Chapter 1

k]] Tuesday 9/9/25

1.1 photosynthesis

-> What is photosynthesis?

-chemical process used by plants and other organisms to
convert light energy into chemical energy, which is then stored
as glucose.

⛤photo=light
synthesis=making
⛤the word equation:
water+carbon dioxide ---→glucose + oxygen

->why is photosynthesis important?

1. For plants: i) plants make their own food(glucose)
ii)stored as starch for later use
2. For animals and us: i)to produce the oxygen we breathe
ii) the start of nearly all food chains
3. For planet: i) Helps to regulate the amount of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere

->What do plants need for photosynthesis

1. Light: usually from the sun
2. Carbon dioxide: enters the leaf through stomata.
3. Water: Absorbed from soil by the roots.
4. Chlorophyll: The green pigment in chloroplasts
 1.2 More about photosynthesis

Part of the leaf function

Leaf blade Broad and flat to provide large surface
area to absorb light
veins Contains xylem and phloem
epidermis Thin, transparent outer layer that allows
light to pass through easily
stomata Tiny pores that allow gases to diffuse
(carbon dioxide and oxygen)
chloroplasts Contain chlorophyll to trap light energy
Palisade mesophyll Main site of photosynthesis

Chloroplast

-> What is a chloroplast?

-Disc-shaped organelle found in plants. This is where the
process of photosynthesis happens.

->Key functions:
-Absorb light energy and use it to make glucose(food) for the
plant.

->Why is chlorophyll green?

-Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light and it reflects green
light.

->Fertilisers-Natural/chemical substances added to soil to

plants with essential minerals
Summary table(magnesium vs nitrate)
Mineral Why plants Deficiency Effect on the plant
need it
Mg To make Chlorosis: 1.​ Reduced
chlorophyll Yellowing photosynthesis
veins on all 2.​ Stunted growth
leaves 3.​ Pale plant
NO3 To make [Link] 1. Severely limited
amino acids growth growth
and proteins [Link] of 2. Weak stem
older leaves [Link] leave
1.3 The Carbon Cycle

1. What is the carbon cycle?

-Natural process where carbon are continuously recycled and
moved between the atmosphere, oceans, ecosystem and the
Earth's crust

2. Why is it important?
-Key element for life
-Helps regulate the Earth's atmosphere

⛤ Process that adds CO2 to the atmosphere

1. Respiration
-All living organisms as they break down glucose to release
energy
-Equation: Glucose+Oxygen→Energy+Carbon dioxide+water

2. Combustion
-The burning of organic material
-Equation: Fuel+oxygen→carbon dioxide+water+ash

3. Composition
-when plants break down and animals die, decomposers
break down their bodies. This process releasec
Friday 11/11/2025
⛤ Process that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

1. Photosynthesis
-Plants, algae and some bacteria absorb CO2 from the air
to make glucose

2. Dissolution (ocean uptake)

-CO2 from the atmosphere dissolve/absorb from the surface of
ocean

3. Formation of fossil fuel:

- When organic matter is buried and compressed with oxygen
over million years

⛤ The role of fossil fuel:

-Fossil fuel are a carbon store
-When we burn then, we release the carbon back into the
atmosphere

⛤ Humans impact on the carbon cycle

- Human activities have significantly disrupted the natural
balance.

1. Deforestation
-Remove trees that absorb CO2
-Burning forest release large amount of CO2

2. Burning of fossil fuel

-releasing carbon into the atmosphere
-drastically increase the concentration of CO2
-result: Enhanced Green house effect and climate change
Thursday 18/9/2025

1.4 climate change

⛤weather:short-term conditions of the atmosphere

⛤climate: Average weather conditions over a long period of time

⛤climate change refers to large-scale, long-term shift in the

planets weather

⛤Natural greenhouse effect: A good effect

Energy from the Sun enters the Earth's atmosphere

↓
Some of this reflected back into space
↓
The rest is absorbed by land and oceans
↓
The earth radiates this energy back into space
↓
Greenhouse gases(GHGs) trap some of this heat, keeping our
planet warm enough for life to exist

⛤Key greenhouse gases:

1. Carbon dioxide(CO2)
2. Methane(CH4)
3. Water vapour
4. Nitrous oxide - from fertilizers and industrial process
⛤The enhanced greenhouse effect: The problem
-Human activities are drastically increasing the concentration
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
-This thickened layer of GHGs traps too much heat causing
global warming and can lead to climate change

⛤Evidence of climate change

1. Rising global temperatures
2. Shrinking ice sheets and glaciers
3. Sea level rise
4. Ocean acidification- oceans absorb about 25% of CO2
5. Increased extreme weather events

⛤Ways to reduce climate change

1. Switch renewable energy
2. Increase energy efficiency
3. Reforestation

⛤Summary: Key points to remember

-Climate is long-term, weather is short term
-The natural greenhouse effect is essential for life
-The enhanced greenhouse effect caused by human activities,
leading to global warming and climate change
-Evidence includes rising temperatures, melting ice, sea level
rise and ocean acidification
Chapter 2
Tuesday 23/9/25

2.1 The atomic structure and the periodic table

⛤Terminology

->Atom
-Smallest particle of an element that can exist

->Structure of atom
-Atoms are made up of smaller particles called subatomic
particle

⛤Subatomic particles:
1. proton(positive charge)
2. Neutron(no charge)
3. Electron(negative charge)

⛤Atomic number and mass number:

1.​ atomic number:
- No. of proton in an atomic nucleus
2.​ Mass number/nucleon number/atomic mass:
No. of proton + no. of neutron

⛤Electron shell/energy level:

-1st shell: can hold max of 2 electron
-2nd shell: can hold max of 8 electron
2.2 Trends in groups within the periodic table

⛤Terminology

->Properties:
-Soft, shiny metals, stored under oil to stop them from reacting
within air and water

->Reactivity:
-Very reactive

->Trends:
-As you go down the group, the reactivity increases

->Melting & boiling point:

-Decreases as you go down the group

⛤Group 7/17: The halogens

->Properties
-Colorful,poisonous non metal

->Rectivity
-Very reactive

->Trend
-as you go down the group, reactivity decreases

->Melting and boiling point

-Increases as you go down the group
⛤Group 8/18: Noble gases

->properties
-colouress, odourless gases

->Reactivity
-extremely unreactive(inert)

->Trend
As you go down the group, reactivity increases

->melting/boiling point
-Increases as you go down the group
thursday 25/9/2025

2.3 why elements react to form compounds

Ionic bond
-reaction between metals(g1 andg2) and non metals(g7)

Na-11(metal)
Cl-17(non metal)
Na(2,8,1)-(2,8)
Cl(2,8,7)-(2,8,8)
Sodium gives 1 electron
Friday 26/9/2025

Covalent bond
-reaction between non metal and non metal
Tuesday 30/9/2025

2.4 simple and giant structure

⛤all substances are made of particles(atoms,ions,molecules).

The key difference between a simple and a giant structure is
how these particles are arranged bonded together

1. Simple molecular structure;

-small, fixed number of atoms are strongly bonded together to
form a molecule

⛤Key properties and why:

1. Low melting and boiling points:
don't need much heat energy to overcome weak forces between
the molecules

2. Often gases or liquids at room temperature:

-the weak forces cannot hold the molecules in a fixed structure
easily

3. Do not conduct electricity:

-No charged particles (ions/electrons) free to move

4. Can be brittle as solids:

-They can slide past each other easily because the
intermolecular forces are weak
Thursday 2/10/2025

⛤Common examples of simple molecular:

1. Water(H20)
2. Carbon dioxide(C02)
3. Sucrose(sugar)

⛤Giant structures:
-Millions of atoms or ions are all bonded together by strong
bonds
-Giant covalent structures(diamond, graphite)
-Bonds, atoms are all bonded strong covalent bonds in a giant
lattice

⛤Properties:
1. High melting and boiling point
2. Hard
3. Insoluble
4. Usually do not conduct electricity

⛤Giant ionic structure:

-> Bonding- Positive ions(+) and negative ions(-) are held
together by strong electrostatic forces

⛤Properties:
1. High melting and boiling points
2. Hard but brittle
3. Conduct electricity
4. Often soluble in water
 ⛤summary table: Simple VS Giant

Feature Simple structure Giant structure

Particle arrangement Small, separate Continuous network
molecule of atom
Bonds between units Weak intermolecular Strong
forces
Melting/boiling point Low high
Electrical Poor(no charged Good
conductivity particles)
Example H20, 02 Diamond, Fe, NaCl

Friday 3/10/2025

Ionic structure Covalent structure

-conduct electricity
NaCl-Na+ -Cl
Chapter 3
3.1 density

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Formula: Density = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
10𝑔
= = 125𝑔/𝑐𝑚
8 𝑐𝑚3

-​ Anything that is less that dense that water= float

-​ Anything that is more dense than water= sink
Tuesday 14/10/25

3.3 conservation of energy

⛤Law of conservation of energy:

-Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be
transferred from one form to another or stored.

⛤Practical examples of energy conservation:

1. Battery powered toy car:
-chemical energy → electrical energy → kinetic energy +
sound energy + thermal energy

2. A falling object:
- Gravitational potential energy → kinetic energy

The concept of wasted energy

- useful energy: Energy that is transferred to the place and form
we want

- wasted energy: Energy that is transferred to a form that is not

useful or is lost to the surroundings

-wasted energy is almost always in the form of heat (Thermal

energy)

Important: Wasted energy is not destroyed! It is still conserved,

but it has been dissipated (spread out) :in to the surrounding,
making it difficult to use again.

⛤Energy efficiency:
- Because energy is often wasted, no device is 100% efficient
- Efficiency is a measure of how much useful energy you get out
of a device compare to the total energy you put in
3.4 moving from hot the cold

-Heat always transfer from a hotter object or region to a colder

object or region until thermal equilibrium is achieved

Why does this happen? The particle explanation:

-Hot object: Particles have a lot of kinetic energy and vibrate
faster.

-Cold object: Particles have less kinetic energy and vibrate slowly
Thursday 16/10/2025

3.5 ways of transferring thermal energy

-Thermal energy always moves from a hotter place to a colder

place.

⛤3 methods of heat transfer:

1. Conduction 3. Radiation
2. Convection

⛤Conduction:
-Conduction is the transfer of energy through solid

-How does conduction work?

1. When one part of a solid is heated, its particles gain kinetic
energy and vibrate faster
2. These fast-vibrating particles collide with cooler particles
3. Through these collision, energy is transferred from the hot
and to the cold end

-Good conductor: Materials that allow heat to pass through

easily
-Example of good conductor: Copper, iron, aluminium

-Bad conductor: Materials that do not allow heat to pass

through them easily
-Example: Wood, plastic, glass
⛤Convenction:
-Convection is the transfer of thermal energy through fluid
(Liquid and gases)

-How does convection work:

1. When a fluid is heated, it expands, becomes less dense and
rises
2. The cooler, denser fluid nearby sinks to take its place.
3. This creates a circular motion called a convection current.
4. The convection current transfers heat from the hotter region
to colder region.

-examples:
1. Boiling water 3. Sea breeze
2. Room heater

⛤Radiation
-Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy by infrared waves.
This is the only method that does not require particles and can
travel through vacuum.

-How does radiation work?

1. Hot objects emit infrared radiation
2. When this radiation hits another object it is absorbed,
causing the particles in that object to vibrate faster and warm
up
3.6 cooling by evaporation

1. What is evaporation?
-A liquid turning into a gas below its boiling point

2. Why does it cause cooling

-Particles in a liquid have different energy
-Only the highest energy particles can escape from the surface
-When these particles leave, the average energy of the
remaining particles decreases

⛤Lowest average energy= Lower temperature

3. Factors increasing evaporation and cooling

i) High temperature: More particles have energy to escape
ii) Larger surface area: More space for particles to escape from
iii) Lower humidity: Air can absorb more vapour
iiii)Higher wind speed: Wind carries vapour away, making room
for more ​

⛤Everyday examples:
1. Sweating: Your body cools as sweat evaporates
2. Feeling cold after a shower or when rubbing alcohol on your
skin
chapter 4
gMonday 13/10/25

4.1 Plants and water

4.2 Transpiration

⛤Why plants need water:

1.​ For photosynthesis
2.​ Support- make plants rigid
3.​ Transport- Transport minerals needed(Mg, N0g and NPK)
4.​ Cooling- evaporate water from the leaves

⛤How H20 enter plant cell:

-root hair cell(osmosis)
-Xylem(transport water and minerals)

⛤Osmosis:
-Net movement of water from a region of higher concentration
of lower concentration

⛤The path of water through the plant:

1.​ Root hair cells- moves through osmosis
2.​ Xylem vessel- Water enters this specialised cell
-water moves upwards through the xylem(up to stem)
-Xylem branches out into every leaf, delivering water(in the
leaves)

Transpiration:
-definition: Loss of water from the leaves and stems of a plants
 ⛤Factors affecting transpiration rate:

Factor Effect on transpiration

Temperature increases
Humidity decreases
Wind speed increases
Light intensity increases

⛤The role of the stomata:

-​ Structure: Tiny parts on the underside the leaf surrounded
by two guard cells
-​ Function: 1 To allow gas exchange(co2 and o2)
2. To allow water to escape(transpiration)

⛤Summary: The cohesion-tension theory

-​ Transpiration from leaves creates a tension(pull)
-​ This pull is transmitted down the continuous water column
in the xylem
-​ Cohesion between water molecules holds the column
together
-​ Adhesion between water and xylem walls helps resist
gravity

⛤Definition:
-​ Xylem: The tissue in plants that transport water and
minerals from roots to the leaves
-​ Root hair cell: Specialised cell that increases the surface
area of a root for the absorption of water and minerals

⛤Key words:
-​ Xylem -osmosis
-​ Transpiration -stomata
-​ Root hair cel
Tuesday 28/10/25

4.3 Excretory system

⛤Term
1. Excretion:
-​ Getting rid of waste materials that have been inside the
body

2. Urea:
-​ Waste product formed in the liver from the breakdown of
excess amino acids

3. Urine:
-​ Liquid waste product containing urea, excess water
produced by the kidney

4. Kidney
-​ Organ that filters blood to remove urea and other waste

⛤Pathway of excretion
-​ Kidney/renal → Ureter → Bladder → Urethra
 Main waste products
Waste products Source of waste Why is it toxic
C02 Cellular respiration Blood to acidic damage
cells and enzyme
Urea Breakdown of Ammonia(initial
excess amino acids product) is highly
in the liver poisonous
Water Cellular respiration Excess water can dilute
and from drinking blood

​
Thursday 30/10/2025

⛤The excretory organs

Organs Waste removed How is it removed

Lungs C02 and water Exhaled
vapour air(breathing out)

Kidneys Urea, excess salt, Dissolved in water

excess water to form urine
Skin Excess water and Dissolved in water
salt to form sweat
⛤The urinary system in detail

⛤The pathway:
1. Kidneys:
-​ Two bean-shaped organs that filter blood
-​ Remove urea, excess water and excess salts to form urine
-​ Ensure useful substance like glucose and the right amount
of water are reabsorbed back into the blood

2. Ureter:
-​ Two tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder

3. Bladder:
-​ Muscular, like a bag that stores urine

4. Urethra:
-​ Tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of
the body

⛤Liver: The waste process

-​ Process waste before it is executed
-​ Breaks down excess amino acids to form urea
-​ Urea is then released into the blood transported to kidneys
and filtered out to become a part of urine

⛤Skin: secondary excretory organ

-​ Sweat glands in the skin produce sweat
-​ Sweat is mostly water and dissolved salts, with a tiny
amount of urea
Friday 31/10/25

4.4 Keeping a fetus healthy

⛤Placenta: Life-support system

⛤Key functions:
1. Gas exchange:
-​ Allows oxygen to diffuse from the mothers blood to the
fetuses blood and carbon dioxide to diffuse from the fetus
back to mother for excretion.
2. Nutrient supply:
-​ Passes glucose, amino acids, vitamins and minerals from
the mothers blood to the fetus for growth and energy.
3. Waste removal:
-​ Removes urea and other waste products from the fetus
blood, transferring it to the mothers blood.
4. Anti-body transfer:
-​ Passes some of the mothers antibody to the fetus,
providing it with temporary passive immunity

⛤The umbilical cord

-​ Tube that connects the fetus to the placenta
-​ Contain one vein that oxygenates, from placement to the
fetus.
-​ Contain two arteries carry deoxygenated blood and waste
products from fetus to placenta

⛤The amniotic sac and fluid

-​ The fetus develops inside a bag of membranes called the
amniotic sac, while its filled with amniotic fluid
⛤Key functions of amniotic fluid:
1.​ Protection:
-​ Acts as a shock absorber, cushioning the fetus.
2.​ Temperature control:
-​ Keeps the fetus at a constant warm temperature
3.​ Movement:
-​ Allows the fetus to move
4.​ Prevents dehydration

⛤How to keep a fetus healthy(Mothers role)

-​ The health of the mother directly impacts the health of the
developing fetus
1. Nutrition:
-​ A balanced diet: The mother needs extra protein for
growth, calcium for bone development, iron for red blood
cell production and vitamins(folic acid)
-​ Eating for two?
-​ Refers to the quality of nutrients, not simply eating twice
quantity of food

⛤Avoiding harmful substances:

1. Alcohol:
-​ Can cause fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
2. Smoking:
-​ Nicotine narrows blood vessels, reducing oxygen and
nutrient supply by the fetus
3. Drugs:
-​ Cause severe birth defect, addiction in the newborn
4. Caffeine:
-​ High intake can cause low birth weight
Chapter 5
5.1 Reactivity series

⛤List of metals arranged in order of their reactivity, from the

most reactive to the least reactive
Most reactive ⬆ Potassium, K Panda
Sodium, Na Sing
Calcium, Ca Crazy
Magnesium, Mg Music
Zinc, Zn Zooming
Iron, Fe Into
Copper, Cu Crazy
Silver, Ag Silver
Least reactive ⬇ Gold, Au Games

⛤What is chemical reaction?

-​ A displacement reaction is a reaction where a more
reactive element take place of a less reactive element

⛤General word equation:

-​ More reactive metal + compound of less reactive metal →
less reactive metal + compound of reactive metal
-​ E.g: Zinc + Copper sulfate → Zinc sulfate + copper
-​ E.g: Potassium + Zinc Chloride → Potassium chloride + Zinc
-​ E.g: Zinc + Potassium Chloride (No displacement because
potassium is more reactive than Zinc)
⛤Examples:
1. Displacement reaction with metal

5.2

Practical applications of the reactivity series

[Link] extraction from their ores

 -​ ore: A rock containing a metal compound from which the
metal can be extracted
-​ metals below carbon(Zinc, Iron, Lead, Copper) can be
extracted
-​ Carbon is more reactive than these metals, so it can
displace them
-​ Example: Iron oxide + Carbon -> Iron + C02
-​ Metals above carbon(Aluminium, magnesium) cannot be
extracted using carbon

2. Predicting reactions with water and steam

-​ Very reactive metals(K, Na): React violently with water to
produce gas and metal hydroxide
-​ Example: Sodium + water -> sodium hydroxide+ hydrogen
-​ Medium reactive metals (Mg, Al, Zn, Fe)
-​ Magnesium: Reacts very slowly with water but with steam it
reacts quickly
-​ Zinc and iron: Only react with steam to produce the metal
oxide and hydrogen
-​ Unreactive metals(lead, Cu, Ag, Au) do not react with water
or steam
5.3 & 5.4 making salts and other ways of making salt
Method 3: Acid + carbonate
-​ Used for: Making most salts, especially those where the
metal is too reactive or unreactive
-​ General equation:
Acid + carbonate -> salt + water + carbon dioxide
-​ Chemical equation:
-​ Nitric acid + copper carbonate -> copper nitrate + water +
carbon dioxide
-​ Hydrochloric acid + Magnesium carbonate -> Magnesium
chloride + water + carbon dioxide

Method 4: Acid + metal oxide

-​ Used for: metals that do not react with acids to make salt
-​ General equation:
Metal oxide + acid -> salt + water
-​ Chemical equation:
Copper oxide + sulfuric acid -> copper sulfate + water
CuO + H2SO4 -> Cuso4 +nh20
5.5 rearranging atoms
-​ A chemical reaction is a process where atoms in the
reactants are arranged to form new products
-​ No atoms are created or destroyed
-​ This principle known as the law of conservation of mass
-​ For atoms to rearrange, the chemical bonds holding them
together must break
-​ Energy is needed to break bonds (endothermic process)
-​ Energy is released when new bonds from ( exothermic
process)

⛤Evidence of rearrangement: How do we know a reaction

happened
1.​ Changes of color
2.​ Formation of precipitate
3.​ Formation of gases bubbles(O2, C20 h2)
4.​ Temperature change
5.​ irreversibility

⛤chemical equation is a representation of the rearrangement

of atoms
Example : The formation of water
Word equation : Hydrogen + Oxygen -> wate
Balanced chemical equation: 2H2 + o2 -> 2H2o
Chapter 6
Monday
10/11/25

6.1 Loudness and pitch of sound

⛤What is sound?
Form of energy produced by vibrating objects that travels a a
wave through a medium(solid,liquid, gas)

⛤Two main ways to describe sound:

1.​ Loudness(How loud or quiet a sound is)
2.​ Pitch(How high or low a sound is)

⛤Loudness
-​ Loudness is determined by the amplitude of a sound wave
High amplitude = More energy = louder sound
Low amplitude = less energy = Quieter sound
⛤example::
1.​ Hitting a drum softly: The skin vibrates with a small
amplitude provoking a quiet sound
2.​ Whispering vs shouting: vocal chords vibrate with larger
amplitude when you show
⛤Pitch
-​ Pitch is determined by the frequency of a sound wave
-​ Frequency: the number of complete waves(vibration)
passing a point per second
-​ Unit: Hertz (Hz)
-​ High frequency = high pitch
-​ Low frequency = low pitch
⛤What affects the frequency?
1.​ size of a vibrating object
-​ Shorter or smaller objects vibrate faster
(frequency goes up, pitch also goes up).
-​ A shorter guitar string produces a higher note than a
long one.
2.​ Tightness/tension of the object
-​ Tighter strings or surface vibrate faster(increased
frequency increased pitch)
-​ Turning a guitar by tightening the string raises its
pitch
3.​ Mass/Thickness of the object
-​ Thinner/lighter objects tend to vibrate faster(higher
frequency)
-​ Thicker/heavier objects tend to vibrate slower(Lower
frequency)
-​ Thin E string on a guitar has a higher pitch than the
thick E string

2 results of sound interference:

1)​ Reinforce sound waves
-​ The waves ‘add up’ and reinforce each other
-​ The result: The combined wave has a large amplitude
-​ What you hear: A sound that is louder than the original
sounds

2. Cancellation of sound
 -​ One wave overlaps with another wave and cancel each
other.
-​ The result: The combined wave has a smaller amplitude or
zero amplitude
-​ What you hear: A sound that quieter or a moment of
silence

Key evidence supporting the theory

1.​ The moons composition
-​ The moon has a very small iron core . Theia's core fused
with Earth's core during the impact

2.​ Similarities to Earth's mantle:

-​ Rock sample from the moon show that it's composition is
very similar to earths mantle

3.​ The moons dryness:

-​ The moon is extremely dry with no water in it's rocks. The
immense heat from the impact would have vaporised any
water.

4.​ Earth's tilt and spin:

-​ The glancing blow from the theia is thought to be the
reason for the tilt of Earth's axis
Tuesday 25/11/2025

6.4

A nebula is a giant clod of dust and gas in space

-​ It is often called the “cosmic nursery”
* Composition = mostly hydrogen gas and helium gas
* Size = nebulae are enormous, often many light-years across

How are nebula formed:

1.​ From the remains of a dead star
-​ When a star dies in a supernova explosion, it blasts its
outer layers of gas and dust into space, creating a new
nebula.
2.​ From primordial gas
-​ Some nebulae are made from the gas and dust that has
been in space since the formation of the universe.

How stars form in a nebula

Step 1 : The stable nebula

-The dust and gas are spread over a huge area

Step 2 : The trigger (a disturbance)

-​ Something disturbs the nebula and makes it unstable. This
could be:
1.​ The shockwave from a nearby exploding star(supernova)
2.​ A collision with another nebula
3.​ The natural pull of gravity within the cloud itself

Step 3 : Gravitational collapse

-​ Once disturbance , a gravity begins to pull the particles of
gas and dust inward
Step 4 : Fragmentation into clumps
-​ As the giant nebula collapse, it does not form one single
star immediately
-​ Each of these clumps can eventually become a star

Step 5 : The protostar forms

-​ One of these clumps continues to collapse
-​ The clumps get squeezed, becomes hot and dense forming
protostar

Step 6 : Nuclear fusion ignites

-​ The protostar keeps getting pressurized
-​ At this extreme point, a process called nuclear fusion
begins

Step 7 : A star is born

-​ Summary of process
Nebula -> Gravity-> protostar -> nuclear fusion -> star
Chapter 7
Tuesday 2/12/2025

7.1 Chromosomes, genes, DNA

Basic building blocks of inheritance:

-​ The structure work from smallest to largest
-​ DNA -> Gene -> chromosomes-> nucleus

Key definition
1.​ DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
-​ Shape: A double helix (twisted ladder/spiral)
-​ Function: It carries the genetic code
-​ Location: Found in the nucleus of cells

2.​ Gene
-​ A short section of DNA
-​ Function: Each gene is a specific instructions that
codes for a single characteristics
-​ Example: Eye color, hair texture, blood type
-​ Location: Found at specific locations on a
chromosome
3.​ Chromosome
-​ Long, thread like structure made of DNA and protein
-​ Function: Ensure that DNA is accurately copied and
distributed during cell division
-​ Location: Found in the nucleus
-​ Humans have 46 chromosomes

Nitrogenous base
-​ A, T, C, G is the DNA coding
-​ A= Adenine, T = Thymine, C = Cystosine, G = Guanine
-​ Adenine (A) always pair with Thymine (T)
-​ Cystosine (C) always pair with guanine (G)
7.2 Gametes and inheritance

Key definitions:
1.​ Gametes: Specialized sex cells. For example, Sperm
( male gamete) and egg/ovum (female gamete)

2.​ Inheritance: The process by which genetic information is

passed from parents to their offsprings

3.​ Fertilisation: The fusion of male gamete with female

gamete

4.​ Alleles: Different version of the same gene

Example: The gene for eyecolor has alleles for brown, black,
blue

-​ Gametes have the half number of chromosome of a normal

body cell
-​ Chromosomes for human: 46
-​ Human gametes (sperm/egg): 23

Why gametes is only half the number:

-​ During fertilisation, the sperm (23) and egg fuse(23), the
zygote gets the full set of 46 chromosomes
Punnet square
-​ Simple diagram used to predict the probability of different
genotypes of the offspring

Key differences between body cells and gametes

Feature body cell Gamete

No. of chromosomes diploid Haploid
Made by mitosis meiosis
Function Growth, repair reproduction

Why are offspring similar, but not identical to their parents?

Similarities differences
Offspring inherit Receive random mix of chromosomes
Gene from both parents
Have characteristics of Combines genetic materials
Both mother and father
Belong to the same species
Sharing general feature Random change/ mutation

Abnormal genetic conditions

Sex chromosomes
1.​ Turner syndrome(45, x)9)
2.​ Klinefelter syndrome (47, xxy)
3.​ Trisomy(47, xxx)
4.​ Double Y syndrome/Jacob syndrome (47, xyy)

Autosomal chromosomes
1.​ Trisomy 21 (down syndrome)
2.​ Trisomy 18 (Edward syndrome)
3.​ Trisomy 13 ( Patau syndrome)
4.​ Deletion of short arm in chromosome 5 (criduchat
syndrome)
Monday
8/12/2025
7.3 Variation

-​ Variation: Differences between individuals belonging to the

same species
-​ Type of variation:

Feature Continuous Discontinuous

variation variation
Definition Difference that can Differences fall into
be measured separate
categories
Caused by Combination of Genetic factors only
genetic and
environmental
factors
Examples -​ Height -​ Blood group
-​ Length of -​ Eye color
leaves
Variation arise from:
1.​ Genetic cause(Inherited variation)
-​ Characteristic you inherit from your parents
-​ DNA is passed from parents to offspring
-​ Example: Blood group, natural hair color

2.​ Environmental cause

-​ Characteristic you acquire during your life due to your
surrounding, diet, lifestyle
-​ Examples: Language/accent
 3.​ Combined cause(polygenetic inheritance)
-​ Influenced by both of genetic and environmental factors
-​ Example: Height (Genes + diet/lifestyle)
: Body mass(genetic + diet)

Investigating variation
Method 1: 1) Choose a characteristic
2) Collect data from many individuals
3) Record in a table
4) Display using appropriate graph
-Use mean, mode, range to describe data

Why is variation important?

1.​ Helps species survive changes in environment
2.​ Allows adaption over generation
3.​ Useful in selective breeding (choosing individuals)
Chapter 8
Tuesday 2/12/25

8.1 Measuring the rate of reaction

-​ Rate = speed of reaction (time)

-​ Measuring by: gas collection( H2, CO2,O2) , mass loss,
precipitation, color change
-​ Rate changes during reaction:
-​ Fast at start -> slows down -> stops( Reactants used up)
-​ The steeper the slope, the faster the reaction
-​ For a chemical​reaction to take place, the particles of the
reactants have to collide with one another
-​ Reactants will stop when all the particles in the reactants
have been used

8.2 surface area and the rate of reaction

1.​ The effect

-​ Increasing surface area increases the rate of reaction
-​ Smaller pieces = larger surface area = faster reaction
-​ Powder react fastest, large lump reacts slowest

2.​ Practical example:

-​ Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid -> calcium chloride
+ water + carbon dioxide
-​ Method: use gas syringe to measure CO2 produced

3.​ Particle theory:

-​ More surface = more particles exposed
-​ More exposed particle e r= more frequent collision = faster
reaction
Friday 12/12/2025

8.3 temperature and the rate of reaction

1.​ The effect

-​ Increasing temperature increases the rate of reaction
dramatically
2.​ Practical example:
Sodium thiosulfate + hydrochloric acid -> sodium chloride +
sulfur + sulfur dioxide + water
3.​ particle theory
-​ Particle move faster = more frequent collisions per second
-​ Particles have more kinetic energy when temperature
increase

8.4 concentration and the rate of reaction

1.​ The effect:
-​ Increasing concentration increases the rate of reaction
-​ Higher concentration = more reactant particles
2.​ Practical example
Magnesium + hydrochloric acid-> magnesium chloride +
hydrogen
-​ Method: Measure volume of gas produced overtime
-​ More concentrated acid = faster reaction

3.​ Particle theory

-​ Higher concentration = more reactant particles in the same
volume
-​ Particles are closer together-> more frequent collisions ->
faster reaction