JEE Advanced Revision Notes

Physics
Communication system

Communication
● The act of transmitting information is referred to as communication. Every
living thing on the planet constantly urges to share or receive information
with others in its environment.
● A shared language between the sender and the receiver is necessary for
effective communication. Man has consistently worked to enhance the
effectiveness of human communication.

Elements of a Communication System

All living things communicate at all phases of their lives. Regardless of the type,
every communication system needs three components: the transmitter, the
medium or channel, and the receiver.

There are two basic modes of communication: Point-to-point and broadcast.

In point-to-point communication mode, just one transmitter and one receiver are
involved in the communication over the link. One such method of communication
is telephony. In contrast, there are much more receivers than transmitters when
using the broadcast mode. As examples of broadcast media, consider radio and
television.
(1) Digital and analogue signals cannot be transferred as such since they are often
low-frequency transmissions.
(2) Some carriers must be used to transport these signals. These carriers are also
referred to as high-frequency signals or carrier waves.
(3) Modulation is the process of overlaying a high frequency (HF) signal with a
low frequency (LF) signal.

BASIC TERMINOLOGY USED IN ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION

SYSTEMS
(i) Transducer: A transducer is any device that changes one type of energy into
another. We frequently encounter gadgets in electronic communication systems
that have electrical inputs or outputs.

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(ii) Signal: A signal is a piece of information that has been electrically
transformed into a form that can be transmitted. Analog or digital signals are both
acceptable. A continuous voltage or current variations are analogue signals. They
are essentially time functions with a single value.
● An essential analogue signal is the sine wave. The sine wave components
of all other analogue signals allow for a complete understanding of those
signals. Analog transmissions are used in TV for both sound and picture.
● Signals classified as digital can only have discrete, sequential values. The
binary system, which is widely used in digital electronics, uses merely two
levels of a signal: "0" stands for a low level of voltage or current, while "1"
stands for a high level.
(iii) Noise: Unwanted signals that tend to interfere with the transmission and
processing of message signals in a communication system are referred to as noise.
The noise's source could be either inside the system or outside.
(iv) Transmitter: In order to prepare the incoming message signal for broadcast
across a channel and subsequent receipt, a transmitter processes it.
(v) Receiver: At the channel output, a receiver separates the required message
signals from the received signals.
(vi) Attenuation: Attenuation is the signal power reduction as it travels across a
medium.
(vii Amplification: It involves utilising an electronic circuit called an amplifier
to increase a signal's amplitude (and therefore its power). In communication
systems, amplification is required to make up for signal attenuation. The energy
required for increased signal strength is obtained from a DC power supply.
Anywhere the signal intensity drops below the necessary level between the source
and the destination, amplification is performed.
(viii) Range: It is the greatest separation between a source and a destination at
which the signal can be reliably received.
(ix) Bandwidth: The frequency range that a piece of equipment may work over
or the area of the spectrum that the signal occupies are both referred to as
bandwidth.
(x) Modulation: To prevent the initial low-frequency message/information
signal from being transmitted over great distances. As a result, at the transmitter,
data from the low-frequency message signal is overlaid on a high-frequency wave
that serves as the data's carrier. Modulation is the term for this action. AM, FM,
and PM are three different types of modulation, which will be further discussed.

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(xi) Demodulation: Demodulation refers to the procedure at the receiver when
information is retrieved from the carrier wave.
(xii) Repeater: A repeater combines a transmitter and a receiver. The signal from
the transmitter is picked up by a repeater, which amplifies it and then retransmits
it to the receiver—sometimes with a different carrier frequency. Repeaters are
utilised to increase a communication system's range. A communication satellite
functions as an orbiting repeater station.

BANDWIDTH OF SIGNALS
The message signal in a communication system may take the form of voice,
music, a picture, or computer data. These signals each have a different frequency
range. Depending on the band of frequencies thought to be crucial for
transmission, a specific signal will require a specific type of communication
system.

BANDWIDTH OF TRANSMISSION MEDIUM

Different types of transmission media offer a range of bandwidths, much like
message signals. Wire, open space and fibre optic cable are the three most often
utilised transmission media. The bandwidth of coaxial cable, a commonly utilised
wire media, is about 750MHz . These cables are often operated at frequencies
lower than 18GHz . Radio waves are used for communication over free space at a
very wide range of frequencies, from a few hundreds of kHz to a few GHz.

PROPAGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN

ATMOSPHERE:
● When emitted from a transmitting antenna, radio waves, also known as
electromagnetic waves, travel across space to distant locations where they
are picked up by the receiving antenna.
● The pressure of the atmosphere, rain, snow, etc., do not affect these waves.
● They can pass through non-metallic things, but metals greatly attenuate
them.
● They can spread without the aid of any material medium.
● The following three radio wave propagation modes are based on the
distinct ways radio waves of various wavelengths interact with the
atmosphere.
● Ground or surface wave propagation

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 ● Space or tropospheric wave propagation
● Sky or ionospheric wave propagation

SURFACE WAVE PROPAGATION:

In this mode, the earth directs the radio waves, which move from the transmitter
to the receiver along the earth's curving surface.
There are two types of surface wave propagations.
1. Propagation of surface waves across short distances
2. Propagation of surface waves across great distances.
Surface field strength increases when the separation between the transmitting and
receiving antennas is small.
EO
Surface wave propagation for a flat surface is ES  A
d
● The above equation (1) is applicable for distance upto 100 3 f km ( f 
frequency in MHz ).
● Distance  100 3 fkm equation (1) has to be modified to take into account
the curvature of earth.
● For long-distance propagation, the reduction in field strength is due to the
curvature of the earth.

SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION:

The definition of space wave propagation applies to radio waves that travel within
20 km of the troposphere and are made up of both direct and reflected waves. As
they can go directly from the surface of the earth to the troposphere, these waves
are also referred to as tropospheric propagation. Since the signals are sent in a
straight line from the transmitter to the receiver, it is sometimes referred to as line
of sight propagation.

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Image: Space wave propagation
The antennas' heights and separations can be specified as follows to avoid
attenuation and signal strength loss:
Dm   2RHt    2RH r 
1/2 1/2

Where,
D m : distance between the two antennas
R: radius of the earth
H t : height of transmission antenna
H r : height of receiver antenna

SKY-WAVE PROPAGATION:
Radio communications over great distances require a technique called
ionospheric propagation. Due to route bending brought on by ionisation in the
higher air layer, the energy content of the wave in this form of propagation
reaches the receiving antenna (ionosphere). The ionisation in the ionosphere is
not uniform but it is stratified, i.e. in the form of layers. The layers are designed
as D, E, F and F2 layers.

Modulation and its necessity

A communication system's main objective is to send information or message
signals, as was already established. Baseband signals, which effectively refer to
the band of frequencies that represents the initial signal as transmitted by the
information source, are another name for message signals. The signal bandwidth
is the range of frequencies that the signal spans because, in general, no signal has
a single frequency sinusoid. Let's say we want to send an electronic signal straight

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over a long distance in the audio frequency (AF) range (20kHz or less for
baseband signals).

Size of the antenna or aerial

An antenna or aerial is required for signal transmission. In order for the antenna
to accurately perceive the time variation of the signal, it must be at least  / 4 in
diameter and have a size comparable to the wavelength of the signal. The
wavelength  of an electromagnetic wave with a frequency of 20kHz is 15 km . It
should go without saying that such a long antenna is impossible to build and
maintain.

Effective power radiated by an antenna

According to a theoretical analysis of radiation from a linear antenna, the power
emitted is proportional to ( /  ) 2 . This suggests that the power emitted increases
with decreasing  , or rising frequency, for a given antenna length. Therefore, a
long-wavelength baseband signal would have little effective power. High powers
are required for effective transmission, which highlights the necessity of adopting
high-frequency transmission.

Mixing up of signals from different transmitters

Another compelling defence against the direct transmission of baseband signals
is more pragmatic in character. Let's say a lot of individuals are chatting at once
or a lot of transmitters are sending baseband information signals at once. Because
it will be difficult to tell one signal from another when they are mixed up,
This suggests a potential solution, which involves leveraging high-frequency
communication and allocating a band of frequencies for the delivery of each
message signal.
According to the aforementioned considerations, it is necessary to convert the
original low-frequency baseband message or information signal into a high-
frequency wave before transmission so that the translated signal retains the
original signal's information.

Different types of pulse modulation are:

(a) pulse amplitude modulation (PAM),
(b) pulse duration modulation (PDM) or pulse width modulation (PWM), and
(c) pulse position modulation (PPM).

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Image: Modulation

Amplitude Modulation
In amplitude modulation, the carrier's amplitude changes in response to the
information stream. Here, a sinusoidal signal is used as the modulating signal to
explain the amplitude modulation process.
If c(t)  A c sin c t represent carrier wave and m(t)  A m sin m represent the message
or the modulating signal where  m  2 f m is the angular frequency of the message
signal. The modulated signal C m (t ) can be written as
Cm (t )   Ac  Am sin mt t  sin ct .

Modulation index: The modulation factor, degree of modulation, or modulation

index is the ratio of the carrier wave's change amplitude to its initial amplitude.
 ma  .
Here k=A factor which determines the maximum change in the amplitude for a
Am Amax  Amin
given amplitude Em of the modulating. If k=1 then ma  
Aa Amax  Amin

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Image: Angular Modulation
Side band frequencies and bandwidth in AM wave
(i) Side band frequencies: The AM wave contains three frequency
fc ,  f c  f m  and  f c  f m  , f c is called carrier frequency,
 fc  f m  : Upper side band (USB) frequency
 fc  f m  : Lower side band (LBS) frequency
Side band frequencies are generally close to the carrier frequency.
(ii) Band width: The two sidebands lie on either side of the carrier frequency at
equal frequency intervals fm m .
So, band width   fc  f m    fc  f m   2 f m

Image: Band width

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 2
Vrms
Power in AM waves: Power dissipated in any circuit P  .
R
2
 Ac 
  A2
Hence (i) carrier power Pc   2   c
R 2R
2
 ma Ac   ma Ac 
    m 2 A2
(ii) Total power of sidebands Psb   2 2

2 2  a c
R 2R 4R
A c2  ma2 
(iii) Total power of AMwavePTotal  Pc  Pab  1  
2R  2 
Pt  ma2 
(iv)  1  
Pc  2 
Psb ma2 / 2
and 
Pt  ma2 
1  
 2 

Limitation of amplitude modulation

(i) Noisy reception
(ii) Low efficiency
(iii) Small operating range
(iv) Poor audio quality

PRODUCTION OF AMPLITUDE MODULATED WAVE:

There are numerous ways to achieve amplitude modulation. The block diagram
in figure illustrates a conceptually straightforward method.

Image: Production of Amplitude modulated wave

DETECTION OF AMPLITUDE MODULATED WAVE

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When a message is transmitted, it weakens as it travels across the channel. An
amplifier and a detector should consequently come after the receiving antenna.
Additionally, the carrier frequency is typically shifted to a lower frequency by
what is known as an intermediate frequency (IF) step prior to the detection to aid
in further processing. It may be necessary to amp up the detected signal because
it might not be powerful enough to be useful. Figure displays a block diagram of
a typical receiver.

Image: Typical Receiver

FREQUENCY MODULATION
● It is the second variety of sinusoidal or continuous wave modulation.
● The frequency of the carrier signal fluctuates in this kind of modulation in
response to the modulating signal. While the carrier wave's frequency
changes, its amplitude remains constant.
● In frequency modulation, the amplitude of the modulating wave causes a
change in the carrier wave's frequency.
● At all times, the carrier's amplitude is constant. In other words, both the
carrier wave's amplitude and the modulated wave's amplitude are
maintained. The carrier's frequency is made to oscillate symmetrically
above and below its unmodulated frequency. As an example, a carrier
frequency, of 1000kHz may be caused to swing between 925kHz and
1075kHz
Frequency modulation equations mainly consist of a sinusoidal expression with
the integral of the baseband signal that can be either a sine or cosine function.
It can be represented mathematically as;
m(t )  Am cos mt   
m(t)  modulating signal
Where,
Am  Amplitude of the modulating signal.
m  Angular frequency of the modulating signal.
  is the phase of the modulating signal.

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Such as amplitude modulation, when we try to modulate an input signal
(information), we need a carrier wave,
we will experience
C (t )  Ac cos ct   ..2
Angular modulation, which means c (or)  of the carrier wave, starts varying
linearly with respect to the modulating signal like amplitude modulation.

Image: Side band frequency

If we look at the graph, we can see that as the input signal's amplitude grows, a
carrier's frequency rises. When the input signal is strongest in this case, the carrier
frequency is at its highest. In the meantime, if the modulating signal's amplitude
falls, the frequency of a carrier also does. In other words, when the input signal
is at its weakest, the carrier frequency is at its lowest.
Periodic Modulation (FM)
Frequency modulation is the process of altering a carrier wave's frequency to
match an audio frequency signal.
(1) The AM transmission's audio quality is subpar. It is necessary to get rid of
amplitude-sensitive noise. If we take away the amplitude variation, this is feasible
(i.e., a need to keep the amplitude of the carrier constant). In FM, this is exactly
what we do.
(2) The overall amplitude of the FM wave is always constant.
(3) The overall transmitted power in FM does not change.

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Image: Different types of wave
COMMUNICATION MODULATED BY FREQUENCY (Height of
Transmitting Antenna)
● There is frequency modulation in TV transmissions. Ground wave
propagation cannot be used to gain their transmission. This occurs as a
result of the signals' high frequency being absorbed by the ground.
● Additionally undesirable is communication via sky wave propagation. This
is because the ionosphere can't reflect radio waves with frequencies higher
than 40 MHz.
● The receiving antenna must directly capture the signal from the sending
antenna for TV broadcasts to be transmitted.
● The waves that are being sent, moving directly in a straight path.

Simple demodulator circuit

Amplitude modulated (AM) waves can be detected or demodulated using a diode.
A diode essentially performs the function of a rectifier by reducing the modulated
carrier wave to just the positive envelope.
The figure depicts the AM wave input. It appears as a rectified wave at the diode's
output across PQ (since a diode conducts only in the positive half cycle). After
going via the RC network, this rectified wave is devoid of the radio frequency
carrier component.

Image: Simple demodulator circuit

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Image: Simple demodulator waveform
MOBILE TELEPHONY
When we look around, we may observe many individuals conversing on cell
phones or mobile phones in marketplaces, on trains and buses, and as they cross
streets. The way we interact and live has changed thanks to mobile phones. The
appearance and functionality of mobile phones have changed along with
technological innovation. In addition to making and receiving phone calls, the
newest mobile phones also allow users to:
● Store contact information
● Make task or to-do lists
● Keep track of appointments and set reminders
● Use the built- in calculator for simple maths.
● Send or receive email
● Get information (news, entertainment, stock quotes) from the Internet
● Play games
● Listen radio/music and watch TV
● Send text messages
● Take photos and videos etc.

Formula chart:
EO
Surface wave propagation: ES  A
d
 Nq 2 
Space wave propagation:  0 1  2 
 0 m 

K a Em
Amplitude Modulation (AM): ma 
Ec
 Max. variation in amplitude of carrier 
Depth of Modulation: ma     100%
 from its unmodulated value 

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Lower frequency band of AM signal  C  m 
Higher frequency band of AM signal  C  m 
( Angular bandwidth ) AM  c  m   c  m    2m max
 2 
  m    2 f m max
 2 max

Example 1: An antenna is mounted on a 400 m tall building. What will be

the wavelength of signal that can be radiated effectively by the transmission
tower upto a range of 44km?
(A) 37.8 m
(B) 605 m
(C) 75.6 m
(D) 302 m
Answer: A, C, D
Explanation
h: height of antenna
 : wavelength of signal
h
h
  400 m

Example 2: A transmitting antenna at top of a tower has a height of 50 m and

the height of the receiving antenna is 80 m. What is the range of
communication for Line of Sight (LoS) mode?
[use radius of earth =6400 km]
(A) 45.5 km
(B) 80.2 km
(c) 144.1 km
(D) 57.28 km
Answer: D
Explanation:

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dt  2 Rh1  2 Rh2

 2R  h1  h2 
 
1/2
 2  6400 103 ( 50  80)
 3578(7.07  8.94)
 57.28 km

Common errors or mistakes that should be avoided by the students keeping

the exam point of view:
● Students forget to write the working formula and not read definitions
properly.
● The answers should be by the marks allotted. For example, a question of 2
marks should not be answered in a whole page. Students should stick to the
important points to gain full marks in the question. This will also help to
have sufficient time to complete the paper.
● Sometimes, even good students forget to write down the formula when
working on numerical. Students should note that few marks are allotted for
the formula and this will result in not scoring the full mark for the
numerical.
● Students should learn the formula thoroughly to avoid confusion in the
examination. Often students get confused and flip the numerator and
denominator in the formulae. This results in the entire numerical to be
incorrect and no marks are awarded for the answer.
● For diagram questions, it is a must that students label the diagram. To make
the paper more presentable, students should mark these labels in a pencil
or with a different colour pen.
● 1 mark questions that ask for “Yes” or “No” answers should be written
along with its reason to achieve full marks in this question. ½ mark is
allotted for each part.

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 ● In the exam, most of the questions have parts in it. Each part is allotted a
specific mark and often students overlook these small parts asked and
results in losing marks in the question, either ½ a mark or 3 marks for the
same.
● Students should avoid making question mistakes in the answer they are
writing. Marks will not be allotted for incorrect question numbers.
● When a student wants to rewrite a certain question that has already been
answered, they must make sure that the incorrect answer is struck out. If a
student fails to strike out the incorrect answer, as per the CBSE guidelines,
the examiner will take the first attempt as the answer to the question and
ignore the second.

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