) Barrier potential d) Cut-in voltage
Answer: b) Breakdown voltage

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Theory Questions:
1. Describe the formation of a P-N junction and explain how the depletion region develops
within it.
Answer: A P-N junction is formed by joining a P-type semiconductor with an N-type
semiconductor. At the moment of contact, free electrons from the N-side diffuse across the
junction to the P-side, while holes from the P-side diffuse to the N-side. When electrons and
holes recombine, they neutralize each other. This leaves behind immobile positive donor ions on
the N-side (which lost electrons) and immobile negative acceptor ions on the P-side (which
gained electrons). This region, devoid of mobile charge carriers, is called the depletion region,
and the accumulated ions create an electric field that opposes further diffusion, establishing a
built-in potential barrier.
2. Compare and contrast the behavior of a diode under forward bias and reverse bias
conditions, detailing the current flow and the state of the depletion region in each case.
Answer:
o Forward Bias: When the positive terminal of an external voltage source is
connected to the P-side and the negative to the N-side, this voltage opposes the internal potential
barrier. If the applied voltage exceeds the barrier potential (e.g., 0.7V for Silicon), the depletion
region narrows, and majority carriers (holes from P-side, electrons from N-side) can easily cross
the junction, resulting in a large current flow.
o Reverse Bias: When the negative terminal of an external voltage source is
connected to the P-side and the positive to the N-side, this voltage adds to the internal potential
barrier. This causes the depletion region to widen, effectively blocking the flow of majority
carriers. Only a very small leakage current (due to minority carriers) flows. If the reverse
voltage becomes too high, it can lead to breakdown and permanent damage to the diode.
3. Transistors
Lesson Note: What are Transistors?
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical
power. It is one of the most fundamental building blocks of modern electronic devices, from
computers and mobile phones to amplifiers and control systems. The term "transistor" comes
from "transfer resistor," reflecting its ability to control current flow through one part of the
device based on a signal applied to another part.

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There are two main types of transistors:
1. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs): These are current-controlled devices. BJTs have
three layers of semiconductor material, forming two P-N junctions. They come in two
configurations:
o NPN Transistor: Consists of a P-type material sandwiched between two N-type
materials (N-P-N).
o PNP Transistor: Consists of an N-type material sandwiched between two P-type
materials (P-N-P). The three terminals of a BJT are:
o Emitter (E): Heavily doped, emits majority carriers.
o Base (B): Lightly doped and very thin, controls the flow of carriers.
o Collector (C): Moderately doped, collects carriers. In an NPN transistor, a small
current flowing into the base (Base current, IB) controls a much larger current flowing from the
collector to the emitter (Collector current, IC). The relationship is approximately IC=βIB, where
β (beta) is the current gain. BJTs can operate in three main regions: cutoff (off switch), saturation
(on switch), and active (amplifier).
2. Field-Effect Transistors (FETs): These are voltage-controlled devices. FETs control the
flow of current by applying a voltage to a gate terminal, which creates an electric field that
affects the conductivity of a channel. The most common type of FET is the Metal-Oxide-
Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET). The three terminals of a FET are:
o Gate (G): Controls the current flow (like the base in BJT).
o Source (S): Where carriers enter the channel (like the emitter).
o Drain (D): Where carriers leave the channel (like the collector). MOSFETs are
widely used in digital circuits (e.g., microprocessors) because they are very efficient as switches
and can be made very small. They also have a very high input impedance, meaning they draw
very little current from the controlling signal.
Transistors revolutionized electronics due to their small size, low power consumption, and
reliability, replacing bulky and fragile vacuum tubes. They are used in countless applications,
including amplifiers, oscillators, switches, and logic gates in integrated circuits.
5 Key Takeaways on Transistors:
1. Amplification and Switching: Transistors are fundamental semiconductor devices used
to amplify weak electronic signals and to act as electronic switches.

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2. BJT vs. FET: The two main types are Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs), which are
current-controlled, and Field-Effect Transistors (FETs), which are voltage-controlled.
3. Three Terminals: All transistors have three terminals: Emitter, Base, Collector for BJTs;
and Source, Gate, Drain for FETs, enabling control over current flow.
4. Current Gain (BJTs): In BJTs, a small base current controls a much larger collector
current, providing signal amplification (e.g., IC=βIB).
5. Digital Circuit Foundation (FETs/MOSFETs): FETs, especially MOSFETs, are
crucial for digital integrated circuits due to their high input impedance and efficient switching
capabilities, making them the backbone of modern computing.
Questions on Transistors:
Objective Questions:
1. What are the two primary functions of a transistor? a) Heating and Cooling b) Lighting
and Sound c) Amplification and Switching d) Storage and Display
Answer: c) Amplification and Switching
2. Which type of transistor is considered a current-controlled device? a) MOSFET b) JFET
c) BJT d) All of the above
Answer: c) BJT
3. In an NPN transistor, which terminal is responsible for controlling the flow of carriers? a)
Emitter b) Collector c) Base d) Source
Answer: c) Base
4. If a BJT has a current gain (β) of 50 and the base current (IB) is 50 μA, what is the
approximate collector current (IC)? a) 25 μA b) 2.5 mA c) 50 mA d) 2.5 A
Answer: b) 2.5 mA (Calculation: IC=β×IB=50×50μA=2500μA=2.5mA)
5. Which type of transistor is commonly used in digital logic circuits due to its high input
impedance and efficient switching capabilities? a) PNP Transistor b) NPN Transistor c) BJT d)
MOSFET
Answer: d) MOSFET
Theory Questions:
1. Differentiate between Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) and Field-Effect Transistors
(FETs) in terms of their control mechanisms and typical applications.
Answer:

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o BJTs (Bipolar Junction Transistors) are current-controlled devices. A small
current flowing into the base terminal controls a much larger current between the collector and
emitter. They are commonly used in analog amplification circuits (e.g., audio amplifiers) and
also as switches.
o FETs (Field-Effect Transistors), such as MOSFETs, are voltage-controlled
devices. A voltage applied to the gate terminal creates an electric field that controls the current
flow through a channel between the source and drain terminals. FETs have very high input
impedance, meaning they draw very little current from the control signal. They are widely
preferred for digital logic circuits (e.g., microprocessors, memory chips) due to their efficiency
as switches and scalability.
2. Explain how an NPN BJT operates as an amplifier, detailing the role of each terminal and
the relationship between base current and collector current.
Answer: An NPN BJT operates as an amplifier by using a small base current to control a larger
collector current.
o Emitter: Heavily doped, it emits a large number of electrons into the base.
o Base: Thin and lightly doped, it acts as a control terminal. A small positive
voltage and current applied to the base-emitter junction (forward bias) allows a small number of
electrons from the emitter to cross into the base. Most of these electrons (because the base is
thin) are swept into the collector by the collector-base reverse bias.
o Collector: Moderately doped and larger, it collects the electrons that cross from
the base. The key is the current gain (β), where IC=β×IB. A small change in the base current
(IB) causes a proportionally much larger change in the collector current (IC), effectively
amplifying the input signal applied to the base. This amplification allows weak signals to be
strengthened for various electronic applications.
Conclusion
1. The study of semiconductors, diodes, and transistors is fundamental to understanding
modern electronics. Semiconductors, with their tunable conductivity through doping, form the
raw material for all solid-state electronic devices.
2. Diodes, as the simplest P-N junction devices, serve as essential one-way valves for
current, enabling crucial functions like rectification.

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3. Building upon the diode's principles, transistors emerge as powerful three-terminal
devices capable of both amplifying weak signals and acting as high-speed electronic switches.
4. The evolution from vacuum tubes to these miniature, efficient semiconductor
components has revolutionized technology, making possible the ubiquitous digital devices that
define our modern world. Mastering these concepts is therefore not just an academic exercise but
a prerequisite for innovation in virtually every field of engineering and technology.

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