Chapter 4 Movement of substances across the cell membrane

Name: ( ) Class: Date:

4.1 Cell membrane

A. Fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane
 The cell membrane consists mainly of phospholipid molecules that are
arranged in a bilayer and protein molecules interspersed in it.
 ‘Fluid’ nature: phospholipid molecules and some protein molecules can
move laterally within the bilayer.
 Mosaic pattern: proteins are interspeared within the bilayer.

1. Phospholipid
 A phospholipid molecule consists of one glycerol molecule, one phosphate group and two
fatty acid molecules.

Hydrophilic head:
 Has polar phosphate group
 Faces the watery environment inside and outside
the cell
Hydrophobic tails:
 Have non-polar fatty acids
 Point inwards to form bilayer

In public exams, candidates are often required to describe the arrangement and orientations of
phospholipid molecules and membrane proteins. Make sure you can provide accurate description.

 the hydrophilic head of phospholipids point outwards while the hydrophobic tails point inward
 The medium inside and the medium out the cell are aqueous solution.
 Hence, only the water-loving part of the phospholipids is in contact with the cell sap and
extracellular fluid.
 Proteins are interspeared among phospholipid molecules in a mosaic pattern.

1
 4 Movement of substances across the cell membrane

2. Membrane proteins

 Membrane proteins may occur on the surfaces of the phospholipid bilayer, extend into or span
completely through the bilayer.

 Different types of proteins serve different functions:

Membrane proteins Location Functions

Channel proteins Span the entire bilayer Form pores for small and polar
substances, e.g. water , ions, and
other water-soluble molecules to
pass through

Carrier proteins Span the entire bilayer Involved in active transport to

allow small and polar substances
to pass through

Enzymes On the outer or inner surface of Speed up chemical reactions

the cell membrane

Receptor proteins On the outer surface of the cell Bind with specific chemicals to
membrane trigger or inhibit certain cellular
activities

Glycoprotein Span the entire bilayer with Act as recognition markers for
carbohydrate molecules attached blood cells to identify foreign cells
to the surface and pathogens

Key concept:
All membrane proteins have their own specificity. This means that each membrane protein has a
unique structure and function that allows it to interact with specific molecules or perform specific
tasks within the cell.

2
 4 Movement of substances across the cell membrane

B. Properties and functions of the cell membrane as determined by its structure

1. Flexible
 Fluidity of the cell membrane allows cells to change shape during cell growth, cell division
and phagocytosis.

2. Strong enough to hold the cell contents

 Intermolecular forces between large numbers of phospholipid molecules are collectively
strong.
 Protein molecules among the phospholipid bilayer provide strength.

3. Differentially permeable
 The cell membrane is permeable to small, non-polar molecules and lipid-soluble
substances.
 Ions and polar molecules are repelled by the phospholipid bilayer, which have to move
across the cell membrane through channel proteins or carrier proteins.
 Only particular types of ions or molecules with specific internal diameter and distribution of
charges can pass through the channel proteins.
 Each type of carrier protein has a specific shape for specific molecules to fit in.

4.2 Movement of substances across the cell membrane

A. Diffusion
1. What is diffusion?

 Diffusion is a net movement of particles from the region of higher concentration to the
region of lower concentration when a concentration gradient exists.

 It is a passive process which does not require energy from respiration.

 Equilibrium is reached when there is no net movement of particles between the two regions.

3
 4 Movement of substances across the cell membrane

2. Diffusion across the cell membrane

higher solute concentration
 Small and non-polar molecules (e.g. oxygen and carbon
dioxide) diffuse directly through the bilayer down the non-polar
molecule polar
concentration gradient.
molecule
 Polar molecules (e.g. amino acids and glucose) diffuse
through channel proteins or carrier proteins without
using energy.

channel
3. Importance of diffusion to organisms protein

 Useful substances diffuse into the cells, while metabolic lower solute concentration
wastes diffuse out of the cells.

 Distribution of substances within the cytoplasm in the cell occurs by diffusion.

4. What factors affect the rate of diffusion?

Factor Condition Rate of

diffusion

Concentration Steep concentration gradient 

between two regions

Distance Shorter distance between two regions 

Surface area Greater surface area of the membrane 

Temperature Particles have higher kinetic energy at higher


temperatures and move faster.

Size of the particles Smaller size 

Nature of particles Lipid-soluble (non-polar) molecules diffuse more

rapidly across the cell membrane than water-soluble /
(polar) molecules.

4
 4 Movement of substances across the cell membrane

B. Osmosis
1. What is osmosis?
 Water potential describes the tendency of water molecules to diffuse from one place to
another, which is inversely proportional to the solute concentration of a solution.
For example, a solution with a higher solute concentration will have a lower water potential,
and vice versa.
 Osmosis is a net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to
a region of lower water potential across a differentially permeable membrane.
 Differentially permeable membrane is an important prerequisite of osmosis. Without a
differentially permeable membrane, solute molecules can freely diffuse to the region of
lower solute concentration. AS a result, the water potential of both region will become the
same. Osmosis, thus, does not occur.

Practical 4.2 Demonstration of osmosis using living animal tissue

Results and discussion
1. Compare the water potential of both regions: In set-up A, the water potential of the distilled water in
the beaker is higher than that of the sucrose solution in the thistle funnel.
2. Describe the direction of water molecules: There is a net movement of water molecules from the
beaker into the thistle funnel through the animal tissue through osmosis.
3. State the result: As a result, the liquid level in the thistle funnel rises.

5
 4 Movement of substances across the cell membrane

2. How does osmosis affect cells?

Type of solution Condition Results of the cells

Isotonic No water No net movement of water molecules into or out of

potential gradient the cell
between the cell
and the outside

Hypotonic Higher water Water enters the cell by osmosis

potential in the Animal cell: swells and eventually burst
solution than the
cytoplasm of the
cell

Plant cell: rigid cell wall prevents the cell from

bursting  becomes turgid

6
 4 Movement of substances across the cell membrane

Type of solution Condition Results of the cells

Hypertonic Lower water Water leaves the cell by osmosis

potential in the Animal cell: shrinks and becomes wrinkled
solution than the
cytoplasm of the
cell

Plant cell: becomes plasmolysed and flaccid

3. Importance of osmosis

 Plant roots absorb water from the soil by osmosis.

 Plant cells may gain water by osmosis and become turgid. Turgidity provides support to young
seedlings and non-woody plants.

 Water in food is absorbed by osmosis in the small intestine.

7
 4 Movement of substances across the cell membrane

Practical 4.3 Study of osmosis in red blood cells (book, p.20)

Results and discussion
 The red blood cells in solution A swell and some have burst. This shows that the water potential of
solution A is higher than that of the red blood cells (i.e. solution A is hypotonic to the cells). Water
enters the red blood cells by osmosis, causing them to swell and finally burst. The bursting of red
blood cells leading to the release of haemoglobin is called haemolysis.
 The red blood cells in solution B appear normal. This shows that there is no difference in water
potential between the cells and their surroundings (i.e. solution B is isotonic to the cells). There is no
net movement of water into or out of the cells.
 The red blood cells in solution C shrink and become wrinkled. This shows that the water potential of
solution C is lower than that of the red blood cells (i.e. solution C is hypertonic to the cells). Water
leaves the cells by osmosis, making them shrink.

Practical 4.4 Study of osmosis in living plant cells (book, p.21)

Results and discussion
 In concentrated sucrose solution, the epidermal cells lose water by osmosis because the water
potential of the cells is higher than that of the surrounding solution. The cells become plasmolysed.
 When the sucrose solution is diluted with distilled water, the epidermal cells gain water by osmosis
because the water potential of the cells is lower than that of their surroundings. The cells become
turgid again.

8
 4 Movement of substances across the cell membrane

Practical 4.5 Study of osmosis in living plant tissue (book, p.22)

Results and discussion
 In distilled water, the mass of the potato strips increases. This is because the water potential of the
potato tissue is lower than that of distilled water. There is a net movement of water into the cells by
osmosis.
 In 20% sucrose solution, the mass of the potato strips decreases. This is because the water potential
of the potato tissue is higher than that of the 20% sucrose solution. There is a net movement of water
out of the cells by osmosis.

Challenge yourself

There is movement of substances between the following three cells.

(a) Movement of carbon dioxide from Cell to Cell is the fastest.

This occurs by .

(b) Cell has the highest rate of water loss. This is caused by .

9
 4 Movement of substances across the cell membrane

Practice Task (98/1b)

Two similar pieces of dialysis tubing were set up as shown in the following diagrams. The
concentrations of the sucrose solution and the glucose solution were the same.

The height of the solution column in each capillary tube was measured and recorded in the
table below:

(a) Present the results in the form of a graph on a graph paper. (4)
(b) Explain the change in the solution level in the capillary tube of set-up A during 0 – 20
minutes. (3)
(c) Explain the difference in the rate of change of solution levels between set-up A and B
during 0 – 20 minutes. (3)

10
 4 Movement of substances across the cell membrane

C. Active transport

1. What is active transport?

carrier protein energy

phospholipid
bilayer

 Active transport is an active process of transporting substances across the cell membrane
against the concentration gradient with the use of energy from respiration. It occurs only
in living cells as only living cells can perform respiration to release energy.

 Specific carrier proteins in the cell membrane are involved.

 Any factors influencing the rate of respiration affect the rate of active transport.
E.g. If respiration is compromised, the rate of active transport decreases or may even stop.

2. Importance of active transport

 Facilitates the active uptake of minerals from the soil into the roots of plants

 Speeds up the absorption of small water-soluble molecules into blood during absorption in the
small intestine

11
 4 Movement of substances across the cell membrane

D. Phagocytosis
1. What is phagocytosis?

 Phagocytosis is a process to take in large solid particles or even cells with the use of energy
from respiration.

 Process of phagocytosis:

 The cell membrane extends outwards

to form pseudopodia to enclose a
foreign particle.

 The particle is enclosed by a

vacuole and is taken into the cell. A
lysosome containing enzymes moves
towards the vacuole.

lysosome

 The lysosome fuses with the vacuole.

The particle is digested by enzymes.

 The digested products diffuse into the

cytoplasm.

2. Importance of phagocytosis

 Helps with body defense against diseases

 As a means of feeding used by some unicellular organisms

12