Unit 1

1. Because
🔹 English Explanation
Because is used to give a direct reason for something.
It answers the question “Why?”
Structure:
Because + subject + verb
 I stayed home because it was raining.
 She is happy because she passed the exam.

🔹 Pashto Explanatio
Because‫ د دلیل یا علت لپاره استعمالېږي‬.
‫دا د ولې؟ پوښتنې ته ځواب ورکوي‬.
‫جوړښت‬:
Because + ‫فاعل‬+ ‫فعل‬
🔹 Examples (Pashto)
 ‫زه په کور کې پاتې شوم‬because‫ باران و‬.
 ‫هغه خوشاله ده‬because‫ ازموینه یې بریالۍ کړه‬.

2. Since
🔹 English Explanation
Since has two meanings, but here we focus on reason.
When since means because, it gives a more general or known reason (often at the beginning of a sentence).
Structure:
Since + subject + verb
 Since it was raining, we stayed home.
 Since she was tired, she went to bed early.
Since‫ خو دا دلیل عموما ً معلوم یا عمومي وي او زیاتره د جملې په پیل کې راځي‬،‫ هم د دلیل لپاره کارېږي‬.
‫جوړښت‬:
Since + ‫فاعل‬+ ‫فعل‬
 Since‫ موږ په کور کې پاتې شو‬،‫ باران و‬.
 Since‫ ژر ویده شوه‬،‫ هغه ستړې وه‬.

🔑 Difference BetweenBecause and Since

🔹 English
 Because → strong, direct reason
 Since → softer, known or obvious reason

🔹 Pashto
 Because → ‫قوي او مستقیم دلیل‬
 Since → ‫ معلوم یا عمومي دلیل‬،‫نرم‬

✅ Quick Tip
 Use because when the reason is important.
 Use since when the reason is already known.

1. So
So is used to show a result or consequence.
It connects a reason with its result.
Structure:
Reason + so + result
 It was raining, so we stayed home.
 He was tired, so he went to bed early.
So‫ د پایلې یا نتیجې ښودلو لپاره استعمالېږي‬.
‫دا علت له نتیجې سره نښلوي‬.
‫جوړښت‬:
‫علت‬+ so + ‫نتیجه‬
 ‫ نو‬،‫(باران و‬so)‫ موږ په کور کې پاتې شو‬.
 ‫ نو‬،‫(هغه ستړی و‬so)‫ ژر ویده شو‬.

2. So tha
So that is used to show purpose (why something is done).
It means “in order that”.
Structure:
Main clause + so that + subject + verb
Often used with can, could, will, would, may, might.
 She studies hard so that she can pass the exam.
 He spoke loudly so that everyone could hear.
So that‫ د مقصد یا هدف ښودلو لپاره کارېږي‬.
‫دا معنی لري‬: ‫تر څو‬/ ‫د دې لپاره چې‬
‫جوړښت‬:
‫ اصلي جمله‬+ so that + ‫فاعل‬+ ‫فعل‬
 ‫هغه سخت درس وایي‬so that‫ امتحان بریالی کړي‬.
 ‫هغه لوړ غږ وکړ‬so that‫ ټول خلک یې واوري‬.

🔑 Difference Between So and o that

 So → result / outcome
 So that → purpose / goal
 So → ‫نتیجه‬
 So that → ‫هدف‬/ ‫مقصد‬

✅ Quick Tip
 Use so when something happens as a result.
 Use so that when something is done for a purpose.

🔹 As a result
English: Used to show a result or outcome.
Pashto:‫ د نتیجې ښودلو لپاره کارېږي‬.
 He didn’t study. As a result, he failed.
 ‫ نو پایله کې ناکام شو‬،‫هغه درس ونه ویل‬.

🔹 Because of this
English: Used to refer to a reason already mentioned.
Pashto:‫ د مخکې یاد شوي علت لپاره کارېږي‬.
 It was raining. Because of this, we stayed home.
 ‫ د همدې له امله موږ په کور کې پاتې شو‬،‫باران و‬.

🔹 Consequently
English: Formal word meaning as a result.
Pashto:‫ معنی یې په پایله کې ده‬،‫ رسمي بڼه ده‬.
 He was careless. Consequently, he lost his job.
 ‫ نو په پایله کې یې دنده له السه ورکړه‬،‫هغه بېپامه و‬.

🔹 For this reason

English: Used to explain why something happens.
Pashto:‫ د علت یا دلیل ښودلو لپاره‬.
  She was sick. For this reason, she didn’t come.
 ‫ له همدې امله رانغله‬،‫هغه ناروغه وه‬.

🔹 So
English: Common and informal word for result.
Pashto:‫ معنی یې نو ده‬،‫ عام او ساده کلمه ده‬.
 It was late, so we left.
 ‫ نو موږ والړو‬،‫ناوخته و‬.

🔹 Therefore
English: Formal word meaning so / as a result.
Pashto:‫ معنی یې نو ځکه ده‬،‫ رسمي بڼه ده‬.
 He is ill; therefore, he stayed home.
 ‫ نو ځکه په کور کې پاتې شو‬،‫هغه ناروغ دی‬.

🔹 Thus
English: Formal word meaning in this way / as a result.
Pashto: ‫ معنی یې په دې توګه‬/ ‫نو ده‬.
Example:
 She worked hard; thus, she succeeded.
 ‫ نو په دې توګه بریالۍ شوه‬،‫هغې سخت کار وکړ‬.

✅ Quick Summary
Pashto
Word Use (English)
Meaning
As a result Result ‫په پایله کې‬
Reason (referring
Because of this ‫د همدې له امله‬
back)
Consequently Formal result ‫په پایله کې‬
For this reason Explanation ‫له همدې امله‬
So Informal result ‫نو‬
Therefore Formal result ‫نو ځکه‬
Thus Formal result ‫په دې توګه‬

🔹 What are these suffixes?

These suffixes are used to make nouns, usually from verbs.
They often mean the action, process, or result.
‫(دا پاییزونه‬suffixes) ‫ بهیر یا پایلې معنی لري‬،‫زیاتره له فعلونو اسمونه جوړوي او د عمل‬.

1️⃣ –ion
🔹 Rule (English)
 Add –ion to some verbs to make nouns.
 Meaning: action or result.
 act → action
 discuss → discussion
 decide → decision
–ion‫ د فعل نه اسم جوړوي‬.
 action → ‫عمل‬
 decision → ‫پرېکړه‬

2️⃣ –tion
🔹 Rule (English)
 Used when verbs end in –t or –te.
 –te is often removed before adding –tion.
 educate → education
 invite → invitation
 protect → protection
‫که فعل په‬t ‫یا‬te ‫ اکثره‬،‫– ختم شي‬tion‫ ورسره راځي‬.

3️⃣ –ition
🔹 Rule (English)
 Used when verbs end in –it or –ite.
 Keeps the it sound.
 compete → competition
 repeat → repetition
 exhibit → exhibition

🔹 Pashto
–ition ‫ هغه وخت کارېږي چې فعل کې‬it‫ غږ وي‬.

4️⃣ –ation
🔹 Rule (English)
 Used with verbs ending in –ate.
 Remove –ate, add –ation.
 informate → information
 organize → organization
 operate → operation
‫–که فعل په‬ate ،‫– ختم شي‬ation‫ ورسره نښلول کېږي‬.

5️⃣ –cation
🔹 Rule (English)
 Used with verbs ending in –fy or –cate.
 Shows process or result.
 classify → classification
 identify → identification
 communicate → communication
–cation‫ د طبقهبندۍ یا پېژندنې لپاره کارېږي‬.

🔊 Pronunciation (Regulation)
🔹 English
 These suffixes are usually pronounced as:
/ʃən/ (shun)
 education → /ˌedʒuˈkeɪʃən/
 information → /ˌɪnfərˈmeɪʃən/
‫ په شان تلفظ کېږي"شن"دا پاییزونه عموما ً د‬.

✅ Quick Summary Table

Suffix Use Example
–ion action/result decision
–tion verbs with t/te education
–ition verbs with it competition
–ation verbs with ate operation
–cation classify/identify communication

🔹 What are syllabic consonants?

Syllabic consonants are consonant sounds that act like vowels and form a syllable by themselves, usually
when the vowel before them is weak or not pronounced.
Common syllabic consonants in English:
/l/, /n/, /m/, /r/
Syllabic consonants ‫( هغه همغږې‬consonants) ‫(دي چې د واک غوندې کار کوي او یوه هجا‬syllable) ‫ ځکه چې‬،‫پخپله جوړوي‬
‫مخکینی واک کمزوری یا حذف شوی وي‬.
‫عام‬syllabic consonants ‫په انګلیسي کې‬:
/l/, /n/, /m/, /r/

🔹 When do syllabic consonants occur?

🔹 English Rules
They usually appear:
 After t, d, s, z, n sounds
 In unstressed syllables
 When a word ends in –le, –en, –em, –er
‫دا اکثره‬:
 ‫(د بېټینګار‬unstressed) ‫هجا کې راځي‬
 ‫–د کلمې په پای کې وي لکه‬le, –en, –em, –er

🔹 /l/ syllabic
 bottle → /ˈbɒtl̩ /
 little → /ˈlɪtl̩ /
‫په‬bottle ‫ کې‬l‫ خپله یوه هجا جوړوي‬.

🔹 /n/ syllabic
 button → /ˈbʌtn̩/
 sudden → /ˈsʌdn̩/

🔹 /m/ syllabic
 rhythm → /ˈrɪðm̩/
 prism → /ˈprɪzm̩/

🔹 /r/ syllabic
 teacher → /ˈtiːtʃr̩/
 better (American) → /ˈbetr̩/

🔊 Pronunciation Tip (Regulation)

 The vowel schwa /ə/ is often dropped.
  The consonant becomes syllabic (marked with a small line under it: l̩ , n̩).
‫په تلفظ کې‬/ə/‫ او همغږی پخپله هجا جوړوي‬،‫ اکثره نه ویل کېږي‬.

✅ Quick Summary
Consonant Example IPA
l bottle /l̩ /
n button /n̩/
m rhythm /m̩/
r teacher /r̩/

Unit 2
1️⃣ and + so + auxiliary + subject
This structure is used to show that the second person/thing has the same positive situation as the first one.
Structure:
Sentence 1 + and so + auxiliary + subject
🔸 Use the same auxiliary verb as in the first sentence
(am / is / are / was / were / do / does / did / have / will / can, etc.)
 She is happy, and so is her sister.
 He can drive, and so can I.
 They have finished, and so have we.
‫دا جوړښت ښیي چې دوهم کس هم هماغه حالت لري‬.
 ‫ او همداسې یې خور هم ده‬،‫هغه خوشاله ده‬.
 ‫ او زه هم کولی شم‬،‫هغه موټر چلولی شي‬.

2️⃣ and + subject + auxiliary + too

This structure also shows the same positive idea, but it is simpler and more common in speaking.
Structure:
Sentence 1 + and + subject + auxiliary + too
 She is happy, and her sister is too.
 He can drive, and I can too.
 They have finished, and we have too.
‫ خو ساده جوړښت دی‬،‫دا هم د یو شان مثبت حالت لپاره کارېږي‬.
 ‫ او خور یې هم خوشاله ده‬،‫هغه خوشاله ده‬.
 ‫ او زه هم‬،‫هغه موټر چلوي‬.
🔑 Important Rules (Very Important)
✔ Only for positive sentences

✔ Auxiliary must match the tense

✔ Do not use main verb again

❌ Don’t say: and so she happy

✔‫یوازې د مثبتو جملو لپاره‬

✔‫زمان باید یو شان وي‬

✔‫اصلي فعل مه تکراروئ‬

✅ Quick Comparison
Structure Style
and so + aux + sub Formal
and sub + aux + too Informal

1️⃣ and + subject + auxiliary + not + either

This structure is used when both sentences are negative and the idea and tense are the same.
Structure:
Negative sentence + and + subject + auxiliary + not + either
 She isn’t ready, and he isn’t either.
 I don’t like coffee, and she doesn’t either.
 They can’t swim, and we can’t either.
‫دا جوړښت هغه وخت کارېږي چې دواړه جملې منفي وي او زمان یې یو شان وي‬.
 ‫ او هغه هم نه دی‬،‫هغه چمتو نه ده‬.
 ‫ او هغه هم نه‬،‫زه قهوه نه خوښوم‬.

2️⃣ and + neither + auxiliary + subject

This is a more formal structure.
It also shows negative agreement, but with inversion (auxiliary comes before subject).
Structure:
Negative sentence + and + neither + auxiliary + subject
 She isn’t ready, and neither is he.
 I don’t like coffee, and neither does she.
 They can’t swim, and neither can we.
‫هم معنی ورکوي…دا رسمي جوړښت دی او نه‬.
 ‫ او نه هغه دی‬،‫هغه چمتو نه ده‬.
 ‫ او نه هغه خوښوي‬،‫زه قهوه نه خوښوم‬.

🔑 Very Important Rules

✔ Use the same auxiliary as the first sentence
✔ Do not use “not” after neither

✔ Verb tense must stay the same

❌ Wrong: and neither he isn’t

🔹 Pashto
✔‫فعل او زمان باید یو شان وي‬
✔ ‫ له‬neither‫وروسته منفي مه راوړئ‬

✅ Quick Comparison
Structure Style
and + sub + aux + not + either Informal
and + neither + aux + sub Formal

1️⃣ but + subject + auxiliary + not

🔹 English
This structure is used when the first sentence is positive and the second sentence is negative.
It shows a contrast (opposite idea) with the same tense and idea.
Structure:
Positive sentence + but + subject + auxiliary + not
 She is clever, but she is not confident.
 He can swim, but he cannot dive.
 They have finished, but we have not.
‫ او د مخالفت‬،‫ معنی ولري)خو(دا جوړښت هغه وخت کارېږي چې لومړۍ جمله مثبت وي او دوهمه منفي وي‬.
 ‫ خو ډاډمنه نه ده‬،‫هغه هوښیاره ده‬.
 ‫ خو غوټه نه شي وهلی‬،‫هغه المبو کولی شي‬.

2️⃣ but + subject + auxiliary

This structure is used when the first sentence is negative and the second sentence is positive.
It also shows contrast, and the main verb is not repeated.
Structure:
Negative sentence + but + subject + auxiliary
 She isn’t ready, but he is.
 I don’t like coffee, but she does.
 They haven’t finished, but we have.
‫مثبت وي دا جوړښت هغه وخت کارېږي چې لومړۍ جمله منفي وي او دوهمه‬.
 ‫ خو هغه دی‬،‫هغه چمتو نه ده‬.
 ‫ خو هغه خوښوي‬،‫زه قهوه نه خوښوم‬.

🔑 Important Rules (Very Important)

✔ Use the same auxiliary as in the first sentence

✔ Do not repeat the main verb

✔ Tense must stay the same

❌ Wrong: but he likes (if auxiliary is needed)

✔‫زمان یو شان وساتئ‬

✔‫اضافي فعل مه تکراروئ‬

✅ Quick Summary
Structure Meaning
but + sub + aux + not positive → negative
but + sub + aux negative → positive

Unit 3 and 4 combine Passive Voice

Passive and active voice

Voice: - Voice is a grammatical category which makes it possible to view the action of a sentence in either of two ways,
without change in the facts reported.
E.g. she washed the dishes.
The dishes were washed.
In the verb phrase, the difference between the two voice categories is that the passive adds a form of auxiliary Be
followed by the past participle of the main verb.
When we say what people and things do, we use active voice.
He speaks English.
When we say what happened to people and things, we use passive voice.
 What is done to them?

Passive formation
A/ The object of an active sentence becomes the subject of the passive.
Hashmat studies English. (Active) English is studied by Hashmat. (Passive)
B/ We normally use one form of the auxiliary “be” – be ,am ,is ,are, was ,were, have/ has been, had been being,
will be –followed by past participle. (Be + P. Participle)
English is studied by Hashmat.
Be + p.p
C/ The subject of an active sentence becomes part of “by phrase” in the passive sentence.
Hashmat studies English. (Active) English is studied by Hashmat. (Passive)
D/ The object pronoun of the active sentence gets change to subject pronoun in the passive sentence.
Hashmat saw me. (Active) I was seen by Hashmat. (Passive)
Changing passive to active
A/ The object of passive sentence becomes the subject of an active sentence.
A letter is written by Nawab. (Passive)
Nawab writes a letter. (Active)
B/ The subject pronoun of the passive sentence becomes the object pronoun of the active sentence.
I was seen by her. (Passive)
She saw me. (Active)
By phrase (by)
In a passive clause the agent the person or thing that does or that causes what happened, is usually
Introduced by a phrase with by.
The man was killed by rubbers.
Sometimes the preposition with is used in a passive clause to introduce a tool or instrument used by the agent.
He was killed “by police” with knife.
Reflexive pronouns in passive
Verbs followed by reflexive pronouns cannot be used to passive voice.
I saw myself in the mirror.
Myself was seen in the mirror. (Incorrect)
Some verbs are not used in passive
Not all verbs can have passive forms. Passive structure is impassible with intransitive verbs like die or arrive which
cannot have object because there is nothing to become the subject of a
Passive sentence, some transitive verbs are seldom used in the passive most of these are stative
Verbs which refer to state not action.
Such as fit, have, luck, resemble, suit
They had a nice house. (Not) a nice house is had by them.
My shoes don’t fit me. (Not) I am fitted by my shoes.

Uses of passive
When we do not know, who dose/did the action?
Nawroz’s pocket was stolen.
When the doer of the action is unknown or indefinite pronoun, passive is used.
Someone stole my pocket last night.
My pocket was stolen last night.
“By” cannot be used because the doer is unknown.
When the object is more important than the subject, using passive voice is preferred.
I will meet the president.
The president will be met by me.
When the doer of the action represents a large group of different individual, passive voice is used.
A lot of coffee is grown in Brazil.
By phrase is unnecessary
Interrogative passive:
This kind of passive is used for asking question about person or thing. In interrogative passive
We use from question words such as: who, whom, what, when, where, whose, how and why.
If the active sentence is began with who; the who is changed by whom then place the to be
Verb according the active tense.
Who took the pen?
By whom the book was taken?
If the active question starts with whom, whom is changed to who in passive voice.
Whom did you see?
Who was seen?
If the active question starts with what, what doesn’t change its form.
What have you bought?
What has been bought?

If the active question starts with words such as: when, where, why, whose, and how there forms
Are not changed in passive form.
Note: If we have interrogative with do, does in present tense we change them into passive by using am, is, and are to
interrogative passive form.
If we have did in interrogative sentence we should change it to was and were.
Model passive
Active passive
He will help her. She will be helped by him.
He can help her. She can be helped by him.
He should help her. She should be helped by him.
He must help her. She must be helped by him.
He may help her. She may be helped by him.
He might help her. She might be helped by him.

Passive form of the tenses

Tense active passive
Simple present They study English. English is studied by them.
Present progressive They are studying English. English is being studied by them.
Present prefect They have studied English. English has been studied by them.
Simple past They studied English. English was studied by them.
Past progressive They were studying English. English was being studied by them.
Past prefect They had studied English. English had been studied by them.
Simple future They will study English. English will be studied by them.
Future perfect They will have studied English. English will have been studied.

Making Question in Passive

Tense Active Passive
Simple Present do you write a letter? Is a litter written by you?
Present progressive are you making the chair? Is the chair being made by you?
Present prefect has the teacher helped us? Have we been helped by the teacher?
Simple past did many people use the book? Was the book used by many people?
Past progressive were they painting our room? Was our room being painted?
Past prefect had the teacher taught the class? Had the class been taught by the teacher?
Future Will the teacher explain the lesson? Will the lesson be explained by the teacher?
Future perfect will they have bought a car? Will a car have been bought?
Transitive and intransitive verbs:
Transitive verb: The verb which is followed by object is called transitive verbs.
You surprised me.
Intransitive verb: The verb which is not followed by object is called intransitive verb.
I usually sleep well.
Some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive.
England lost. England lost the match. The match was lost by England.
Some transitive verbs can be followed by two objects (direct and indirect), which are called ditransitive verbs. In such a
case, each object can be used as the subject of the sentence in passive voice.
She sent me a letter (Active) I was sent a letter. (Passive) A letter was sent to me. (Passive)
Here is a comprehensive explanation of adjectives ending in -ed and -ing, in English and Pashto:

ED and ING Adjectives

Adjectives Ending in –ED
Usage:
- We use -ed adjectives to describe how someone feels. - These adjectives are usually formed from verbs.
Formula: Verb + -ed = adjective describing feelings
1. I am bored. (‫)زه بیزاره یم‬
2. She felt confused. (‫)هغې ځان ګډوډ احساس کړ‬
3. They were excited. (‫)هغوی خوشحاله وو‬

Common –ED adjectives:

- interested → interested (‫)لیوال‬
- tired → tired (‫)ستړی‬
- surprised → surprised (‫)حیران‬
- worried → worried (‫)اندیښمن‬
- annoyed → annoyed (‫)خفه شوی‬

Note: -ed adjectives are about people’s emotions or states.

Adjectives Ending in –ING

Usage: We use -ing adjectives to describe the thing/person/situation that causes the feeling.
Formula: Verb + -ing = adjective describing characteristic or effect
1. The movie is boring. (‫)فلم بیزارونکی دی‬
2. Her explanation was confusing. (‫)هغې تشریح ګډوډوونکې وه‬
3. This book is interesting. (‫)دا کتاب زړه راښکونکی دی‬

Common –ING adjectives:

- boring (‫)بیزارونکی‬
- exciting (‫)خوښوونکی‬
- confusing (‫)ګډوډوونکی‬
- shocking (‫)حیرانوونکی‬
- relaxing (‫)اراموونکی‬

Unit 5 and 6 combined Conditions

Conditional Sentences or Clauses
Conditional sentences are used to express "if...then" ideas. They show a condition and its result.
Example: If you study, you will pass.
‫ نو ته به کامیابه شې‬،‫که ته سبق ووایې‬06D4
Zero Conditional
🔸 Usage:
Used for general truths, facts, and laws of nature — things that are always true.

🔹 Structure:
If + Present Simple, Present Simple
 If you heat water to 100°C, it boils.
‫ نو دا جوشېږي‬،‫ درجې ته تودې کړې‬۰۱۱ ‫که ته اوبه‬.
 If it rains, the ground gets wet.
‫ ځمکه لنده کېږي‬،‫که باران وشي‬.

✅ First Conditional
🔸 Usage:
Used for real and possible future situations.

🔹 Structure:
If + Present Simple, will + Base Verb
 If I study hard, I will pass the exam.
‫ زه به امتحان پاس کړم‬،‫که زه ښه سبق ووایم‬.
 If she comes early, we will go to the park.
‫ مونږ به پارک ته الړ شو‬،‫که هغه ژر راشي‬.

✅ Second Conditional
🔸 Usage:
Used for unreal or hypothetical situations in the present or future.

🔹 Structure:
If + Past Simple, would + Base Verb
  If I had a car, I would drive to school.
‫ نو زه به ښوونځي ته په موټر تللم‬،‫که زما موټر وای‬.
 If he studied more, he would get better marks.
‫ نو ښه نمبرې به یې اخیستې وای‬،‫که هغه زیات سبق وایلی وای‬.
🔸 Note: This is imaginary or unlikely.

✅ Third Conditional
🔸 Usage:
Used for past situations that didn’t happen (regrets, missed opportunities).

🔹 Structure:
If + Past Perfect, would have + Past Participle
 If I had studied, I would have passed the exam.
‫ ما به امتحان پاس کړی وای‬،‫که ما سبق وایلی وای‬.
 If they had left earlier, they would have caught the train.
‫ هغوی به ریل نیولی وای‬،‫که هغوی مخکې تللي وای‬.
🔸 Note: This is completely unreal — the time is already past.

🔁 Summary Table (English + Pashto)

Conditional
Structure Usage Example (English) Example (Pashto)
Type
‫ نو دا اوبه‬،‫که یخ وویلې شي‬
Zero If + Present, Present Universal truths If ice melts, it becomes water.
‫کېږي‬.
If + Present, will + If I sleep early, I will wake up ‫ زه به تازه‬،‫که زه ژر ویده شم‬
First Real future
Verb fresh. ‫راویښ شم‬.
If + Past, would + Unreal If I were rich, I would travel ‫ زه به دنیا‬،‫که زه شتمن وای‬
Second
Verb present/future the world. ‫وګرځم‬.
If + Past Perfect, If we had arrived on time, we ‫که مونږ پر وخت رسیدلي‬
Third Unreal past
would have + PP would have seen the show. ‫ مونږ به شو لیدلی وای‬،‫وای‬.

COULD /WOULD/SHOULD + HAVE +V3

1. Should have + Past Participle (V3)
Usage: Expresses regret, criticism, or something that was the right thing to do, but wasn’t done.
"Should have" ‫ دا پښېماني یا مالمتیا څرګندوي‬.‫ ښیي‬،‫ خو نه دی شوی‬،‫کارول کېږي چې یو عمل چې باید شوی وای‬.
Structure: Subject + should have + V3 + object
- I should have studied harder.
‫زه باید ډېر ښه لوستلی وای‬.
- You should have told me the truth.
‫تاته پکار وو چې رښتیا دې ویلی وای‬.
2. Could have + Past Participle (V3)
Usage: Indicates that something was possible, but it didn’t happen.
"Could have" ‫ خو ترسره نه شو‬،‫کارول کېږي چې یو کار ممکن وو‬.
Structure: Subject + could have + V3 + object
- She could have won the race.
‫هغې کولی شوای چې سیالي وګټي‬.
- We could have gone to the party.
‫موږ کولی شوای مېله ته تللي وای‬.
3. Would have + Past Participle (V3)
Usage: Talks about a hypothetical or imaginary situation in the past that didn’t happen. Often used in third conditional
sentences.
"Would have" ‫ بل څه به شوي وای‬،‫هغه حالت ته اشاره کوي چې که یو څه پېښ شوي وای‬.
Structure: Subject + would have + V3 + object
- I would have helped you if I had known.
‫ما به مرسته درسره کړې وای که ما خبر وای‬.
- He would have come earlier, but he missed the bus.
‫ خو موټر یې له السه ورکړ‬،‫هغه به زود راغلی وای‬.
- Should have: ‫یو کار چې باید شوی وای خو نه دی شوی → پښېماني‬
- Could have: ‫یو کار چې شونی وو خو نه دی شوی → امکان‬
- Would have: ‫ نو‬...‫یو خیالي یا مشروط حالت → که چېرې‬
“IN SHORT,” “IN SUMMARY,” “IN OTHER WORDS,” AND “TO SUMMARIZE”

1. In short
Used to briefly summarize a longer explanation or situation.
It means: “to put it briefly” or “to say it in a few words.”
‫ په لږو ټکو کې‬،‫په لنډ ډول‬
Often used at the beginning or middle of a sentence.
 In short, we missed the bus and arrived late.
‫ موږ بس له السه ورکړ او ناوخته ورسېدو‬،‫په لنډ ډول‬.
 He broke the rules, lied, and cheated. In short, he can't be trusted.
‫ دروغ یې وویل او دوکه یې وکړه‬،‫هغه اصول مات کړل‬. ‫ پر هغه باور نشي کېدالی‬،‫په لنډ ډول‬.

2. In summary
🔹 English Meaning:
Used to sum up the main points of something, especially in formal writing or speech.
‫ په ټولیز ډول‬،‫په لنډیز کې‬
Commonly used in essays, presentations, and reports.
 In summary, the project was successful despite some delays.
‫ پروژه بریالۍ وه که څه هم ځینې ځنډونه ول‬،‫په لنډیز کې‬.
 In summary, we need better planning and more time.
‫ مونږ ته غوره پالن او ډېر وخت پکار دی‬،‫په لنډیز کې‬.

3. In other words
Used to restate something in a different way, usually to make it clearer or simpler.
‫ بل ډول یې ویو‬،‫ یعنې‬،‫بل عبارت کې‬
It often introduces a paraphrase or clarification.
 He is frugal. In other words, he doesn’t like spending money.
‫هغه سپما کوونکی دی‬. ‫ هغه د پیسو مصرفول نه خوښوي‬،‫بل عبارت کې‬.
 The machine failed due to overheating — in other words, it got too hot and stopped working.
‫یعنې دا ډېر تود شو او کار یې بند کړ —ماشین د ډېر تودېدو له امله بند شو‬.

4. To summarize
Used when wrapping up a speech, argument, or long explanation — similar to “in summary.”
‫ لنډیز دا دی‬،‫د لنډیز لپاره‬
Formal — often used in academic or professional contexts.
 To summarize, we achieved our goals and stayed under budget.
‫ مونږ خپل هدفونه ترالسه کړل او بودیجه مو نه وه زیاته‬،‫د لنډیز لپاره‬.
 To summarize, climate change is a serious issue that needs urgent action.
‫ د اقلیم بدلون یوه جدي مسئله ده چې بیړني اقدامات ته اړتیا لري‬،‫د لنډیز لپاره‬.

🔁 Comparison Table (English + Pashto)

Pashto
Phrase Meaning in English Example (English) Example (Pashto)
Meaning
In short Brief conclusion ‫په لنډ ډول‬ In short, we failed. ‫ مونږ ناکامه شو‬،‫په لنډ ډول‬.
In summary, we need ‫ مونږ ته عمل پکار‬،‫په لنډیز کې‬
In summary Main points recap ‫په لنډیز کې‬
action. ‫دی‬.
In other ‫ هغې وظیفه‬،‫بل عبارت کې‬
Rephrasing/clarifying ‫ یعنې‬،‫ بل عبارت کې‬In other words, she quit.
words ‫پرېښوده‬.
 Pashto
Phrase Meaning in English Example (English) Example (Pashto)
Meaning
To summarize Concluding all ideas ‫د لنډیز لپاره‬ To summarize, all is well. ‫ هر څه سم دي‬،‫د لنډیز لپاره‬.

📝 Grammar Tips:
Phrase Placement Formal/Informal Connective Function
In short Start or middle Neutral Conclusion
In summary Start Formal Conclusion
In other words Middle Neutral Clarification
To summarize Start Formal Conclusion

Phrasal verbs
1. Get over
 To recover from sadness, illness, or a difficult situation.
 ‫له څه شي ځان خالصول‬/ ‫هیرول‬/ ‫ښه کېدل‬
 I can't get over the flu.
‫زه د زکام نه نشم ښه کېدلی‬.
 She finally got over her fear of flying.
‫هغې باالخره د الوتنې وېره پرېښوده‬.
2. Give away
 To give something for free.
 To reveal a secret.
 ‫وړیا ورکول‬/ ‫افشا کول‬
 They gave away clothes to the poor.
‫هغوی بېوزلو ته کالي وړیا ورکړل‬.
 Don’t give away the surprise.
‫ حیرانونکی شی مه افشا کوه‬،‫مهرباني وکړه‬.
3. Look out for
 To be careful about something or someone.
 To watch for danger or an opportunity.
 ‫پام کول‬/ ‫څارنه کول‬/ ‫د احتیاط لپاره ګورل‬
 Look out for cars when crossing the street.
‫ د موټرو پام کوه‬،‫کله چې سړک تېروې‬.
  I always look out for my little brother.
‫زه تل خپل کشر ورور ته پام کوم‬.
"Compare apples and oranges," "Couch potato," and "Piece of cake"
The Pashto is exactly written and it may not match the real meaning.
✅ 1. Compare apples and oranges
Language Expression Meaning
"Compare apples and To compare two things that are completely different and not suitable for
English
oranges" comparison.

Pashto ‫د مڼې او نارنج پرتله کول‬ ‫د دوو داسې شیانو پرتله کول چې له یو بل سره هیڅ تړاو نه لري‬. ‫دا بېځایه پرتله ده‬.
 English: You can't compare a bike and a car—it's like comparing apples and oranges.
 Pashto: ‫ته نشې کولی بایسکل او موټر سره پرتله کړې؛ دا خو د مڼې او نارنج پرتله ده‬.

✅ 2. Couch potato
Language Expression Meaning
A person who spends a lot of time sitting and watching TV, doing very
English "Couch potato"
little physical activity.
‫د صوفې کچالو‬/ ‫د صوفې‬
Pashto ‫ ټلویزیون ګوري او فزیکي فعالیت نه کوي‬،‫یو سړی چې ټول وخت په صوفه ناست وي‬.
‫ناست انسان‬
Example:
 English: He became a couch potato after he lost his job.
 Pashto: ‫ د صوفې کچالو شو‬،‫هغه چې له دندې فارغ شو‬.

✅ 3. Piece of cake
Language Expression Meaning
English "Piece of cake" Something that is very easy to do.

Pashto ‫د کیک ټوټه‬/ ‫ یا بې له کومې ستونزې وشي ډېر اسانه کار‬،‫یو کار چې ډېر اسانه وي‬.
 English: The exam was a piece of cake.
 Pashto: ‫ ډېر اسانه وه‬،‫ازموینه خو د کیک ټوټه وه‬.

📝 Summary Table
Idiom (English) Pashto Translation Meaning in Pashto
Compare apples and oranges ‫د مڼې او نارنج پرتله کول‬ ‫د هغو شیانو پرتله کول چې سره توپیر لري‬.
Couch potato ‫د صوفې کچالو‬/ ‫تنبل انسان چې ټلویزیون ته ناست وي او حرکت نه کوي ناست انسان‬.
Piece of cake ‫د کیک ټوټه‬/ ‫ډېر ساده او اسانه کار ډېر اسانه کار‬.
 Unit 7
Singular quantifiers are words that refer to a single amount or entity and can act as substitutes for nouns in a
sentence. In both English and Pashto, these quantifiers help specify "how much" or "how many" of
something, even when the noun is omitted.
1. Each
 English: Each was given a task.
 Pashto: ‫هر یو ته دنده ورکړل شوه‬.
2. Every
 English: Every is important in its own way.
(Note: “Every” is rarely used alone in English—it usually needs a noun, but is used here illustratively.)
 Pashto: ‫هر یو خپل ارزښت لري‬.
3. Either
 English: Either is acceptable.
 Pashto: ‫هر یو‬/ ‫دواړه کې یو د منلو وړ دی‬.
4. Neither
 English: Neither was present.
 Pashto: ‫هیڅ یو حاضر نه و‬.
5. One
 English: One is missing.
 Pashto: ‫یو نشته‬.
6. Another
 English: Another is coming.
 Pashto: ‫بل را روان دی‬.
7. Each one
 English: Each one is special.
 Pashto: ‫هر یو ځانګړی دی‬.
8. Someone / Somebody
 English: Someone is knocking.
 Pashto: ‫څوک دروازه ټکوي‬.
9. Anyone / Anybody
 English: Anybody can join.
  Pashto: ‫هر څوک کولی شي ګډون وکړي‬.
10. No one / Nobody
 English: Nobody knows the answer.
 Pashto: ‫هیڅ څوک ځواب نه پوهیږي‬.

✅ What are Quantifiers as Noun Substitutes?

Quantifiers are words that express quantity (how much or how many).
Sometimes, they can replace nouns instead of just describing them.
This is called using quantifiers as noun substitutes.

🔹 Types of Quantifiers (Used as Noun Substitutes)

Type Explanation English Example Pashto Example
1. General Replaces a noun to indicate a Some are missing. (= Some ‫ځینې نشته‬. ( ‫ځینې کسان یا‬
quantity general amount people/items) ‫)شیان‬
2. Specific A number word replaces the Two were late. (= Two students, ‫دوه ناوخته وو‬. ( ‫دوه‬
number noun workers, etc.) ‫کسان‬/‫)زده کوونکي‬
All have arrived. (= All ‫ټول راغلي دي‬. ( ‫ټول کسان‬
3. Whole group Refers to all items/people
people/items) ‫)یا شیان‬
Refers to part of a known Most were tired. (= Most ‫ډېر ستړي وو‬. ( ‫ډېری‬
4. Part of a group
group people/workers/etc.) ‫)کسان‬
5. Unspecified
Refers to indefinite quantity Many left early. (= Many people) ‫ډېر ژر الړل‬. (‫)ډېری خلک‬
quantity

✅ Common Quantifiers Used as Noun Substitutes

Quantifier Meaning Example Sentence Pashto Translation
Some A few, not all Some were absent. ‫ځینې حاضر نه وو‬.
Many A large number Many left early. ‫ډېر ژر الړل‬.

Few A small number Few knew the answer. ‫لږ کسانو ځواب پوهېده‬.
All Every one of a group All were invited. ‫ټول بلل شوي وو‬.

Most The majority Most were happy. ‫ډېری خوشحاله وو‬.

None Not one None were accepted. ‫هېڅ یو ونه منل شو‬.

One Single person/item One was broken. ‫یو خراب شوی و‬.
 Quantifier Meaning Example Sentence Pashto Translation
Two, Three, etc. Specific numbers Three were absent. ‫درې حاضر نه وو‬.

️ Note:
Quantifiers often refer to something already known or mentioned, so you don’t have to repeat the noun.
 Some students passed the test. Some didn’t.
→ In the second sentence, “Some” replaces “some students”.

✅ Pashto Summary Table

Quantifier Pashto Meaning Usage in a Pashto Sentence
Some ‫ځینې‬ ‫ځینې حاضر نه وو‬.

Many ‫ډېر‬ ‫ډېر ژر الړل‬.

Few ‫لږ‬ ‫لږ پوهېدل‬.

All ‫ټول‬ ‫ټول راغلي دي‬.

Most ‫ډېری‬ ‫ډېری ستړي وو‬.

None ‫هېڅ یو‬ ‫هېڅ یو نه و‬.

One ‫یو‬ ‫یو خراب شوی و‬.

Two ‫دوه‬ ‫دوه ناوخته وو‬.

COMMANDS OR REQUESTS USING QUANTIFIERS AS NOUN SUBSTITUTES

“Everyone, stand up.”

“Someone, open the door.”
These are imperative sentences using indefinite pronouns / quantifiers as subjects to issue a command or
request.
🔹 Comon Quantifier-Like Pronouns in Commands (English → Pashto)
English Pashto Usage Example
Everyone ‫هر څوک‬ Everyone, sit down. → ‫ کښینئ‬،‫هر څوک‬.
Someone ‫یو څوک‬ Someone, answer the phone. → ‫ تلیفون ځواب کړئ‬،‫یو څوک‬.

Anybody / Anyone ‫هر څوک‬ Anybody, help him. → ‫ ورسره مرسته وکړئ‬،‫هر څوک‬.
Nobody ‫هیڅوک‬ Nobody move! → ‫!هیڅوک مه خوځېږئ‬
Each of you ‫ تاسې هر یو‬Each of you, take one. → ‫ یو واخلئ‬،‫تاسې هر یو‬.

✅ Example Commands Using Quantifiers

1. Everyone, stand up.
  Pashto: ‫ ودرېږئ‬،‫هر څوک‬.
2. Someone, open the door.
 Pashto: ‫ دروازه خالصه کړئ‬،‫یو څوک‬.
3. Anybody, help me!
 Pashto: ‫ له ما سره مرسته وکړئ‬،‫!هر څوک‬
4. Nobody speak.
 Pashto: ‫هیڅوک خبرې مه کوئ‬.
5. Each of you, write your name.
 Pashto: ‫ خپل نوم ولیکئ‬،‫تاسې هر یو‬.
THE CONNECTORS "but," "however," "on the other hand," and "nevertheless"
These are all contrast connectors — they show opposition, difference, or an unexpected result.

🔹 1. But
 A basic conjunction used to connect two contrasting ideas in one sentence.
 ‫خو‬
 ‫مګر‬
 ‫( البته‬more formal)

✅ Examples:
English Pashto
I am tired, but I will help. ‫ خو به مرسته وکړم‬،‫زه ستړی یم‬.
She is young, but smart. ‫ مګر هوښیاره ده‬،‫هغه ځوانه ده‬.

🔹 2. However
 A formal connector; often used at the start of a sentence to show contrast.
 Common in writing.
 ‫خو بیا هم‬
 ‫سره له دې‬
 ‫( خو‬still works, but less formal)
English Pashto
He studied hard. However, he failed. ‫هغه سخت درس ووایه‬. ‫خو بیا هم ناکامه شو‬.
The room is small. However, it's comfortable. ‫کوټه وړه ده‬. ‫ آرامه ده‬،‫سره له دې‬.

🔹 3. On the other hand

  Used to present the opposite side of an argument or comparison.
 Often used in essays, debates, discussions.
 ‫له بلې خوا‬
 ‫په مقابل کې‬
 ‫برعکس‬
English Pashto
He is rich. On the other hand, he is lonely. ‫هغه شتمن دی‬. ‫ یوازینی دی‬،‫له بلې خوا‬.
Studying is hard. On the other hand, it’s worth it. ‫زده کړه سخته ده‬. ‫ دا ارزښت لري‬،‫له بلې خوا‬.

🔹 4. Nevertheless
 A formal word meaning "in spite of that" or "even so."
 Often used when something happens despite obstacles or contrast.
 ‫خو بیا هم‬
 ‫سره له دې هم‬
 ‫په هر صورت‬
English Pashto
It was raining. Nevertheless, they played football. ‫باران و‬. ‫خو بیا هم هغوی فوټبال ولوباوه‬.
She was tired. Nevertheless, she finished her work. ‫هغه ستړې وه‬. ‫ هغې کار پای ته ورساوه‬،‫سره له دې هم‬.

🔸 Summary Table
Connector Pashto Equivalent Register Placement
but ‫خو‬/ ‫مګر‬ informal to neutral middle
however ‫خو بیا هم‬/ ‫سره له دې‬ formal sentence start/mid

on the other hand ‫له بلې خوا‬/ ‫ په مقابل کې‬semi-formal/formal sentence start
nevertheless ‫خو بیا هم‬/ ‫ سره له دې هم‬formal sentence start/mid
PHRASAL VERBS

🔹 1. Get ahead
To succeed; to make progress in life, work, or studies — often better than others.
‫مخ ته تلل‬/ ‫پرمختګ کول‬/ ‫بری ترالسه کول‬
📝 Usage in a sentence:
 English: If you want to get ahead, you need to work hard.
  Pashto: ‫ باید سخت کار وکړې‬،‫که ته غواړې چې مخ ته والړ شې‬.

🔹 2. Show up
✅ Meaning (English):
To arrive at a place, especially for an event, appointment, or meeting — often unexpectedly or late.
‫حاضرېدل‬/ ‫راڅرګندېدل‬/ ‫راښکاره کېدل‬
📝 Usage in a sentence:
 English: He didn’t show up for the meeting.
 Pashto: ‫هغه د غونډې لپاره حاضر نه شو‬.
English: She showed up late to the party.
 Pashto: ‫هغه محفل ته ناوخته راښکاره شوه‬.

🔹 3. Take after
To resemble a parent or older relative in appearance or behavior.
‫پر چا تلل‬/ ‫د چا په څېر اوسېدل‬
Usage in a sentence:
 English: She takes after her mother — both are very kind.
 Pashto: ‫دواړه ډېرې مهربانه دي — هغه د خپلې مور په څېر ده‬.
English: Do you take after your father in looks or habits?
 Pashto: ‫ د بڼې یا عادتونو له مخې؟‬،‫ته پر خپل پالر تللی یې‬

✅ Summary Table
Phrasal Pashto
Meaning (EN) Example Sentence (EN / PS)
Verb Translation
Succeed / make ‫پرمختګ کول‬/ ‫ مخ ته‬You must study hard to get ahead. ‫ته باید درس ووایې تر‬
Get ahead
progress ‫تلل‬ ‫څو مخ ته والړ شې‬.
‫حاضرېدل‬/ ‫راښکاره‬
Show up Arrive / appear He didn’t show up. ‫هغه حاضر نه شو‬.
‫کېدل‬

Take after Resemble a relative ‫د چا په څېر اوسېدل‬ She takes after her dad. ‫هغه د خپل پالر په څېر ده‬.

IDIOMS
Get rid of Get together Take care of

 🔹 1. Get rid of
To remove, eliminate, throw away, or free yourself from something unwanted.
 ‫خالصون‬/ ‫خالصېدل‬/ ‫له منځه وړل‬
English Pashto
I want to get rid of this old car. ‫زه غواړم له دې زړې موټر نه خالص شم‬.
How can we get rid of the problem? ‫څنګه کوالی شو له ستونزې خالصون ومومو؟‬

🔹 2. Get together
✅ Meaning (English):
To meet or gather socially, often with friends or family.
 ‫راټولیدل‬/ ‫یو ځای کېدل‬/ ‫غونډېدل‬
English Pashto
Let’s get together this weekend. ‫راځئ چې دا اونۍ یو ځای شو‬.
We usually get together for dinner. ‫مونږ معموالً د ماښام ډوډۍ لپاره غونډېږو‬.

🔹 3. Take care of
✅ Meaning (English):
To look after someone or something; to handle or manage a task or responsibility.

📘 Pashto Meaning:
 ‫ساتنه کول‬/ ‫پالنه کول‬/ ‫پاملرنه کول‬/ ‫نظم ساتل‬
English Pashto
I will take care of your cat. ‫زه به ستا د پیشو ساتنه وکړم‬.
Please take care of your health. ‫ د خپل صحت پاملرنه وکړه‬،‫مهرباني وکړه‬.

✅ Summary Table
Idiom Meaning Pashto Example Sentence (EN/PS)
‫خالصېدل‬/ ‫له منځه‬
Get rid of Remove, eliminate Get rid of it! ‫!له دې نه خالص شه‬
‫وړل‬

Get
Meet socially ‫یو ځای کېدل‬/ ‫ راټولیدل‬Let’s get together soon. ‫راځئ ژر یو ځای شو‬.
together
Take care Look after / Please take care of the baby. ‫ د ماشوم ساتنه‬،‫مهرباني وکړه‬
‫ساتنه کول‬/ ‫پاملرنه کول‬
of handle ‫وکړه‬.

🔹 What are D+Y and T+Y sounds?

When the letter D or T is followed by a Y sound (like the "y" in yes), the two sounds often combine in speech:
Combo Resulting Sound Similar To
D + Y /ʤ/ like “j” in jam

T + Y /ʧ/ like “ch” in cheese

✅ D + Y → /ʤ/ sound (like “J”)

🔸 Pronunciation:
 D + Y merges into a soft “J” sound: /ʤ/
 This is called co articulation or sound blending.
Word Actual spelling Spoken like Pashto meaning
Did you did + you didʒu ‫تا وکړل؟‬

Would you would + you wʊdʒu ‫ایا ته به وکړې؟‬

Could you could + you kʊdʒu ‫کولی شې؟‬

Did you see it? — Didʒu see it? ‫تا دا ولیدل؟‬

✅ T + Y → /ʧ/ sound (like “CH”)

🔸 Pronunciation:
 T + Y becomes a “ch” sound: /ʧ/
Word Actual spelling Spoken like Pashto meaning
Don't you don’t + you donʧu ‫ته نه کوې؟‬
Can't you can’t + you canʧu ‫ته نشې کولی؟‬

Won’t you won’t + you wonʧu ‫ته به نه کوې؟‬

Didn't you go? — Didnʧu go? ‫ته ال نه شوې؟‬

🔔 Note on Spelling vs. Speaking

These changes happen in spoken English (especially informal or conversational). In writing, you still spell
them as:
 Did you, Don’t you, etc.
But in speech:
 Did you → /dɪdʒu/
 Don’t you → /doʊnʧu/

🗣️ Practice Sentences (with Pashto)

 English Spoken Pashto
Did you eat? Didʒu eat? ‫ته ډوډۍ وخوړه؟‬
Could you help me? Kʊdʒu help me? ‫کولی شې له ما سره مرسته وکړې؟‬
Don’t you know? Donʧu know? ‫ته نه پوهېږې؟‬