Encryption

Encryption is the process of transforming readable plain text into unreadable ciphertext to mask sensitive
information from unauthorized users. Organizations regularly use encryption in data security to protect sensitive
data from unauthorized access and data breaches.
Encryption works by using encryption algorithms to scramble data into an indecipherable format. Only the
authorized parties with the right secret key, known as the decryption key, can unscramble the data.
Cryptography provides mathematical tools to protect information: confidentiality (secrecy), integrity (no
tampering), and authenticity (verified source). It's foundational for modern security but is notoriously easy to
use incorrectly.
Types of data encryption: asymmetric versus symmetric
The two main types of encryption are:
 Symmetric encryption: Encrypts and decrypts data by using a secret symmetric key that is shared by
all the parties that are involved in a transaction.
 Asymmetric encryption (also known as public key encryption and public key cryptography):
Encrypts and decrypts data by using two different keys. Anyone can use the public key to encrypt data,
but only the holders of the corresponding private key can decrypt that data.
Both methods have their strengths and weaknesses. Symmetric encryption is faster and more efficient.
However, it also requires meticulous key management because anyone who obtains the symmetric key can
decrypt the data.
Asymmetric encryption, though slower due to its complexity, offers more robust security by eliminating the
need for a secure key exchange.
How does data encryption work?
Encryption begins by identifying the sensitive information that requires protection. This information can be
messages, files, photos, communications or other data. This data exists in plain text format, the original,
readable form that needs safeguarding.
Encryption algorithms transform this plain text into ciphertext by scrambling the data into an unreadable
sequence of characters. This process ensures that only the intended recipient(s) can read the original data.
Next, encryption keys are created. An encryption key is like a complex code that is needed to unlock a safe.
Without the correct cryptographic key, you cannot access the encrypted data. A longer key size provides higher
security by making the decryption process exponentially more complex.
In symmetric encryption (see "Types of data encryption”), a single shared key is used for encryption and
decryption. In asymmetric encryption (see "Types of data encryption”), two keys are created: a public key for
encryption and a private key for decryption.
For those without a decryption key, encrypted messages are virtually impossible to decipher. However, users
with the decryption key can successfully decrypt the data, essentially reversing the encryption process and
converting the ciphertext back into unencrypted, readable plain text.
Decryption can also involve an authentication stage, where decrypted data is verified to ensure its integrity and
authenticity. This step may include verifying digital signatures, hash functions (see next section) or other forms
of authentication to confirm that the data has not been tampered with during transmission.
Common encryption algorithms
Symmetric encryption algorithms
 Data Encryption Standard (DES): IBM introduced DES in the 1970s as the standard encryption
algorithm, a role it held for many years. However, its relatively short key length (56 bits) made it
vulnerable to brute-force attacks. Eventually, more secure algorithms replaced it.
 Triple DES (3DES): Developed as an enhancement to DES, 3DES applies the DES algorithm three
times to each data block, significantly increasing the key length and strengthening security. Despite its
improved security over DES, 3DES is now considered outdated. AES has largely replaced it.
  Advanced Encryption Standard (AES): Often hailed as the gold standard for data encryption, AES is
a symmetric encryption algorithm that is widely adopted by organizations and governments worldwide,
including the US government and the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). AES
offers strong security with key lengths of 128, 192 or 256 bits.
 Twofish: Twofish is a symmetric key block cipher that is known for its speed and security. It operates
on blocks of data with a block size of 128 bits and supports key lengths of 128, 192 or 256 bits. Since it
is open source and resistant to cryptanalysis, organizations often rely on Twofish when security and
performance are critical.
Asymmetric encryption algorithms
 RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman): RSA is an asymmetric encryption algorithm that is named after its
inventors. It relies on the mathematical complexity of prime numbers to generate key pairs. It uses a
public-private key pair for encryption and decryption, making it suitable for secure data transmission
and digital signatures. RSA frequently helps secure communication protocols such as HTTPS, SSH and
TLS.
 Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC): ECC is an asymmetric encryption method based on the
mathematical properties of elliptic curves over finite fields. It offers robust security with shorter key
lengths than other algorithms, which makes it well suited for resource-constrained devices such as
smartphones and IoT devices.
Benefits of data encryption
Encryption can provide various data protection benefits both on premises and in the cloud. Some of the most
significant benefits include:
 Data security
 Encryption is among the most critical and widespread data security tools. By encoding plain text as
ciphertext, encryption helps organizations protect data against a range of cyberattacks,
including ransomware and other malware.
 Cloud security
 While cloud service providers (CSPs) are responsible for the security of the cloud, customers are
responsible for security in the cloud, including the security of any data. Enterprise-wide data encryption
can help organizations protect their sensitive data on-premises and in the cloud.
 Compliance management
 Many industries and jurisdictions have regulatory requirements and security measures mandating that
organizations use encryption to protect sensitive data. Compliance with these regulations helps
organizations avoid legal penalties and maintain customer trust.
 Data integrity
 Cryptographic tools like hash functions can help detect unauthorized modifications or tampering
attempts, which can help ensure the accuracy and integrity of stored and transmitted data.
 Secure communications
 Encryption keeps communication channels secure, allowing individuals and organizations to exchange
sensitive information, conduct transactions and collaborate with a reduced risk of interception.
 Protection against insider threats
 Encryption restricts access to sensitive data to only the users that have the appropriate decryption keys.
This measure helps combat insider threats by preventing employees from intentionally or unintentionally
accessing, misusing or misplacing sensitive information. For example, even if an employee's company-
issued laptop is lost, properly encrypted data on the hard disk remains inaccessible.
Classical Encryption Techniques
The two basic building blocks of all encryption techniques are:
1. Substitution
 Letters of plain text are replaced by other letters or by numbers or symbols
 If the plain text is viewed as a sequence of bits, then substitution involves replacing plain text bit
patterns with cipher text bit patterns
2. Transposition/Permutation
 The letters/bytes/bits of the plaintext are rearranged without altering the actual letters used
 Can be easily recognized since the ciphertext have the same frequency distribution as the original plain
text.
1. Substitution Algorithms
Caesar Cipher
Earliest known substitution cipher by Julius Caesar. It involves replacing each letter in the plaintext by a
shifted letter in the alphabet used. Example: If the shift value is (3) then we can define transformation as:

so the message "meet me after the toga party" becomes:

PHHW PH DIWHU WKH WRJD SDUWB
Then the Caesar cipher is expressed as:
C = E(p) = (p + k) mod (26)
p = D(C) = (C – k) mod (26)

Modular Math and the Shift Cipher

The Caesar Cipher is a type of shift cipher. Shift Ciphers work by using modulo operator to encrypt and
decrypt messages. The Shift Cipher has a key K, which is an integer from 0 to 25. We will only share this key
with people that we want to see our message.
How to Encrypt:
For every letter in the message M :
1. Convert the letter into the number that matches its order in the alphabet starting from 0, and call this
number X.
( A=0, B=1, C=2, ...,Y=24, Z=25)
2. Calculate: Y = (X + K) mod 26
3. Convert the number Y into a letter that matches its order in the alphabet starting from 0.
(A=0, B=1, C=2, ...,Y=24, Z=25)
For Example: We agree with our friend to use the Shift Cipher with key K=19 for our message.
We encrypt the message "KHAN", as follows:
So, after applying the Shift Cipher with key K=19 our message text "KHAN" gave us cipher text "DATG".
We give the message "DATG" to our friend.
How to decrypt:
For every letter in the cipher text C :
1. Convert the letter into the number that matches its order in the alphabet starting from 0, and call this number
Y.
(A=0, B=1, C=2, ..., Y=24, Z=25)
2. Calculate: X= (Y - K) mod 26
3. Convert the number X into a letter that matches its order in the alphabet starting from 0.
(A=0, B=1, C=2, ..., Y=24, Z=25)
Our friend now decodes the message using our agreed upon key K=19. As follows:

So, after decrypting the Shift Cipher with key K=19 our friend deciphers the cipher text "DATG" into the
message text "KHAN".
Why is the Shift Cipher insecure?
A cipher should prevent an attacker, who has a copy of the cipher text but does not know the key, from
discovering the contents of the message. Since we only have 26 choices for the key, someone can easily try all
of the 26 keys, one by one, until they recover the message. This type of attack is called a brute force attack
Cryptanalysis of Caesar Cipher
The Caesar Cipher is a substitution cipher in which each letter in the plaintext is shifted by a fixed number
(key) between 1 to 25.
Because of its simplicity, it is not secure and can be broken easily using multiple cryptanalysis methods.
Methods of Cryptanalysis (Attacks) on Caesar Cipher
A) Brute Force Attack
It is most common and guaranteed method.
Steps:
1. There are only 25 possible shifts.
2. Decrypt the ciphertext with all 25 shifts.
3. Choose the plaintext that makes sense.
Example:
Ciphertext: KHOOR
Try all shifts → HELLO appears at shift 3.
This attack is extremely fast because the keyspace is small.
B) Frequency Analysis Attack
The Caesar cipher keeps the frequency of letters intact.
In English:
 E is the most common letter
 T, A, O, I are also frequent
Steps:
 1. Count frequency of letters in ciphertext
2. Compare with English letter frequency
3. Estimate the shift value
Example:
If ciphertext’s most common letter is K
and English’s most common letter is E,
then key = (K − E) = 6.
This method is faster than brute force for longer ciphertexts.
C) Known-Plaintext Attack
Attacker knows a part of the plaintext.
Example: Official letters start with “Dear” → attacker searches for its encrypted form.
If Decrypted(Ciphertext) = Plaintext, you can calculate the shift.
Example:
Plaintext known = HELLO
Ciphertext fragment = KHOOR
Difference = 3 → key = 3
D) Chosen-Plaintext Attack
Attacker submits chosen plaintext to encryption system.
Example:
 Attacker asks machine to encrypt A
 Encryption gives D
Shift = 3 → key = 3
E) Pattern (Structure) Analysis
Caesar Cipher preserves:
 Repeated letters (LL in HELLO becomes OORRR depending on key)
 Word structure
 Common digrams like “TH”, “HE”
Example:
Ciphertext contains word pattern XYYXZ
→ a repeated pattern like HELLO or APPLE.
Such patterns help guess the plaintext quickly.

Cryptanalysis of Caesar Cipher

|
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
| | | |
Brute Force Frequency Known-Plaintext Pattern
(25 keys) Analysis Attack Analysis
| | | |
Try all shifts Compare letter freq Use known words Repeated letters
Select readable Estimate key to find shift Word patterns
text