Circuits, Currents, and Voltages Basic Concept in EE: KCL Basic Concept in EE: KVL Introduction to Circuit Elements

EE331-Electrical Engineering Principles and

Application

Chapter 1
DC Circuit-Current, Voltage,Power and Energy
Basic Concept-Ohm’s Law, KVL, and KCL

Dr. Salem Batiyah

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Technology
Yanbu Industrial College
Office: ACX-F70
batiyahs@[Link]

First (Fall) Semester

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As an Engineer: You are expected to solve engineering

problems by applying the required mathematics, science,
and engineering knowledge.

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ˆ Overview of Electrical Engineering

Figure1. The headlight circuit, a)Actual physical layout of circuit

Figure2. Circuit diagram

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ˆ Electrical Circuit
An electrical circuit: consists of various types of circuit
elements connected in closed paths by conductors

Figure3. An electrical circuit consists of circuit elements, such as voltage sources, resistances, inductances, and capacitances, connected in
closed paths by conductors.

ˆ Basic Elements:
Source: Batteries, Generator, Power Plant, ... etc
Load: Lamp, Fan, House, ... etc.
Conductors: Silver, Copper, Gold . . . etc connecting wires
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ˆ System of Units

International Units (SI):

The International System of Units (SI) was adopted by the
General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960.

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ˆ System of Units
Prefixes:

Example
Rewrite the following values using the SI prefixes:

Solution

54, 325.33V = KV
0.000001582F = µF
9874445374.87W = GW
0.10053A = mA
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ˆ System of Units
Prefixes:

Example
Rewrite the following values using the SI prefixes:

Solution

54, 325.33V = 54.325KV

0.000001582F = 1.582µF
9874445374.87W = 9.87GW
0.10053A = 100.53mA

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ˆ Electrical Current
Electrical Current: is the time rate of flow of electrical charge through a
conductor or circuit element.
Anddre-Marie Amper developed the current measuring method in the 1820s.
The units are amperes (A), which are equivalent to coulombs per second
(C/s)
The charge on an electron is −1.602 × 10−19 C .
The net charge in coulombs as a function of time is q(t).
The electrical current flowing through the element in the reference direction
is given by

dq(t)
i(t) = (1)
dt

To find the charge given current, we must integrate. Thus, we have

Z t
q(t) = i(t)dt + q(to ) (2)
to
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Example 1
Example
Suppose that charge versus time for a given circuit element is given by

q(t) =0fort < 0 (3)

andq(t) =2 − 2 exp −100tC fort > 0 (4)

Solution
First, we use the Equation below to find an expression for the current:

dq(t)
i(t) =
dt
i(t) = 0 t<0
i(t) = 200 exp −100t t>0

Chapter 1 DC Circuit-Current, Voltage,Power and Energy Basic Concept-Ohm’s Law, KVL, and KCL
Plots of q(t) and i(t) are shown in Figure 1.5 below.
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Example 1

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ˆ Reference Directions of Current

In analyzing electrical circuits, we may not initially know the actual
direction of current flow in a particular circuit element
Currents are represented by the letter ”i” with subscripts for
distinction.
Figure 1.6 shows circuit elements labeled A, B, etc.
A negative current (e.g., i1 = −2A) indicates flow opposite to the
reference direction.
For i1 = −2A the actual current is 2 A flowing downward through
element A.

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ˆ Reference Directions of Current

Arrows are used to show reference directions for currents in circuits.
Another method is using double subscripts to define current
directions.
For a circuit element, iab denotes current flowing from a to b.
iba represents current flowing from b to a.
iab and iba have the same magnitude but opposite signs.

Figure4. Reference directions can be indicated by labeling the ends of circuit elements and using double subscripts on the current
variables. The reference direction for iab points from a to b. On the other hand, the reference direction for iba points from b to a.

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Example for Practice

Example
A constant current of 2A flows through a circuit element. In 10 seconds (s), how much net charge
passes through the element?

Solution
Answer: 20 C

Example
The charge that passes through a circuit element is given by q(t) = 0.01 sin(200t)C , in which the
angle is in radians. Find the current as a function of time.

Solution
Answer: i(t) = 2 cos(200t)A.

Example
In Figure 1.6, suppose that i2 = 1A and i3 = −3A. Assuming that the current consists of a positive
charge, in which direction (upward or downward) is the charge moving in element C? In element E?

Solution
Answer: Downward in element C and upward in element E.
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ˆDirect Current and Alternating Current

DC Current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time (Edison)
AC Current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time (Tesla)
The designation ac is used for other types of time-varying currents,
such as the triangular and square waveforms shown in Figure 1.8.

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ˆVoltage (V)

In order to move the electron in a conductor in a particular direction

requires some work or energy transfer. This work is performed by an
external electromotive force (emf), typically represented by the
battery
Voltage is a measure of the energy transferred per unit of charge
when a charge moves from one point in an electrical circuit to a
second point.
Alessandro Volta developed the voltage measuring method in 1800.
The units of voltage are volts (V), which are equivalent to joules per
coulomb (J/C).
dw
Vab = (5)
dq

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ˆ Voltage (V)

Voltage polarities indicate the direction of energy flow.

Positive charge moving from positive to negative polarity means the
element absorbs energy (e.g., heat, mechanical, chemical).
Positive charge moving from negative to positive polarity means the
element supplies energy.
This is shown in Figure 1.10.
For negative charges, the energy transfer direction is reversed.

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ˆ Voltage (V)
When analyzing a circuit, actual voltage polarities are often unknown.
Assign voltage variables with arbitrary reference polarities.
The actual polarities are determined through circuit analysis.
Figure 1.11 illustrates this concept.
If the actual polarity is opposite to the chosen reference, the voltage
will have a negative value (e.g. v3 = −5V means 5 V with opposite
polarity).
Correct reference choices for current or voltage are not crucial;
arbitrary choices are fine.
Circuit analysis reveals the true directions, polarities, and magnitudes
of currents and voltages.

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ˆ Double-Subscript Notation for Voltages

Reference polarity of a voltage can be indicated using double subscripts.
Terminals are labeled to show where the voltage appears (Figure 1.12).
vab denotes voltage from point a to b, with an as the positive reference.
vba denotes voltage from b to a, with b as the positive reference.
vab = −vba because they have the same magnitude but opposite polarities.
An arrow can also indicate voltage polarity; the head represents the positive reference (see
Figure 1.13).

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Example for Practice

Example
The voltage across a given circuit element is vab = 20V . A positive charge
of 2 C moves through the circuit element from terminal b to terminal a.
How much energy is transferred? Is the energy supplied by the circuit
element or absorbed by it?

Solution
Answer: 40 J are supplied by the circuit element.

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ˆ Power and Energy

In Figure 1.14, current i and voltage v determine the rate of energy transfer.
The product of current and voltage gives the power: p = vi
To determine if power represents energy supplied or absorbed, refer to Figure 1.14.
In the passive reference configuration, where current enters the positive voltage polarity:
Positive power means the element absorbs energy.
Negative power means the element supplies energy.
If the current enters the negative end of the voltage polarity, use p = −vi:
Positive power indicates energy absorption.
Negative power indicates energy supply.
For an electrochemical battery:
Positive power means charging (energy stored as chemical energy).
Negative power means discharging (energy supplied to other circuit elements).
Currents, voltages, and powers may vary with time and are expressed as p(t) = v (t)i(t)

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Example for Practice

Example
Consider the circuit elements shown in Figure 1.15. Calculate the power for each element. If each
element is a battery, is it being charged or discharged?

Solution
Answer:

pa = va ia = 12V × 2A = 24W (6)

pb = −vb ib = −(12V ) × 1A = −12W (7)
pc = vc ic = 12V × (−3A) = −36W (8)
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Energy Calculation
To calculate the energy w delivered to a circuit element between time instants t1 and t2, we
integrate power: Z t
2
w = p(t)dt (9)
t1
Example
Find an expression for the power for the voltage source shown in
Figure 1.16. Compute the energy for the interval from t1 = 0 to
t2 = ∞.

Solution

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Nodes, Branches, and Loops

A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a
resistor
A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

Figure5. Nodes, branches, and loops.

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ˆ Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Node in Electrical Circuit: A node is a point where two or more circuit elements are connected.
Examples: Nodes are illustrated in Figure 1.18.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL): The net current entering a node is zero.
Computing Net Current: To find the net current entering a node, add the currents entering
the node and subtract the currents leaving the node.

There are two other equivalent ways to state KCL:

the net current leaving a node is zero where we add the currents leaving and subtract
the currents entering.
The sum of the currents entering a node equals the sum of the currents leaving a node.

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ˆ Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Points in a circuit directly connected by conductors form a single node.

In Figure 1.19, elements A, B, C, and D share a common node.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) can be applied at this node.
ia + ic = ib + id (10)

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ˆ Kirchhoff’s Current Law

ˆSeries Circuits
When elements are connected end to end, we say that they are connected in series.
Elements A, B, and C in Figure 1.20 are connected in series.
Elements are in series if no other current path exists at their connecting node.
In a series circuit, all elements have the same current.
Applying KCL at node 1 in Figure 1.20, we get: (KCL equation follows).

ia = ib (11)

At node 2, we have

ib = ic (12)

Thus, we have

ia = ib = ic (13)

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Example for Practice

Example
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1.21.
Which elements are in series?
What is the relationship between ib and ic ?
Given that ia = 6A and ic = −2A, determine the values of ib and id .

Solution
Answer:
Elements A and E are in series, and elements C and D are in series.
Because elements C and D are in series, the currents are equal in magnitude. However,
because the reference directions are opposite, the algebraic signs of the current values are
opposite. Thus, we have ic = −id .
At the node joining elements A, B, and C, we can write the KCL equation
ib = ia + ic = 6 − 2 = 4A. Also, we found earlier that id = −ic = 2A.
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Example for Practice

Example
Use KCL to determine the values of the unknown currents shown in Figure 1.22.

Solution
Answer: ia = 4A, ib = −2A, ic = −8A.
Example
Consider the circuit of Figure 1.23. Identify the groups of circuit elements that are connected in
series.

Solution
Answer: Elements A and B are in series; elements E, F, and G form another series combination.
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ˆ Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

A loop in a circuit is a closed path that starts and ends at the same node.
Multiple loops can exist in a circuit.
In Figure 1.23:
One loop goes clockwise from the top of element A, through B, C, and back through A.
Another loop goes clockwise from the top of D, through E, F, G, and back through D.
A third loop follows the circuit’s perimeter through A, B, E, F, and G.

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ˆ Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): The algebraic sum of the voltages
equals zero for any closed path (loop) in an electrical circuit.
In a loop, voltages are added or subtracted based on their polarity:
Positive when moving from positive to negative polarity.
Negative when moving from negative to positive polarity.
Figure 1.24 illustrates this convention.
For the circuit in Figure 1.25

loop 1: −va + vb + vc = 0
Loop 2: −vc − vd + ve = 0
Loop 3: va − vb + vd − ve = 0
Voltage signs change based on the direction of travel in each loop (e.g., va is subtracted in
Loop 1 and added in Loop 3).

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ˆ Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Related to Conservation of

Energy
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) is based on the law of energy conservation.
In Figure 1.26, three elements are connected in series, meaning the same current i flows
through each element.
The power for each element is calculated using the product of current and voltage:

Element A: pa = va i
Element B: pb = −vb i

Element C: pc = vc i

For elements A and C, the current enters the positive voltage polarity (passive configuration).
For element B, the current enters the negative voltage polarity, leading to a negative sign in
its power calculation (pb ).
The total power in a circuit must sum to zero to satisfy energy conservation:pa + pb + pc = 0
Substituting the powers: va i − vb i + vc i = 0
Dividing by the current: va − vb + vc = 0
This matches the KVL equation obtained by summing the voltages around the loop in Figure
1.26.
A good check after solving circuit equations is to ensure that the sum of all element powers
equals zero.
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ˆ Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

ˆ Parallel Circuits
Two elements are in parallel if both ends are directly connected to the corresponding ends of
each other.
In Figure 1.27: It can observed the following points:
Elements A and B are in parallel.
Elements D, E, and F are also in parallel.
Element B is not in parallel with D because their corresponding ends are not directly
connected.

Parallel elements have equal voltages with the same

polarity.
In Figure 1.28, elements A, B, and C are in parallel.
Using a loop from the bottom of A through B and
back, KVL gives:−va + vb = 0
Thus, KVL requires that va = vb

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Example for Practice

Example
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1.30. a) Which elements are in parallel? b) Which elements are
in series? c) What is the relationship between vd and vf ? d) Given that va = 10V , vc = 15V , and
ve = 20V , determine the values of vb and vf .

Solution
a) Elements D and F are in parallel.
b) Elements A and E are in series.
c) Because elements D and F are in parallel, vd and vf are equal in magnitude. However, because
the reference directions are opposite, the algebraic signs of their values are opposite. Thus, we have
vd = −vf .
d) Applying KVL: va + vb − ve = 0
Solving for vb :
vb = ve − va = 20 − 10 = 10V .
Applying KVL to the loop around the outer perimeter of the circuit, we have:
va − vc + vf − ve = 0
Solving for vf :
we find that vf = vc + ve − va = 15V + 20V − 10V = 25V .
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Example for Practice

Example
Use repeated application of KVL to find the values of vc and ve for the circuit of Figure 1.31.

Solution
Answer: vc = 8V , ve = −2V .

Example
Identify elements that are in parallel in Figure 1.31. Identify elements in series.

Solution
Answer: Elements E and F are in parallel; elements A and B are in series.

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ˆ Introduction to Circuit Elements

ˆ Types of Ideal Circuit Elements:
Conductors
Voltage Sources
Current Sources
Resistors
Conductors
Ideal Conductors: Represented by unbroken lines between the ends of
other circuit elements.
The voltage between the ends of an ideal conductor is zero regardless
of the current flowing through the conductor.
Short Circuit: When two points are connected by an ideal conductor,
they are ”shorted” together.
All points in a circuit that are connected by ideal conductors can be
considered as a single node.
Open Circuit: Exists when no conductors or elements connect two
parts of a circuit. No current flows through an ideal open circuit.
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ˆ Introduction to Circuit Elements

Independent voltage source:
An ideal independent voltage source maintains a specified voltage
across its terminals.
The voltage is unaffected by other connected elements or the current
flowing through it.
The voltage can be constant (DC) or time-varying (AC):
DC Voltage Source: Constant voltage (Figure 1.32(a)).
AC Voltage Source: Sinusoidal voltage variation over time (Figure
1.32(b)).

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ˆ Introduction to Circuit Elements

Ideal Circuit Elements versus Reality
Ideal Circuit Elements: Definitions can sometimes conflict in circuit
diagrams.
Example: Figure 1.33 shows a 12-V voltage source with a conductor
across its terminals.
Real-World Example: An automobile battery (almost an ideal 12-V
source) shorted by a copper wire (almost an ideal conductor) results
in:

Very high current.

Rapid energy conversion to heat.
Potentially melting the wire or
destroying the battery.

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ˆ Introduction to Circuit Elements

Dependent Voltage Sources:
Similar to independent sources but the voltage across their terminals
depends on other voltages or currents in the circuit. it represented by
a diamond in circuit diagrams.
Two examples of dependent sources are shown in Figure 1.34.
A voltage-controlled voltage source: maintains a voltage across its
terminals equal to a constant times a voltage elsewhere in the circuit.
A current-controlled voltage source: maintains a voltage across its
terminals equal to a constant times a current flowing through some
other element in the circuit.

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ˆ Introduction to Circuit Elements

Independent voltage source:
Forces a specified current to flow through itself, regardless of the
voltage across its terminals.
Represented by a circle with an arrow indicating the reference
direction of the current.
The current can be constant (DC) or time-varying (AC) as shown in
Figure 1.35:
DC Current Source: Provides a constant current.
AC Current Source: Provides a current that varies with time, often
sinusoidally.

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ˆ Introduction to Circuit Elements

Dependent Voltage Sources:
The current flowing through a dependent current source is determined
by a current or voltage elsewhere in the circuit. it represented by a
diamond enclosing an arrow indicating the reference direction.
Types of Controlled Current Sources are shown in Figure 1.36.
Voltage-Controlled Current Source (VCCS): current is proportional to
a voltage elsewhere in the circuit.
Current-Controlled Current Source (CCCS): current is proportional to
a current elsewhere in the circuit.

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Resistors and Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s Law state that the voltage v across an ideal resistor is proportional to the current i
through it.

The relationship between voltage and current is given by: v = iR

The units of resistance are volts per ampere (V/A), which are called ohms (Ω).
Resistances range from milliohms (mΩ) to megohms (MΩ) in practical circuits.
The ratio of V between any two points of the conductor to the current I is constant: V

Current: I = VR
Voltage: V = I × R
Resistance: R = VI

If the current reference direction enters the negative voltage reference as shown in Figure 1.38,
Ohm’s law is expressed as:
v = −iR
If the order of the subscripts is the same for both current and voltage (e.g., iab and vab ), the
current reference direction enters the first terminal, and the positive voltage reference is at
the first terminal: vab = iab R If the order of the subscripts is not the same:
vab = −iba R
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Example for Practice

Example
The resistance of a gas-filled incandescent lamp, when cold, is 20Ω. Its hot
resistance at the operating voltage of 110V is 220Ω. Find the current:
At the moment of switching on
Normal working current

Solution
a) Given: R = 20Ω, V = 110V

V 110
I = = = 5.5A
R 20
b) Given R = 220Ω, V = 110V

V 110
I = = = 0.5A
R 220
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Example for Practice

Example
Calculate the current flowing through the resistance of the given circuit:

Solution
Given: Vs = 10V , R = 2Ω, and I =?? +
− 10V 2Ω
Vs 10
I = = = 5A
R 2

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ˆ Introduction to Circuit Elements

Conductance:
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance.
Formula:
1
G = (14)
R
Units: The units of conductance are inverse ohms (Ω−1 ), also known
as siemens (S).
Ohm’s Law in Terms of Conductance:

i = Gv (15)

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ˆResistor (R)
Resistors are made by attaching terminals to
conductive materials like metals, alloys, and
carbon (Figure 1.39).
Conductors: Low resistivity; easily conduct
electrical current. Pure metal, Silver, Copper,
and Aluminum are considered good conductors
due to the large number of free elements which
allow electrons to flow through it which
produce heat.
Insulators: High resistivity; conduct very little
current (at moderate voltages). Good
insulators include glass, rubber, dry wood,
paper, cotton, etc.
Resistance Unit: Ohm (Ω)

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Laws of Resistance (R)

ˆ Factors Affecting Resistance as follows:
Vary directly as its length (L). Example, for one
meter copper wire that has R = 0.04Ω, then two
meters of the same wire will have R = 0.08Ω and
50 meters will have R =?Ω
Varies inversely as the cross-section of the
conductor where L: length, A: area of
cross-sectional, and R: resistance, d:diameter:
 
1 L
Rα −→ R = ρ (16)
a A
πd 2
where A = 4
Depends on the natural of the material
Depends on the temperature of the conductor
Resistivity ρ measured in ohm-meter (Ω − m)
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Resistivity of the material (ρ)

Table 1.3 provides approximate values of resistivity for various
materials, showing differences in conductive properties.

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Example for Practice

Example
Compute the resistance of a copper wire having a diameter of 2.05 mm
and a length of 10 m.

Solution
Given: L = 10m, R = 21Ω, d = 2.05mm, ρ = 1.72 × 10−8 Ω − m
First, we compute the cross-sectional area of the wire:
L
R=ρ
A

2
πd 2 π 2.05 × 10−3
A= = = 3.3 × 10−6 m2
4 2
L 1.72 × 10−8 × 10
R=ρ = = 0.052Ω
A 3.3 × 10−6

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Example for Practice

Example
The resistance of a Cu wire 200 meter long is 21Ω. If its thickness is
0.044cm, calculate its specific resistance.

Solution
Given: l = 200m, R = 21Ω, d = 0.044cm, ρ =??
l
R=ρ
a
R ×a
ρ=
l
R × πd 2
ρ=
4×l
21Ω × π × (0.044cm)2
=
4 × 200m
= 1.597µΩ − cm
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Example for Practice

Example
Calculate the resistance of 1km long cable composed of 19 strands of
similar copper Cu conductors each strand being 1.32mm in diameter. Allow
5% increase in length for the ‘lay’ (twist) of each strand in the completed
cable. The resistivity of copper may be taken as 1.72 × 10−8 Ω − m

Solution
Given: L = 1000m, d = 1.32mm, ρ = 1.72 × 10−8 Ω − m, R =??

L = 1000m + 5%of 1000m = 1050m

2
πd 2 π × 1.32 × 10−3
A = 19 × = 19 × = 26 × 10−6
4  4 
L 1050
R = ρ = 1.72 × 10−8 ×


= 0.694Ω
A 26 × 10−6

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Power Calculations for Resistances

Power Formula for Circuit Elements::
p = vi
If v and i follow the passive reference configuration (current entering
the positive voltage terminal), a positive power indicates energy
absorption by the element, while a negative power indicates energy
supply by the element.
If the battery is not connected to a load, then the battery current will
be zero. As a result the battery power is zero.
Power in Terms of Current (using Ohm’s Law, v = iR):
p = v × i = R × i2
Power in Terms of Voltage (substituting i = v /R into the power
formula):
v2
p=
R
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Example for Practice

Example
A certain electrical heater is rated for 1500 W when operated from 120 V.
Find the resistance of the heater element and the operating current.
(Resistance depends on temperature, and we will find the resistance at the
operating temperature of the heater.)

Solution
Given: P = 1500W , v = 120V , R = i =??

v2 1202
R= = = 9.6Ω
P 1500
v 120
i= = = 12.5A
R 9.6

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Measuring Strain Using Resistance

Application in Engineering:
Civil and mechanical engineers use the relationship between resistance and physical
dimensions of a conductor to measure strain.
Strain is defined as the fractional change in length:
∆L
ϵ= (17)
L
Resistive Strain Gauge:
Resistive strain gauge consists of nickel–copper alloy foil photoetched to create multiple
conductors.
Conductors are aligned with the direction of the strain to be measured (as shown in
Figure PA1.1).
Conductors are bonded to a thin polyimide backing (a tough, flexible plastic), which is
attached to the structure under test using adhesive (e.g., cyanoacrylate cement).

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Measuring Strain Using Resistance

Resistance of a Conductor:
ρL
R = (18)
A
As strain is applied, length L and cross-sectional area A change, leading to a change in
resistance R.
The gauge factor is the ratio of the relative change in resistance to the strain:

∆R/R0
G = (19)
ϵ

Where ∆R is the change in resistance, R0 is the initial resistance, and ϵ is the strain.
R0 is the resistance of the strain gauge before any strain is applied.
A typical strain gauge has an initial resistance of R0 = 350Ω.
Gauge factor G is a measure of sensitivity, with a typical value of 2.0.
For a strain of 1% (ϵ = 0.01), the change in resistance (∆R) can be calculated using

∆R = 2 × ϵ × R0 (20)

Substituting the values:

∆R = G × 0.01 × 350 = 7Ω (21)
Resistive strain gauges are used to construct sensors for measuring force, torque, and pressure.
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Introduction to Circuits
We have discussed Electrical current, voltage, Kirchhoff’s laws, ideal circuit elements (voltage
sources, current sources, resistances).
we initially select reference polarities and directions that agree with the actual polarities and
current directions.

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Example for Practice

Example
Analyze the circuit of Figure 1.41 using the current and voltage references shown in Figure 1.42.
Verify that the results are in agreement with those found earlier. Find voltage, current, powers ?

Solution

−vs − vx = 0 −→ vx = −vs = −10V

vx −10
ix = − =− = 2A
R 5
iy + ix = 0 −→ iy = −ix = −2A
ps = vs iy = 10 × (−2) = −20W pR = −vx ix = −(−10) × 2 = 20W

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Example for Practice

Example
Solve for the source voltage in the circuit of Figure 1.43 in which we have a current-controlled
current source and we are given that the voltage across the 5Ω resistance is 15V .

Solution

vx 15V
iy = = = 3A
R 5Ω
iy − ix − 0.5ix = 0 −→ iy = ix + 0.5ix −→ ix = 2A
vx = 10ix = 10 × 2A = 20V
Vs = vx + 15 = 20V + 15V = 35V
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Example for Practice

Example
Analyze the circuit shown in Figure 1.44 to find the values of i1 , i2 , and v2 . Use the values found to
compute the power for each element.

Solution
Answer: i1 = i2 = −1A, v2 = −25V , pR = 25W , ps = −25W .

Example
Figure 1.45 shows an independent current source connected across a resistance. Analyze to find the
values of iR , vR , vs , and the power for each element.

Solution
Answer: iR = 2A, vs = vR = 80V , ps = −160W , pR = 160W .
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Thank You

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