MODULE1

Thermodynamics & Heat Transfer

1.1 Basics Of Thermodynamics
• System and the surroundings- A system is an identifiable
part of the universe that is being studied, and the rest are
the surroundings.
• Energy can enter or leave a system in the form of heat or
work.

• Systems- A closed system does not exchange mass with its

surroundings, and an isolated system does not exchange
energy either.
• There is thermal equilibrium between two systems if there
is no heat flow between them.
• Both heat and work are taken to be positive if they enter
the system and negative if they leave.
 1.3 Thermodynamics & Heat
transfer
• Thermodynamics- change in the system from one
equilibrium state to another equilibrium state
• Heat transfer- the rate of change of system from
one to another equilibrium state
 1.3.1 Thermodynamics & Heat transfer-
Difference
"Thermodynamics" deals with the amount of energy in form of heat or work
during a process and only considers the end states in equilibrium. It will not
give information about how long it will take to reach to the final state in
equilibrium.
While,

"Heat Transfer" deals with the rate of energy transfer thus, it gives idea of how
long a heat transfer will occur? Heat transfer deals with time and non
equilibrium phenomena. Heat can only transfer when there is a temperature
gradient exists in a body and which is indication of non equilibrium
phenomena.

The concept of heat transfer is used in different practical systems such as- Eg-
boiler, condenser etc in a thermal power plant, refrigerator, radiator, ac etc.
1.3.2 Application areas of Heat transfer
 1.2 Laws Of Thermodynamics
• Zeroth law: If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third,
they must also be in thermal equilibrium with each other. This enables
temperature to be defined.

• First law: Thermodynamics processes subject to a principle of

conservation of energy. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
The internal energy of a system increases by as much energy enters the
system. This is the conservation of energy.
dU= Q-W

• Second law: The total entropy of an isolated system can never decrease
over time and is constant if and only if the processes are reversible.

• the change in entropy ds for a closed system receiving heat Q is

ds = dQ/dt
The entropy of an isolated system can thus only increase.
The equality holds for reversible processes and the inequality for
irreversible, defines the entropy of a system.
1.4 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

2. METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER

 2.1 Conduction
• Conduction: The transfer of energy from the
more energetic particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic ones as a result of
interactions between the particles.
• In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the
collisions and diffusion of the molecules
during their random motion.
• In solids, it is due to the combination of
vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the
energy transport by free electrons.
• In solid opaque bodies, thermal conduction is the
significant heat transfer mechanism because no net
material flows in the process.
• With flowing fluids, thermal conduction dominates in
the region very close to a solid boundary, where the
flow is laminar and parallel to the surface and where
there is no eddy motion.
• Example : On a summer day there is a significant
energy gain from outside air to a room.
• This gain is principally due to conduction heat transfer
through the wall that separates room air from outside
air
 2.1.1 Conduction Through
plane wall
 The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the
temperature difference across the layer and the heat transfer area, but
is inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer.

Heat conduction
through a large plane
wall of thickness x
and area A.
When x → 0 Fourier’s law of
heat conduction
Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of the ability of
a material to conduct heat.
Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope of the
temperature curve on a T-x diagram.
Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing
temperature, and the temperature gradient becomes
negative when temperature decreases with
increasing x. The negative sign in the equation
ensures that heat transfer in the positive x direction
is a positive quantity.

In heat conduction
analysis, A represents The rate of heat conduction
the area normal to the through a solid is directly
direction of heat proportional to its thermal
transfer. conductivity
Figure 1.27
 Thermal
Conductivity
Thermal conductivity:
The rate of heat transfer
through a unit thickness
of the material per unit
area per unit
temperature difference.
The thermal conductivity
of a material is a
measure of the ability of
the material to conduct
heat.
A high value for thermal
conductivity indicates
A simple experimental setup
that the material is a
to determine the thermal
good heat conductor,
conductivity of a material by
and a low value indicates measuring the terminal
that the material is a temperature.
poor heat conductor or
insulator.
The range of
thermal
conductivity of
various
materials at
room
temperature.
 The thermal conductivities of gases such
as air vary by a factor of 104 from those of
pure metals such as copper.
Pure crystals and metals have the
highest thermal conductivities, and gases
and insulating materials the lowest.

The mechanisms of heat

conduction in different
phases of a substance.
The variation of
the thermal
conductivity of
various solids,
liquids, and gases
with temperature.
16
Thermal Diffusivity
cp Specific heat, J/kg · °C: Heat capacity
per unit mass
cp Heat capacity, J/m3·°C: Heat capacity
per unit volume
 Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents
how fast heat diffuses through a material

A material that has a high thermal

conductivity or a low heat capacity will
obviously have a large thermal diffusivity.
The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster
the propagation of heat into the medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity means
that heat is mostly absorbed by the
material and a small amount of heat is
conducted further.
Figure 1.32
Figure 1.33
2.2 Convection
 2.2.1 Newton’s Law Of Cooling
• Governing law for convective heat transfer
• It states that ‘ The rate of heat transfer is directly
proportional to the surface area and temperature
difference between the surface and the fluid’
• Fluid can be moving or static, when the fluid is in static state– Natural
convection occurs.
• If the fluid is in motion with temperature, T and it is passed over a
surface with area As & temperature Ts , then
• Q conv. Is proportional to the surface area As and the temperature
difference Ts - T
 Newton’s law of cooling
h convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 · °C
As the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place
Ts the surface temperature
T the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.

The convection heat transfer

coefficient h is not a property
of the fluid.
It is an experimentally
determined parameter whose
value depends on all the
variables influencing
convection such as
- the surface geometry
- the nature of fluid motion
- the properties of the fluid
- the bulk fluid velocity
23
 2.2.2 Critical Thickness of Insulation
• The thickness upto which heat flow increases and
after which heat flow decreases is termed
as critical thickness.
• In the case of cylinders and spheres it is
called critical radius.
• It can be derived the critical radius of
insulation depends on the thermal conductivity
of the material, k (Wm-1K-1) and the external
convection heat transfer coefficient, h (Wm-2).
• Rcritical = k/h
 2.2.3 Free and Forced Convection
• Convection is called forced convection if the
fluid is forced to flow over the surface by
external means such as a fan, pump, or
compressor etc.
• Convection is called natural (or free)
convection if the fluid motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that are induced by density
differences due to the variation of
temperature in the fluid.
 2.2.4 Heat Transfer Coefficient
• The heat transfer coefficient or film coefficient, or film
effectiveness, in thermodynamics and in mechanics is
the proportionality constant between the heat flux and the
thermodynamic driving force for the flow of heat (i.e., the
temperature difference, ΔT).
• The general definition of the heat transfer coefficient is:
•
• q = heat flux = Q/A , Thermal power per unit area
• h = heat transfer coefficient
• = difference in temperature between solid and
surroundings.
 2.3 Radiation
• Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic
waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic
configurations of the atoms or molecules.
• Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does
not require the presence of an intervening medium.
• In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it
suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun
reaches the earth.
• In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is
the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.
• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.
• Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and
gases emit, absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees.
• However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon
for solids.
 2.3.1 Stephan Boltzmann’s Law
• Radiation heat transfer depends on the
surface properties such as colours, surface
orientation and fourth power of the absolute
temperature (T4) of the surface.
• The basic equation for radiation heat transfer
between two grey surfaces is given by:
•
 Stefan–Boltzmann law
 = 5.670  10-8 W/m2 · K4 Stefan–Boltzmann constant
Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate.

Radiation emitted
by real surfaces
Emissivity  : A measure of how closely
a surface approximates a blackbody for
which  = 1 of the surface. 0   1.

Blackbody radiation represents the maximum

amount of radiation that can be emitted from
a surface at a specified temperature. 27
Absorptivity : The fraction of the radiation energy incident
on a surface that is absorbed by the surface. 0   1
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it ( = 1).
Kirchhoff’s law: The emissivity and the absorptivity of a
surface at a given temperature and wavelength are equal.

The absorption of radiation incident on

an opaque surface of absorptivity . 28
Net radiation heat transfer: When a surface is completely enclosed by a
The difference between the much larger (or black) surface at temperature
rates of radiation emitted by the Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air) that
surface and the radiation does not intervene with radiation, the net rate
absorbed. of radiation heat transfer between these
two surfaces is given by
The determination of the net
rate of heat transfer by radiation
between two surfaces is a
complicated matter since it
depends on
• the properties of the surfaces
•their orientation relative to
each other
•the interaction of the medium
between the surfaces with
radiation
Radiation is usually
significant relative to
conduction or natural
convection, but
negligible relative to Radiation heat transfer between a
29
forced convection. surface and the surfaces surrounding it.
When radiation and convection occur simultaneously between a
surface and a gas:

Combined heat transfer coefficient hcombined

Includes the effects of both convection and radiation

30
[Link] Thermal Resistance Concept
2.1.2 Heat transfer Through composite cylinder
 Figure 1.41

Table 1-6
 1-9 SIMULTANEOUS HEAT
TRANSFER MECHANISMS
• Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque solids, but
by conduction and radiation in semitransparent solids.
• A solid may involve conduction and radiation but not
convection. A solid may involve convection and/or radiation on
its surfaces exposed to a fluid or other surfaces.
• Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by radiation in
a still fluid (no bulk fluid motion) and by convection and
radiation in a flowing fluid.
• In the absence of radiation, heat transfer through a fluid is
either by conduction or convection, depending on the presence
of any bulk fluid motion.
Convection = Conduction + Fluid motion Although there are three mechanisms of
heat transfer, a medium may involve
Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation. only two of them simultaneously.
Most gases between two solid surfaces do
not interfere with radiation.
33
Liquids are usually strong absorbers of
radiation.
 Figure 1.43

Table 1-6
Figure 1.44
Figure 1.45
Figure 1.47
 2.3.2 Radiation Shield
• Radiation heat transfer between two surfaces can
be reduced greatly by inserting a thin, high-
reflectivity (low-emissivity) sheet of material
between the two surfaces.
• The role of the radiation shield is to reduce the
rate of radiation heat transfer by placing additional
resistances in the path of radiation heat flow.
• The lower the emissivity of the shield, the higher
the resistance
 2.3.3 Reflectivity
• Reflectivity is an optical property of material,
which describes how much light is reflected
from the material in relation to an amount of
light incident on the material.
• The reflection occurs always on the surface of
the material, for the light-diffusing
(translucent) materials also in the volume of
the material.
 2.3.4 Absorptivity
• absorptivity is the amount of heat absorbed
by body divided by the incident heat energy.
• It is a measure of how much of the radiation is
absorbed by the body.
 2.3.5 Transmissivity
• It is defined by the ratio of transmitted
radiant power to incident radiant power.
• Example when light passes through a glass
slab because only a part of the light is
transmitted.
• Remaining can be reflected or absorbed or
both.
 2.3.6 Emissivity
• Emissivity is the measure of an object's ability
to emit infrared energy.
• Blackbody is an ideal situation (ε = 1)
• [A black body or blackbody is an idealized physical body that absorbs all
incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of
incidence. The name "black body" is given because it absorbs radiation in
all frequencies, not because it only absorbs. Indeed, a black body can also
emit radiation]
 2.3.7 Kirchhoff's Law

• Law states : the emissivity and the absorptivity of

a surface at a given temperature and wavelength
are equal.
• For an arbitrary body emitting and absorbing
thermal radiation in thermodynamic
equilibrium, emissivity ε = absorptivity α
• Important, it implies wavelength dependences
• Also depends upon viewing directions (θ, Φ)
• Applies under conditions of local thermodynamic
equilibrium
 2.3.8 Emissive Power
• Emissive power is the energy of thermal
radiation emitted in all directions per unit
time per unit area of a surface at any given
temperature.
 2.3.9 Wien’s Displacement Law
• Wien's displacement law states that the black-
body radiation curve for different temperatures
will peak at different wavelengths that are
inversely proportional to the temperature.
• The shift of that peak is a direct consequence of
the Planck radiation law, which describes the
spectral brightness of black-body radiation as a
function of wavelength at any given temperature.
• λpeakT = b
• T is the absolute temperature in kelvins.
• b ≈ 2898 μm K , Wien's displacement constant.
 [Link] The principle of energy distribution-Wien’s
Displacement Law

• A perfectly black body radiate energy in the waves and different wave
lengths. The total energy is distributed unequally in different wave length.
This is distribution of energy.
• Any one wavelength carry maximum energy.

• Wien’s law- λm proportional to T

• λm = b/ T
• B, Wien’s constant- 2.898x10 -3mK

• In the basis of Wien’s law, green house effect can be understood

Energy emittance
3. Insulation
• Thermal insulation is the reduction of heat
transfer (the transfer of thermal energy
between objects of differing temperature)
between objects in thermal contact.
 3.1 Properties Of Insulation
• Thermal Conductivity / λ (lambda) : Thermal conductivity
measures the ease with which heat can travel through a material by
conduction.
• Thermal Resistance (R) : The heat flow through a building
construction depends on the temperature difference across it, the
conductivity of the materials used and the thickness of the
materials. The temperature difference is an external factor. The
thickness and the conductivity are properties of the material. A
greater thickness means less heat flow and so does a lower
conductivity. Together these parameters form the thermal
resistance of the construction. The thermal resistance is
proportional to the thickness of a layer of the construction and
inversely proportional to its conductivity. A construction layer with
a high thermal resistance (e.g. rock wool), is a good insulator; one
with a low thermal resistance (e.g. concrete) is a bad insulator.
• Specific Heat Capacity: The Specific Heat Capacity of a material is
the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1kg of the
material by 1K (or by 1oC) .
• Thermal Diffusivity : Thermal Diffusivity
measures the ability of a material to conduct
thermal energy relative to its ability to store
thermal energy.
• Vapour Permeability: Vapour Permeability is
the extent to which a material permits the
passage of water through it
• Density : The density refers to the mass (or
'weight') per unit volume of a material and is
measured in kg/m3.
• Embodied Carbon (Embodied Energy):
Embodied Carbon is usually considered as the
amount of gases released from usually fossil fuels
and used to produce energy expended between
the extraction of raw material, via the
manufacturing process to the factory gates. It is
the carbon footprint of a material
Thank You