TREASURE OF EARTH
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the session, students will be able to:
1. Know about the minerals as an important gift of nature,
2. Learn about the mineral status of India and uses of minerals,
3. Appreciate the harmful effects due to over exploitation of these natural
resources,
4. Learn about classification of minerals,
5. Know about mining activities, their disadvantages and control measures,
6. Learn about the location of mines of some important minerals.
SUMMARY
Mineral resources – both metallic and non-metallic, are associated with the rocks
of the earth crust. These natural products are formed by cooling, crystallization and
solidification of mineral-forming fluids. All these minerals are non-renewable natural
resource. Once they are consumed, they cannot be created back. Valuable metals,
liquid and solid fuels, precious and semi-precious stones etc. are to be searched in
different stages of exploration and later exploited by surface and underground mining
operations. Exploration, exploitation and environment are interconnected and
interdependent phases of any mining project. Depending upon their availability, quantity,
quality etc., various mineral-based industries are working at present. They play
important role in the progress, development and prosperity of mankind and country as
well. Apart from these, mineral conservation and environmental protection should be our
priorities.
TRANSCRIPTION
Introduction:
A Mineral is a naturally occurring substance having definite chemical
composition, fixed internal atomic structural arrangement and formed by inorganic
processes of nature. Both metallic and non-metallic minerals occur in nature. The
natural assemblage of metallic minerals which can be exploited and extracted profitably
and serve as the commercial source of one or more metal values, are called Ores. All
the minerals are non-renewable natural resources – it means that they are not
replenishable. Once they are exhausted completely, they can not get back. These
mineral resources are associated with rocks of the earth crust and obtained by surface
and underground mining operations. As far as metals are concerned, they are extracted
from their ores. Primary deposits of precious metals such as Platinum, Gold, Silver etc.
are limited. At present India is largest consumer of Gold in the world. The precious
metals are becoming costly day-by-day. Minerals and metals play important role in the
progress, development and prosperity of man and country as well.
From the primitive to the most sophisticated modern man, in all stages of human
advancement, man had to look to minerals for his sustenance, decoration, festivities
and even for his funeral rites.
The primitive man in his efforts to hunt food as well as self protection started
using hard rocks and minerals which he found so abundantly all around him. Hard rocks
like quartzite and hard minerals like quartz, jasper, flint, chert etc. had been commonly
used by him, either in their natural shapes or after crudely chipping them to some
pointed shapes. The first metals the man used would be relatively soft hence metal like
copper, tin, zinc etc. were first utilized by him. These ages are known as the Copper
Age and Bronze Age. Following the Bronze Age, the early man had learnt the use of
Iron in its many forms, known as the Iron Age. The art and science of manufacture of
Iron and Steel articles have developed in this country from pre-Vedic times and much
faster than the other parts of the world. By the 3rd or 4th century A.D. during the period of
Chandragupta II, India had been able to manufacture that marvel of pillar of rust-less
iron which can be seen near Qutab Minar in Delhi even today.
India is self-sufficient in about 35 minerals and mineral substances which are
used as basic raw materials in various industries. We have enough deposits of Iron,
Copper, Alumina, Coal, Limestone etc. in Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Gujarat, Goa, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala in
our country.
Our onshore [Ankleshwar, Krishna-Godavary Basin, Assam, Jaisalmer] and
offshore [Bombay High] regions are rich in petroleum and natural gas resources.
Heavier minerals like Ilmenite, Monazite, Uraninite, Zircon, Rutile etc. are concentrated
in the form of thick Placers in beach zones. These placers are extended towards sea.
Such placers on beaches and estuaries are mined for metals like titanium, gold,
platinum, thorium, zirconium and even for diamonds. The well-known beach placers of
Kerala coast are of economic importance and contain rich concentration of Monazite
[primary source for metal Thorium] along with ilmenite and rutile. Ex-president of India
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam suggested the use of Thorium in place of Uranium. Accordingly,
by making some changes in nuclear power plants thorium should be used to generate
electricity because, thorium is available in plenty in India whereas for uranium we are
dependent on other countries.
Special mention is necessary about the possibility of metal accumulation on the
sea beds. Continental shelf and adjoining areas of Indian Ocean are the favorable sites
for this natural resource. The most spectacular are the deep-sea pelagic ferro-
manganese nodules formed by various processes. Such nodules started to form during
Cretaceous and attained maximum development during Pliocene and Recent period.
Manganese content in these nodules is around 20 percent. In addition, they are known
to contain valuable concentration of Copper, Nickel and Cobalt. Role of bacteria is
considerable in nodule formation. In a report it is said that Manganese nodules in the
Indian Ocean cover an area of over 10 million square kilometers and are next only to
the Pacific Ocean.
Metallic and non-metallic mineral resources are to be extracted by surface mining
as well as underground [both shallow and great depths] mining activities from earth’s
crust. Before mining any deposit, different activities are to be undertaken which
complete in different steps. They are :
1. Searching Stage : Search of presence of minerals on the basis of various field
and laboratory clues and guides etc.
2. Exploration Stage : It means all phases of investigation carried out for a near
realistic delineation of the three dimensional configuration of the mineral/ore body and
assessing its economic potential, both in terms of grade and reserve [i.e. quality and
quantity]
3. Exploitation Stage: The bunch of operations commencing with the initial box-
cut removal of the values to dispatching the produce from the pit to the utilization spot,
comes under the purview of exploitation or mining stage.
4. Extraction Stage: After mining, the ore minerals are in association with
unwanted minerals. The techniques of liberation of wanted particles [the values] from
the unwanted particles, reduction of mineral assemblage to an appropriate size,
effective concentration of valuable part and rejection of gangue portion etc. for any
smelting operation, come under this stage.
In India mineral search is done by Geologists, Geophysists, Geochemists etc.
of various organizations of Government of India, Government of India Undertakings,
Geology and Mining departments of State Governments, Corporations, Private sector
companies etc. Some of the leading Geology and Mining organizations of India are:
1. Geological Survey of India [GSI], Kolkata
2. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation [ONGC], Dehradun
3. National Mineral Development Corporation [NMDC], Hyderabad
4. Coal India Limited [CIL], Kolkata
5. Gas Authority of India Limited [GAIL], New Delhi
6. Hindustan Zinc Limited [HZL], Udaipur
7. Hindustan Copper Limited [HCL], Kolkata
8. Gemological Institute of India [GII], Mumbai
9. Cement Corporation of India [CCI], New Delhi
10. Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited [HPCL], Mumbai
11. Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited [BPCL], Mumbai
12. Indian Oil Corporation Limited [IOCL], Mumbai
13. Oil India Limited [OIL], Assam
14. Indian Bureau of Mines [IBM], Nagpur
More than 2100 mineral species have been discovered in nature. Every mineral
has its own diagnostic properties on the basis of which it can be identified and
distinguished with the others. Certain minerals have only one element in their
composition such as Diamond and Graphite [only Carbon] whereas others have two
[Quartz : SiO2; Fluorite : CaF2] or more elements [Orthoclase : KAlSi3O8; Apatite :
Ca5[PO4]3F].
Uses of Mineral Resources:
Metallic [Ore] Minerals:
Bauxite [Al2O3.2H2O]: The principal use is for the manufacture of metallic
aluminium [Al]. This light metal has a high degree of strength and it can alloy easily with
a number of other metals. Duralim, which is much favored is used in the manufacture of
railway coaches, goods wagons etc. It is also used in the production of abrasives,
refractories, chemicals etc. Aluminium sulphate or Alum is very much used in the paper
industry and in water purification. It is a metal which combines lightness with strength
and is highly resistant to corrosion. It is conductor of electricity hence it is being used in
electric wires, cables etc. Its domestic use is for making utensils, thin foils etc. Lower
grade of bauxite is used in cement industry.
Chalcopyrite [CuFeS2]: It is the most important ore mineral of metal Copper
[Cu] which is a sulphide of copper and iron, also known as Copper Pyrites. The uses of
copper are many. Because of its high electrical conductivity, its greatest utilization is in
the electrical industry. Copper also forms a number of useful alloys – with Tin, it forms
Bronze, with Zinc, it forms Brass, with Aluminium, it forms Duralumin etc. Salts of
copper are used as disinfectants, fungicides and for coloring glass.
Hematite [Fe2O3] and Magnetite [Fe3O4] : These are the two important natural
iron oxides, serve as iron ores. After proper beneficiation, these iron ores, mainly
hematite is used in iron [Fe] and steel making, as a heavy medium in coal-washeries
etc. We utilize only small percentage of our iron ore production in our country. About 60
percent of our production of iron ore lumps is exported in the raw and unprocessed form
to Japan and other countries. These countries prefer only our high grade ores. This
trend may prove a serious drain in our reserves of high grade iron ores in the long run.
Though we possesses vast reserves of high grade iron ores, now it is necessary to
conserve our reserves of high grade iron ores.
Galena [PbS] and Sphalerite [ZnS]: In nature, the galena and sphalerite
occur together.
The chief ore mineral of lead [Pb] is Galena – lead sulphide, PbS. It is also
known as Lead Glance and Blue Lead. Silver sulphide is always present and therefore it
is one of the most important sources of silver. When sufficient silver is present, the ore
is called argentiferous galena. The metal lead is being smelted from galena. The major
uses of lead are in the manufacture of storage batteries, cable sheathing, lead pigments
etc. Lead sheets, pipes, tubes etc. are manufactured. It is also alloyed with other metals
to give rise to brass, bronze etc.
The chief ore mineral of zinc is Sphalerite – zinc sulphide, ZnS. It is also known
as Zinc Blende and Black Jack. The metal zinc [Zn] is being recovered from sphalerite.
Zinc is used for alloying, for galvanizing iron and steel, in the manufacture of white
pigments, dry batteries, electrodes etc. Zinc compounds are extensively used in die-
casting, in textiles, in rubber industries etc.
After the recovery of lead and zinc metals, silver and cadmium are also
recovered as by-product.
Manganese Minerals: The chief sources of metal manganese [Mn] are the
oxide minerals namely Pyrolusite [MnO2], Psilomelane [Hydrated oxide of Manganese],
Braunite [Mn2O3] etc. In the manufacture of steel, manganese plays an important role. It
is used as deoxidizer and desulphuriser during the manufacture of steel. Manganese
gives extra hardness and resistance to abrasion. It is also used in making dry batteries,
chemicals, in glass industry [for decolourising], in paints and varnishes [as a drier] etc.
Chromite [FeCr2O4]: The only source of metal chromium [Cr] is chromite, also
known as Chrome Iron Ore. Chromite, an oxide of iron and chromium, is used as
metallurgical, refractory and chemical purposes. Chromite forms useful alloys with iron,
nickel or cobalt. With iron, it forms well known alloy Ferrochrome, which is used in
making stainless steel. As a refractory material, it is used for making Chrome bricks,
Chrome cement etc. for furnace linings [of copper and nickel smelting furnaces]. It is
used as pigments, for the manufacture of chromates, dichromates etc. which are used
in leather tanning and dyeing. It is also used in photographic materials, chromium
plating etc.
Non-metallic Minerals:
Asbestos: Mineralogically, asbestos includes the fibrous forms of minerals of
Amphibole Group. The fibers are generally long, fine, flexible and easily separated by
fingers. The colour varies from white to greenish and brownish. The commercial value
of the mineral depends on its property of being spun in to yarn, heat resistance etc.
Larger fibers are used for fire-proof fabrics, brake-linings whereas shorter fibers are
utilized in the manufacture of asbestos sheets, boards, roofing tiles, fire-proof paints,
insulating cement etc.
Feldspar [KAlSi3O8, NaAlSi3O8, CaAl2Si2O8]: The feldspars are aluminous
silicates of potassium or sodium or calcium. The feldspars are the most important group
of the rock-forming minerals. Feldspars are used in the manufacture of glass, electrical
porcelain insulators, for glazing pottery and ceramic wares, for making enamels etc.
Fluorite [CaF2]: It is a fluoride of calcium also known as Fluor Spar. It used as
a flux in making steel, in the manufacture of glasses, for the production of hydrofluoric
acid and its compounds, for the construction of lenses etc.
Graphite [C]: Like diamond it also has the composition of Carbon. It is also
known as Plumbago or Black Lead. It is used in foundries and in the making of graphite
crucibles. Because of very low hardness, it is used in the manufacture of writing pencils,
lubricants, paints and pigments. It is also used in electrode making for the electric
furnaces, atomic reactors etc.
Gypsum [CaSO4.2H2O]: Gypsum is a hydrated sulphate of calcium. It is
utilized chiefly as a retarder in the manufacture of cement, in the manufacture of
Fertilizer – ammonium sulphate, in the manufacture of Sulphuric acid, Plaster of Paris,
sheets, boards etc. It is used extensively in the making of moulds in the ceramic
industries. It is also used as filler in various materials such as paper, crayons, paints,
rubber etc.
Mica Minerals: Because of excellent insulating properties and high heat-
resistance, mica minerals are indispensable in the electrical industry. In nature, several
varieties of mica occur such as Muscovite [potash mica], Biotite [iron-manganese mica],
Phlogopite [manganese mica], Lepidolite [lithium mica] etc. Muscovite mica is mostly
used for electrical insulation, thermal insulation etc.
Phosphorite [P2O5] : Phosphorite is of commercial importance in the
manufacture of fertilizers, elemental phosphorus and phosphoric acid.
Talc [Mg3Si4O10(OH)2] : Pure talc is a hydrous metasilicate of magnesium and
it is the most familiar mineral to mankind. It is served as a base in cosmetics [talcum
and face powders] and toilet preparations. It is used as extender in the paint industries,
as a filler in the rubber, paper and textile industries.
Wollastonite [CaSiO3] : It is calcium meta silicate and also known as Tabular
Spar. The largest use of wollastonite is in the ceramic industries. Other important uses
are in the agriculture, paint, paper industries. It is also used in thermosets and
thermoplastics.
Barite [BaSO4] : It is sulphate of barium and chief source for metal barium. On
account of its high specific gravity [4.5], it is also known as Heavy Spar. The pure, white
variety is much favored in the manufacture of white paint, in the production of wall
papers, also used in textile and leather industries. Off colour barites are used in
petroleum prospecting operations [as weighting drilling muds in rotary drilling]. The
metal barium forms a number of useful alloys with aluminium, magnesium, nickel. Salts
of barium especially barium sulphide, which is used as barium meal, to x-ray for the
inside examination of stomach, intestine etc. Barium chloride is used for water softening
also.
Calcite [CaCO3] : This mineral, carbonate of calcium, is one of the widely
distributed minerals in nature and also known as Calc Spar. There are many varieties of
this mineral of which pure, colourless, transparent variety known as Iceland Spar, is
important in the optical instruments. Calcite finds an increasing use in the textile, paper
and rubber industries as a filler and its super white quality is being used for the
manufacture of insecticides, distempers, paints etc. It is also used in glazing pottery, for
the manufacture of calcium carbide, bleaching powder, glass, soap, paper etc. and as a
flux in metallurgical operations [mainly smelting].
Precious and Semi-precious Stones :
When the minerals are sparklingly occur in nature, mainly in difficult terrains,
deep jungles with rarity, they are treated as Precious stones. They are properly cut,
polished and used in jewelry as Gemstones.
Precious stones are predominantly single crystals or grains, their varied colours
brilliance and transparency, made them attractive for ornamental purposes. They have
certain specific qualities which make them precious and valuable. The important
precious minerals are :
Diamond [C] : Diamond is a pure form of carbon and the hardest mineral known.
If colourless, transparent and flawless, it is the most precious among the gem stones.
The opaque diamonds which are not well crystallized, are used extensively as abrasives
and cutting purposes in gem-cutting, diamond drilling tools, for dressing emery wheels
etc.
Corundum [Al2O3] : It is aluminium oxide and it is harder next to diamond. It is
used as an abrasive, as a refractory material. Its coloured varieties are used as
gemstones. Red coloured variety is known as Ruby whereas blue coloured, Sapphire.
Beryl [Be3Al2Si6O18] : It is silicate of beryllium and aluminium and only
important source of metal beryllium. It forms useful alloys with copper, nickel and very
much used in aerospace industry and as moderator in atomic reactors. Emerald and
aquamarine are its gem varieties.
Relatively abundant in nature, occurring in large sizes, flawless and good
coloured varieties are grouped under the category of Semi-precious stones. Apatite,
Amethyst, Quartz and its varieties, Tourmaline, Spinel, Garnets etc. are classified in this
category.
Apatite : Amethyst :
Quartz : Tourmaline :
Spinel : Garnets :
Classification of mineral resources:-
Mineral Resources
Metallic Non - Metallic
Precious Light Ordinary Iron Iron Mixed Non Iron Electronic Related
Atomic Energy
Gold Aluminum Copper Iron Chromium Copper Cadmium
Uranium
Silver Titanium Tin Cobalt Mercury
Thorium
Platinum Magnesium Zinc Manganese
Iridium Lead Tungsten
Ruthenium Nickel Vanadium
Osmium Titanium
Zirconium
Boron
Non Metallic
Energy or Fuel minerals Fertilizers Gem Stones Earth Material Other
metals
Coal Nitrates Diamond Salt
Sulphur
Petroleum Phosphates Opal Gypsum
LPG Potash Amethyst Mica
Rock Phosphates (Neelam) Talc
Sulphates Aquamarine Sand
(Panna) Granite
Lime
Formation of Minerals :
Minerals are natural products in solid state and commonly formed by cooling,
crystallization and solidification of hot, molten materials within the earth, called magma.
When it erupts on the surface through volcanoes, weak planes etc., it is called lava.
Solidification of hot gases near active volcanoes is rather a rare process of mineral
formation. Metamorphism is another process inside the earth in which temperature-
pressure play dominant role in recrystallization. Precipitation and Evaporation of
mineral-forming solutions are also important process of mineralization in nature. These
natural processes takes millions of years for mineral formation and we exploit these
natural resources within few years. If this is the way of exploitation, some of the mineral
deposits will exhaust very soon and will be in endangered category.
Therefore, we must exploit and use these non-renewable resources judiciously in
present industrial era. Very limited reserves of energy resources [such as Coal, Coal
Bed Methane (CBM), Petroleum, Natural Gas Atomic Minerals etc.], precious metals
[Gold, Silver etc.] and precious minerals [Diamonds, Rubies, Sapphires, Aquamarines,
Alexandrite etc.] are left for future. If we exploit irrationally for our interest and benefit,
future generations will never excuse us.
It is estimated that between 1750 to 1900, the population of the world became
double while the exploitation activities have increased 13 times. It is also noted that
developed countries like Japan, America, Italy, France, Germany etc., are using mineral
resources of developing countries like India [by importing] for their progress and
development and securing their own resources for future purposes.
The key to industrial progress of any nation is development of mineral resources,
which play vital role in the economy of the country. Unfortunately, it is also observed
that the countries which are rich in mineral resources, are poor in technology while
those rich in technical knowhow, are poor in mineral wealth. Some Arabian countries
are rich in petroleum reserves, but they do not have technology for their exploration,
exploitation, refinement etc. hence other countries are doing these jobs.
India is one amongst the few countries in the world endowed with the rich mineral
resources, which offer a tremendous scope for setting up various mineral based
industries in the country. In India and world, there are large number of basic industrial
products which require minerals as basic raw materials at primary or other stages.
With the establishment of many mineral based industries in the post-independent
era, the demand for various mineral raw materials has increased several times and it
has led to the intensive search for the mineral deposits in the known as well as virgin
areas of the country. Low grade deposits which were earlier not useful, our country is
now able to utilize these. For this, changes in National Mineral Inventory are being
prepared and updated by IBM periodically.
During the last fifty years, India has made tremendous growth in the industrial
sector and at present it is self-sufficient in several industrial products and also able to
export some mineral values. Fuel minerals [Coal, Lignite, Petroleum (crud), Natural Gas
etc.], major metallic [Iron, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Aluminium etc.] and non-metallic [Baryte,
Dolomite, Silica sand, Phosphorite, Wollastonite etc.] mineral are produced both in
public and private sectors. Many mineral and rock based industries have their own
captive mines to meet the requirements.
Large number of mineral based industries related to Cement, Fertilizer, Chemicals,
Ceramics, Refractories, Glass, Iron and Steel, Ferrow-alloys, Non-ferrous metals etc.
are located in the Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh,
Uttaranchal, Orissa and Karnataka.
Environmental effect of extraction and using mineral resources:-
Minerals are obtained by the process known as mining. Mines are of two types:
A. Strip-mine.
B. Deep or shaft mines.
Deep mining is hazardous because it involves risk of the life of workers and also
disturbs the balance of environment. It involves rock and roof falls, flooding and
inadequate ventilation. Coal mining is even more hazardous than metal mining we still
remember the Chasnala disaster of Jharkhand coal mines where several hundred
workers lost their lives due to flood. The adverse effects of mining on environment are
as under: -
1. Deforestation: - Before digging a mine the trees or agriculture in that area is to
be cleaned. Thus forest and agricultural land are affected.
2. Formation of deep pits: - Deep pits dug during mining results in gully erosion.
Tectonic (check spelling) plates inside get disturbed resulting in earth quakes.
3. Dust pollution: - The dust produced during mining is injurious to health and
causes a lung disease known as “block lung” or pneumoconiosis ( यूमोको
योिसस). In Piplya ( प लया) village of Mandsaur M.P. mining of slate pencil rocks
is cause of “silicosis”. The workers inhale the dust which gets deposited in their
lungs. The lungs become heavy and persons die of silicoses. Marsh gas or
methane coming out from coal mines is injurious to health. Radiation from
uranium mines is a life threatening hazardous.
4. Loss of Biodiversity: - Due to felling of trees there is loss of habitat. Several
species of animals have to migrate from that area and at the same time, many
rare tree species are lost forever.
5. Land slide: - The mines generally have a smaller diameter on the surface and a
much larger one in deeper layers. This makes the earth hollow eventually
resulting in land slide.
6. Decrease in life span of the workers: - The workers are subjected to work in
conditions of more heat and less oxygen due to which their normal life span
decreases.
7. Soil erosion: - During digging the rocks are cracked open by dynamite.
Therefore, the superficial layers of fertile top soil are lost and soil erosion also
takes place. The soil at the place where mining operations are performed
becomes less productive.
Control Measures: -
1. Search for mineral resources be carried out in deserts and Tundra areas so that
normal fertile land is not disturbed. Bottom of the oceans and new planets are
also important for the search of minerals.
2. The deep pits dug during mining should be filled with the waste and garbage
from old mines.
3. Mining should be done only in such places which are marked by Geological
survey of India or ONGC or GAIL.
4. Energy sources like coal and petroleum are in limited quantity and are non
renewable. Therefore use of solar energy, wind energy and atomic energy should
be increased.
5. Old mineral products should be recycled.
6. Plantation should be done near mining areas to restore the balance of
environment.