Module 2
(b) Solar Cells
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is a device that converts light energy into electricity
using the photovoltaic effect. It relies on semiconductor materials to generate electricity when
exposed to sunlight. However, solar energy production is significantly more expensive than fossil
or nuclear fuels due to the high cost of semiconductor technology.
The practical efficiency of solar cells ranges from 10% to 25%. Current research is
focused on reducing material costs and improving efficiency, which require significant investment
and lengthy R&D efforts. A key limitation of solar power is its dependence on sunlight,
necessitating large storage systems for reliable energy supply during nighttime or cloudy
conditions.
The sun delivers approximately 105 TW of energy to Earth, far exceeding global energy
consumption. Photovoltaic cells, largely composed of silicon-based solid-state junction devices,
are advancing as pivotal components in sustainable energy systems. By 2030, the market for these
mature systems is projected to reach 3,000 GW. Despite this progress, photovoltaic electricity
production remains costly compared to fossil and nuclear energy.
Photovoltaic conversion, based on the photoelectric effect observed by Edmund Becquerel
in 1839 and later elucidated by Albert Einstein in 1905, directly transforms sunlight into
electricity at the atomic level. Materials exhibiting the photoelectric effect absorb light photons
and release electrons, generating electricity. Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic converters,
are long-lasting, reliable devices requiring only sunlight to operate, with a lifespan of 25 years or
more. They are essential for harnessing solar energy, although cost reductions and efficiency
improvements are needed for broader adoption.
(Explain the principle of Solar photovoltaic power generation).
(Write detailed notes on photovoltaic panels with necessary diagrams)
2.18 Components of Solar cell
These include solar cell panels, one or more batteries, a charge regulator or controller for a
standalone system, an inverter for a utility grid-connected system, requirement of alternating
current (AC) rather than direct current (DC), wiring, and mounting hardware or a framework.
The basic elements of a solar cell is described in Figure 2.29, The following are the basic elements
a) Substrate : The substrate, or p-region base material, of a solar cell is an unpolished p-type
wafer. Key considerations when selecting a wafer include its orientation, resistivity (typically
1–2 Ωcm), thickness (180–300 μm), and doping concentration (around 5 × 10¹⁵/cm³ to 1 ×
10¹⁶/cm³). Wafers can be either single-crystalline or multi-crystalline, depending on the
application.
b) Emitter : Emitter formation in solar cells involves doping silicon with pentavalent impurities,
primarily phosphorus. This is achieved through diffusion, where wafers are exposed to a
phosphorus-rich environment at high temperatures (850°C to 1,000°C), allowing phosphorus to
diffuse into the silicon. The process, often using POCl₃ as the phosphorus source, is controlled
by adjusting time and temperature. Typical doping concentrations are around 1×10¹⁹/cm³, with
junction depths ranging from 0.2–1 μm, forming the n-region diffused layers essential for solar
cell functionality.
Figure 2.29 : Basic Elements of Photovoltaic cell
c) Electrical Contacts: These are essential to a photovoltaic cell since they bridge the connection
between the semiconductor material and the external electrical load. It includes
i) Back contact: It is a metallic conductor completely covering back. The back contact of a cell is
located on the side away from the incoming sunlight and is relatively simple. It usually consists
of a layer of aluminium or molybdenum metal.
ii)Front contact: Current collection grid of metallic finger type is arranged in such a way that
photon energy falls on n-region diffused layers. The front contact is located on the side facing
the light source and is more complicated. When light falls on the solar cell, a current of
electrons flow over the surface. If solar cell contacts are placed at the edges, the high electrical
resistance of the top semiconductor layer limits electron flow, reducing efficiency. To
maximize current collection, a grid of metal stripes or fingers is distributed across the surface.
However, this opaque grid shades parts of the cell, decreasing conversion efficiency. To
enhance performance, minimizing the shading effect is crucial.
iii) Anti-reflective coatings: Anti-reflective coatings are used in solar glass and silicon solar cell
manufacturing to minimize surface reflection and improve efficiency. By reducing the
reflection of desirable wavelengths, more light reaches the semiconductor layer, enhancing
energy conversion. Thin-film nano-coatings of silicon dioxide (SiO₂) and titanium dioxide
(TiO₂) can boost solar cell efficiencies by 3–4%.
2.19 : Important Requirements of Solar Cell (Photovoltaic Cell)
Following are the important factors that need careful attention in the design of solar cells:
a) Photon energy of solar light: Photons with a certain level of energy can free electrons in the
semiconductor material from their atomic bonds to produce an electric current. The energy of a
photon must be larger than the bandgap energy to free an electron. However, photons with
more energy than the bandgap energy will expand that extra amount as heat when freeing
electrons.
b) Bandgap energy of semiconductors: When light falls on crystalline silicon, electrons within
the crystal lattice can be freed. This level of energy is known as the bandgap energy. It is
defined as the amount of energy required to dislodge an electron from its covalent bond and
allow it to become part of an electrical circuit. Thus, it is important for a solar cell to be tuned
through slight modifications to the silicon’s molecular structure to optimize the photon energy.
An efficient solar cell converts as much sunlight as possible into electricity.
c) Photon energy absorption: Photons are absorbed in the p-layer of solar cell. It is important
that this p-layer absorbs maximum possible photons and also releases many electrons as
possible up to maximum extent.
d) Electron conduction: The material design to free electrons as close to the junction as possible
allows the electric field to send the free electrons through the conduction layer and into the
electrical circuit, which is the another challenge of fabrication process. By optimizing these
characteristics, the solar cell conversion efficiency is improved.
e) Electric contact resistance: Another important aspect in the solar cell design is to minimize
the electrical resistance losses when applying grid contacts to the solar cell material. These
losses relate to:
i)The material properties of the solar cell that oppose the flow of an electric current and
results in heating.
ii) The shading effects must be balanced against electrical resistance losses in designing grid
[Link] usual approach is to design grids with many thin, conductive fingers spreading
to every part of the cell surface. The fingers of the grid must be thick enough to conduct
well (with low resistance), but thin enough not to block the incoming light. This type of grid
maintains low resistance losses while shading only ~3–5% of the cell surface.
f) Antireflective Coating: Silicon is a highly reflective material behaving as a mirror, thereby
reflecting more than one-third of the solar light falling on it. Minimization of the amount of
solar light reflected is also an important factor to improve the conversion efficiency of a solar
cell.
2.20 Elements of Solar cell
In crystalline silicon solar cells, p-type and n-type silicon must meet to form the electrical field.
Doping alters silicon's electrical properties by adding elements with three or five valence
electrons, differing from silicon's four. This enables efficient energy conversion.
a) N-type Semiconductors :
Phosphorus atoms, with five valence electrons, are used to dope n-type silicon by replacing
silicon atoms in the crystal lattice. Four of phosphorus's electrons bond with neighboring
silicon atoms, while the fifth remains free, creating a surplus of free electrons for
conduction. This process enhances the material's electrical properties.
Doping silicon with phosphorus is typically done by coating its surface with phosphorus and
heating it to enable diffusion, which stops when the temperature is reduced. Alternative
methods include gaseous diffusion, liquid dopant spray, and precise injection of phosphorus
ions into the silicon's surface.
N-type silicon requires p-type silicon to create an electric field. P-type silicon is doped with
boron, which has three valence electrons. During silicon purification for photovoltaic
devices, boron atoms replace silicon atoms in the crystal lattice, creating bonds missing an
electron—resulting in a positively charged hole.
b) P-type Semiconductors
In a photovoltaic cell, the p-layer absorbs photons and must be optimized to capture the
maximum number of photons, freeing up as many electrons as possible. The design also
aims to prevent recombination of electrons with holes before they escape the cell. To
achieve this, p-layers are engineered to free electrons near the junction, enabling the electric
field to direct them through the n-layer and into the circuit. These optimizations enhance the
cell's conversion efficiency, increasing the light-to-electricity energy output.
2.19.1 Fabrication of Silicon Solar Cell
a) Pure silicon is placed in an induction furnace where it melts.
b) Boron is then added to the melt from which p-type crystals are withdrawn.
c) The p-type base material is then placed in a diffusion furnace containing a gaseous n-type
dopant like phosphorous.
d) n-type dopant is allowed to diffuse on to the surface, thus forming p–n junction.
e) Metal conductor grids are added as back and front contact for current collection.
2.20 Solar Cell Material
• Photovoltaic cells are made using various materials and fabrication methods, many of
which are in use or under development.
• Silicon is the most widely used material due to its abundance and suitability, with
crystalline silicon solar cells making up over 80% of production, and amorphous silicon
solar cells covering nearly all of the remaining 20%.
• Silicon wafers have long been the primary base for assembling photovoltaic cells.
• The absorption coefficient indicates how far light of a specific wavelength penetrates a
material before absorption; a lower absorption coefficient means less light is absorbed.
• Absorption coefficient depends on the material and the light's wavelength or energy.
• The bandgap (Eg) of a semiconductor is the minimum energy needed to free an electron
from its bound state in the valence band to the conduction band, where it can conduct
electricity.
• Solar cells have an abrupt absorption edge; light with energy below the bandgap cannot
free electrons and is not absorbed.
• Solar cells consist of semiconductor materials optimized for energy conversion based on
these principles.
2.21 Practical Solar cells
Solar cells are now manufactured from a number of different semiconductors that are summarized
in the following points. In addition, there is considerable activity to commercially manufacture the
dye-sensitized solar cells.
a) Crystalline silicon cells: They dominate the photovoltaic market. To reduce the cost,
these cells are now often made from multi-crystalline material,rather than from the more
expensive single crystals. Crystalline silicon cell technology is well established. The
modules have long lifetime (20 years or more) and their best production efficiency is
approaching 18%.
b) Amorphous silicon solar cells: They are cheaper (but also less efficient) type of silicon
cells made in the form of amorphous thin films that are used to power a variety of
consumer products; however, larger amorphous silicon solar modules are also becoming
available.
c) Cadmium telluride and copper indium diselenide: Thin-film modules are now
beginning to appear on the market and hold the promise of combining low cost with
acceptable conversion efficiencies.
d) High-efficiency solar cells: From gallium arsenide, indium phosphide, or their derivatives
are used in specialized applications, for example, to power satellites or in systems that
operate under high-intensity concentrated sunlight.
The principal characteristics of different types of cell in or near commercial production are
summarized in Table
(List the application and 3 important function of Solar cell.)
2.21.1 Functions of Solar cell
Important functions of solar cell are as follows
a) Carrier generation : The generation of carriers occurs in the bulk of the material
b) Carrier separation : The separation of carriers would require a p-n junction.
c) Carrier collection : For effective carrier collection, a proper contacting method is required
The starting material for a silicon solar cell is silicon, which generates electron-hole pairs. The
critical component is the p–n junction, where carriers are separated to form an electric potential
and current. Two silicon semiconductor layers, p-type (with positive holes) and n-type (with
negative electrons), are sandwiched together. Excess electrons move to the p-type side, creating a
positive charge, while holes move to the n-type side, creating a negative charge. This creates an
electric field at the p–n junction. The field drives electrons toward the negative surface for the
electrical circuit, while holes move toward the positive surface, ready to bond with electrons.
2.22 Main Components of Photovoltaic System
1) Photovoltaic cell: Thin squares, discs, or films of semiconductor material that generate
voltage and current when exposed to sunlight.
2) Module: Photovoltaic cells wired together and laminated between a clear strait glazing and
encapsulating substrate.
3) Array: One or more modules with mounting hardware and wired together at specific
voltage.
4) Charge controller: Power-conditioning equipment to regulate battery voltage.
5) Battery storage: A medium that stores direct current (DC) electrical energy.
6) Inverter: An electrical device that changes direct current to alternating current (AC) to
operate loads that require alternating current.
7) DC loads: Appliances, motors, and equipment powered by DC.
8) AC loads: Appliances, motors, and equipment powered by AC.
(Explain I-V characteristics of a solar cell. Discuss the efficiency of solar cell.)
2.23 I-V Characteristics of solar Cells
The voltage output of the cell (V), in general, can be obtained as
𝑉 = (𝑘𝑇⁄𝑒) log 𝑒[1 + (𝐼𝑠 − 𝐼)/𝐼𝑜 ]------------1
Equation 1 represent the I-V Characteristics of solar cell and it is shown in 2.30 under different
illumination levels
On an I–V characteristic, the vertical axis refers to the current (I) and the horizontal axis refers to
voltage (V). The actual I–V curve typically passes through two significant points:
a) The short-circuit current (ISC) is the current produced when the positive and negative
terminals of the cell are short-circuited and the voltage between the terminals is zero, which
corresponds to a load resistance of zero.
b) The open-circuit voltage (VOC) is the voltage across the positive and negative terminals under
open-circuit conditions when the current is zero, which corresponds to a load resistance of
infinity. The cell may be operated over a range of voltages and currents.
Figure 2.30 : Basic Elements of Photovoltaic cell
2.24 Output Power
The cell output power 𝑃 = 𝐼 × 𝑉
The output power depends on the value of load resistance for a given light intensity
𝑃 = [𝐼𝑠 − 𝐼𝑜 {𝐸𝑥𝑝(𝑒𝑉⁄𝑘𝑇) − 1}] × 𝑉
Since 𝑃 = 𝐼 × 𝑉, the maximum power occurs when the product of IV has it maximum value.
2.25 Maximum Output Power of the cell
Differentiating the equation 𝑃 = [𝐼𝑠 − 𝐼𝑜 {𝐸𝑥𝑝(𝑒𝑉⁄𝑘𝑇) − 1}] × 𝑉 with respect to V and setting
the derivative equal to zero yield the value of external load voltage 𝑉𝑀𝑃 that gives the maximum
output power.
Thus, from dP/dV=0 and substituting 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑀𝑃 in the resulting equations yields
[𝐼𝑠 − 𝐼𝑜 {𝐸𝑥𝑝(𝑒𝑉⁄𝑘𝑇) − 1}] + 𝑉𝑀𝑃 [−𝐼𝑜 {(𝑒⁄𝑘𝑇)𝐸𝑥𝑝(𝑒 𝑉𝑀𝑃 ⁄𝑘𝑇)}] = 0
Rearranging the terms in the above equation
𝐸𝑥𝑝(𝑒 𝑉𝑀𝑃 ⁄𝑘𝑇)[1 + 𝑒𝑉𝑀𝑃 ⁄𝑘𝑇 ] = (1 + 𝐼𝑠 ⁄𝐼𝑜 )----------1
Equation is an implicit equation for 𝑉𝑀𝑃 that maximizes the power in terms of short circuit
currents (𝐼𝑆 ), the reverse saturation current (𝐼𝑜 ), and the absolute temperature (T). If all these
parameters are known, the value of 𝑉𝑀𝑃 can be evaluated from equation 1 by either trail and error
method or numerical method or graphical method.
The load current 𝐼𝑀𝑃 that maximizes the output power can be found by the following equation
(1 + 𝐼𝑠 ⁄𝐼𝑜 )
𝐼𝑀𝑃 = 𝐼𝑠 − 𝐼0 [(𝑒𝑉𝑀𝑃 ⁄𝑘𝑇) − 1] = 𝐼𝑠 − 𝐼0 [{ } − 1]
(1 + 𝑒𝑉𝑀𝑃 ⁄𝑘𝑇)
={(𝑒𝑉𝑀𝑃 ⁄𝑘𝑇)/(1 + 𝑒𝑉𝑀𝑃 ⁄𝑘𝑇 )}(𝐼𝑠 − 𝐼𝑜 )
The maximum power 𝑃𝑀𝐴𝑋 produced by the conversion device is reached at a point on the
characteristic where the product IV is maximum. This is shown graphically in figure 2.31, where
the position of the maximum power point represents the largest are of the rectangle shown
Figure 2.31: The I-V characteristic of an ideal solar cell
2.26 Efficiency of Solar cells
Energy conversion efficiency(𝜂) is defined as the ratio power output of cell (in watts )at its
maximum power point 𝑃𝑀𝐴𝑋 and the product of input light power (e, in W/m2) and the surface
area of the solar cell (S in m2)under standard conditions
𝜂 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 /(𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎) = 𝑃𝑀𝐴𝑋 /(𝐸 × 𝑆)
The performance of a photovoltaic device defines the prediction of the power that the cell will
produce. Current–voltage (I–V) relationships, which measure the electrical characteristics of solar
cell devices, are represented by I–V curves(Figure 2.30 and 2.31)These I–V curves are obtained
by exposing the cell to a constant level of light while maintaining a constant cell temperature,
varying the resistance of the load, and measuring the current that is produced.
Researchers can find the maximum efficiency—the point at which the cell delivers the most
power—by changing the load resistance from zero (a short circuit) to infinity (an open circuit).
The voltage multiplied by the current is the power. As a result, the maximum-power point
(PMAX) on the I–V curve is where the product of voltage and current reaches its highest. Neither
the open-circuit voltage with no current nor the short-circuit current with no voltage generate any
electricity. Consequently, it is anticipated that the greatest power produced will fall between these
two positions. On the power curve, maximum power is produced at a single location, roughly near
the curve's "knee." This point represents the maximum efficiency of the solar device at converting
sunlight into electricity.
2.27 Fill Factor
Another term defining the overall behaviour of a solar cell is the fill factor (FF). It is a measure of
squareness of the I–V characteristics of the solar cell and is defined as
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟/(𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 − 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 − 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)
It is the available power at the maximum power point 𝑃𝑀𝐴𝑋 divided by the product of open-circuit
voltage 𝑉𝑂𝐶 and short circuit current 𝐼𝑆𝐶 as
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑃𝑀𝐴𝑋 ⁄(𝑉𝑜𝑐 × 𝐼𝑠𝑐 ) = (𝑉𝑀𝑃 × 𝐼𝑀𝑃 )⁄(𝑉𝑜𝑐 × 𝐼𝑆𝐶 ) ---------------1
Where 𝑉𝑀𝑃 and 𝐼𝑀𝑃 are the voltage and current at the maximum power point. Equation one can be
redefined as,
𝐹𝐹 = (𝜂 × 𝑆 × 𝐸)/(𝑉𝑂𝐶 × 𝐼𝑆𝐶 )v --------------2
The fill factor is directly affected by the values of the cell’s series and shunt resistances.
Increasing the shunt resistance (RSH) and decreasing the series resistance (RS) lead to a higher fill
factor, thus resulting in greater efficiency, and bringing the cell’s output power closer to its
theoretical maximum.
(What are the advantages and disadvantages of solar PV systems?)
Advantages
1. Sun is essentially an infinite source of energy. Therefore solar energy is a very large inexhaustible
and renewable source of energy and is freely available all over the world.
2. It is environmentally very clean and is hence pollution-free.
3. It is a dependable energy source without new requirements of a highly technical and specialized
nature for its wide spread utilization.
4. It is the best alternative for the rapid depletion of fossil fuels.
Disadvantages
1. It is available in a dilute and is at low potential. The intensity of solar energy on a sunny day in
India is about 1.1 kW/square meter area. Hence very large collecting areas are required.
2. Also the dilute and diffused nature of the solar energy needs large land area for the power plant for
instance, about 30 square kilometers area is required for a solar power station to replace a nuclear
plant on a 1 square kilometer site. Hence capital cost is more for the solar plant.
3. Solar energy is not available at night or during cloudy or rainy days.
Applications of Solar Energy:
Applications of solar energy enjoying most success today are:
1. Solar engines for pumping.
2. Solar water heaters.
3. Solar cookers.
4. Solar driers.
5. Solar furnaces.
6. Photo-voltaic conversion (solar cells)
7. Solar power generation.